Students in Basic and Higher Education

Chapter 6

Abstract

education.

77

1. Introduction

within Class

The Power of Appearance:

Students' Impression Management

Sarah Forster-Heinzer, Arvid Nagel and Horst Biedermann

Although educational research acknowledges that social perception processes are relevant for understanding but also evaluating situations, the topic of impression management (IM) has achieved only little attention so far. Individuals have discussed rather as passively exposed to the mechanism of social interaction and perception processes. This contribution changes perspectives and addresses the question of conscious impression management within classes. The chapter asks whether students use self-presentation tactics in order to deliberately navigate the impression their teachers should have of them. By means of an empirical study, country- and gender-specific differences with regard to impression management were found. Likewise, students with a high educational aspiration and good school grades scored higher or at least differently on impression management than students with a low educational aspiration level and low school grades. And students with a high educational aspiration but low grades try to overcome this discrepancy by means of personally adapting to the teachers' expectations. Even though the influence mechanism of impression management on school success cannot conclusively be answered, this paper opens new perspectives on the scientific discourse of social inequality as well as teaching quality and discusses implications for teacher

Keywords: impression management, self-presentation tactics, social interaction

Teaching can be understood as a form of pedagogical action and communication

(cf. [1]). Teachers meet a group of students, and only through the effort of all involved, successful teaching and learning is possible (cf. [1–3]). Social interaction between teacher and students but also between students themselves is a necessary but also momentous fact. In contrast to fleeting everyday encounters, students and teachers work together over a longer period of time. Within the framework of teaching and class organisation, they (compulsorily) enter into a long-term relationship (cf. [1]). As numerous social-psychological studies have shown (cf. [4, 5]), mutual perception is (socially) constructed and dependent on attitudes, expectations and experiences. Such expectations, norms and rules also exist at school, as the following quote illustrates: "At school, teachers and students interact.

processes, teacher-student relationship, student engagement

#### Chapter 6

## The Power of Appearance: Students' Impression Management within Class

Sarah Forster-Heinzer, Arvid Nagel and Horst Biedermann

#### Abstract

Although educational research acknowledges that social perception processes are relevant for understanding but also evaluating situations, the topic of impression management (IM) has achieved only little attention so far. Individuals have discussed rather as passively exposed to the mechanism of social interaction and perception processes. This contribution changes perspectives and addresses the question of conscious impression management within classes. The chapter asks whether students use self-presentation tactics in order to deliberately navigate the impression their teachers should have of them. By means of an empirical study, country- and gender-specific differences with regard to impression management were found. Likewise, students with a high educational aspiration and good school grades scored higher or at least differently on impression management than students with a low educational aspiration level and low school grades. And students with a high educational aspiration but low grades try to overcome this discrepancy by means of personally adapting to the teachers' expectations. Even though the influence mechanism of impression management on school success cannot conclusively be answered, this paper opens new perspectives on the scientific discourse of social inequality as well as teaching quality and discusses implications for teacher education.

Keywords: impression management, self-presentation tactics, social interaction processes, teacher-student relationship, student engagement

#### 1. Introduction

Teaching can be understood as a form of pedagogical action and communication (cf. [1]). Teachers meet a group of students, and only through the effort of all involved, successful teaching and learning is possible (cf. [1–3]). Social interaction between teacher and students but also between students themselves is a necessary but also momentous fact. In contrast to fleeting everyday encounters, students and teachers work together over a longer period of time. Within the framework of teaching and class organisation, they (compulsorily) enter into a long-term relationship (cf. [1]). As numerous social-psychological studies have shown (cf. [4, 5]), mutual perception is (socially) constructed and dependent on attitudes, expectations and experiences. Such expectations, norms and rules also exist at school, as the following quote illustrates: "At school, teachers and students interact.

Their actions are linked to social expectations and roles. [...] If expectations are met, recognition and reward follow, if they are not met, rejection, punishment or even sanction follow. [...] The better students adapt to teachers' expectations and ideas and the better they succeed in camouflaging themselves by integrating both curricula [official and secret curriculum, authors' note], the greater the chance for a successful school career" ([6], pp. 101 and 109, translated from German by the authors). Empirical studies confirmed that on the one hand, students are able to influence teachers' perception and assessment (cf. [7, 8]) and on the other hand that the teachers' perception has consequences for students. Thus, as, for instance, the following references [9, 10] emphasised, students, who are perceived as more committed by their teacher often have better grades than those who are perceived as less committed, with the same school performance. In this context, Reichenbach [11] speaks of privileged students and means that those students who know and understand how to present themselves according to expectations and norms have a higher chance of success at school. Impression management (IM) therefore plays an important role not only in everyday life (cf. [12, 13]) but also in school careers (cf. [11, 14–16]). The aim of this contribution is to elaborate conceptually as well as empirically students' IM within class. Thus, despite its obvious significance, IM of students has received little interest from educational research so far.

On the second level, the pre-attentive impression scanning, a person manages the impression at a rather unconscious or pre-attentive level while focussing on other things. If a person is "consciously aware that others may be forming impressions of him or he" ([17], p. 49), he/she is at the level of impression awareness. On the level of impression focus, a person is consciously aware of the impression he/she makes, and all the person's thoughts are concentrated on this impression and the consequences. This level might be very stressful, as a person has no room for other things or foci. Leary [17] highlighted: "ironically, then people may be so consumed by thoughts of the impressions they are making that they end up making undesired impressions." In the context of school, a student might be so focused on how he/she appears during an oral speech that he/she will not be able to focus on the speech's content. Most of the time, students probably move between levels 2 and 3 as the line between consciousness and unconsciousness is often very blurred. When managing the impression one wants to leave in a situation, however, impression awareness is required. Nevertheless, not everyone seems to be equally successful in self-

The Power of Appearance: Students' Impression Management within Class

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88850

presentation. Goffman [13] stressed that for successful self-presentation, the public (i.e., the teacher) must be convinced of the sincerity of the presentation. For this to succeed, even the impressionist must have a clear idea of what his audience expects; he must know how judgements come about and possess sensitivity for what the respective social situation demands (cf. [20]). Meaning, the successful handling of school demands and expectations requires that newly entering children quickly understand the role they have to play, the position they have to fill and the rules they have to follow. They need to recognise how an institution works, and they need to acquire the necessary organisational knowledge (cf. [16]). Some students might intuitively know how to make a good impression. From a sociological perspective, knowing how to behave appropriately can be explained with the concept of frame (cf. [21]). Frames are cultural specifications providing guidelines as to how to engage in situations (cf. [22]). It is to assume that students, familiar with a cultural context, usually know that it is beneficial to show interest in the learning subject during class (and not only to be interested) and to demonstratively show their own motivation (and not only to be motivated). Moreover, it is beneficial if motivation and interest is missing in a situation, to present the self at least as if interested and motivated (cf. [13]). Even though IM can be related to pretending and deceiving, it does not necessarily have to be false and untrue. A positive IM is likewise important independently of the presence or absence of motivation and interest in the given situation. Motivation, however, to present the self in corre-

spondence with the teacher's expectations is needed.

79

2.2 Motivation and function of impression management

Presenting the self is an inherent part of every social situation regardless of whether the individual is aware of it. Thus, individuals involved in social encounters constantly seek information from each other in order to define the situation, formulate expectations and align their own behaviour accordingly (cf. [13, 17, 22]). Motivation to regulate how they are perceived by others might result from the belief that the impressions others form of them are relevant to achieve a certain goal which is valuable or important to them or to overcome a discrepancy between the impressions they desire others to have of them (presented self [19]) and the image they think others actually hold of them (appearing self [19]; see also [1, 17]). In the context of school, a student might wish to enter university and therefore is interested in good grades. If this student understands that grades are influenced not only by performance but also by the impression he/she makes in terms of commitment, interest and motivation, he/she is likely to invest more in IM. Likewise if a student

#### 2. Impression management

#### 2.1 The presentation of the self

The topic of IM has gained some attention within sociology (cf. [13]) as well as social psychology (cf. [17]). Commonly, impression management is defined as an individual's active efforts to cast himself/herself in a certain light, to present, create and maintain a specific image in public (social situation) with a particular purpose (cf. [9, 13, 18]). Since IM is concerned with the image a person tries to convey to another person, on the one hand, IM expresses itself in self-presentation. On the other hand, self-presentation tactics serve the purpose of IM. Self-presentation therefore is a process "by which people [try to] convey to others that they are a certain kind of person or possess certain characteristics" ([17], p. 3). Consequently, the self has an inherent role in IM and can be defined as a cognitive structure that allows a person to think consciously about himself/herself and allows interpretation which are directed towards understanding one's own inner world (cf. [17, 19]). Although one could argue that self-presentation is involved in every social encounter whether conscious or not, in literature, it is often used as synonym to impression management, which describes a conscious process of managing the selfpresentation. With regard to the school context, a student might be more or less concerned about the image the teacher has of him/her and therefore invests more or less in IM. If the student is more concerned and provided, he/she understands the expectations and norms of the teacher; he/she will probably invest more in presenting the self as being committed, motivated and interested within class. In other words, to care about the impression one leaves in a situation requires that students are aware of social perceptual processes and the fact that one always leaves an impression, whether intentional or not. Leary [17] distinguished between four levels of impression monitoring. On the level of impression oblivion, a person is unaware "even of the possibility that others are forming impressions of him or her" ([17], p. 49). This level is, however, relatively rare [17]. Nevertheless, students who are at this level of oblivion may be at a disadvantage because, as mentioned earlier, grades are also influenced by how teachers perceive their students' commitment.

#### The Power of Appearance: Students' Impression Management within Class DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88850

On the second level, the pre-attentive impression scanning, a person manages the impression at a rather unconscious or pre-attentive level while focussing on other things. If a person is "consciously aware that others may be forming impressions of him or he" ([17], p. 49), he/she is at the level of impression awareness. On the level of impression focus, a person is consciously aware of the impression he/she makes, and all the person's thoughts are concentrated on this impression and the consequences. This level might be very stressful, as a person has no room for other things or foci. Leary [17] highlighted: "ironically, then people may be so consumed by thoughts of the impressions they are making that they end up making undesired impressions." In the context of school, a student might be so focused on how he/she appears during an oral speech that he/she will not be able to focus on the speech's content. Most of the time, students probably move between levels 2 and 3 as the line between consciousness and unconsciousness is often very blurred. When managing the impression one wants to leave in a situation, however, impression awareness is required. Nevertheless, not everyone seems to be equally successful in selfpresentation. Goffman [13] stressed that for successful self-presentation, the public (i.e., the teacher) must be convinced of the sincerity of the presentation. For this to succeed, even the impressionist must have a clear idea of what his audience expects; he must know how judgements come about and possess sensitivity for what the respective social situation demands (cf. [20]). Meaning, the successful handling of school demands and expectations requires that newly entering children quickly understand the role they have to play, the position they have to fill and the rules they have to follow. They need to recognise how an institution works, and they need to acquire the necessary organisational knowledge (cf. [16]). Some students might intuitively know how to make a good impression. From a sociological perspective, knowing how to behave appropriately can be explained with the concept of frame (cf. [21]). Frames are cultural specifications providing guidelines as to how to engage in situations (cf. [22]). It is to assume that students, familiar with a cultural context, usually know that it is beneficial to show interest in the learning subject during class (and not only to be interested) and to demonstratively show their own motivation (and not only to be motivated). Moreover, it is beneficial if motivation and interest is missing in a situation, to present the self at least as if interested and motivated (cf. [13]). Even though IM can be related to pretending and deceiving, it does not necessarily have to be false and untrue. A positive IM is likewise important independently of the presence or absence of motivation and interest in the given situation. Motivation, however, to present the self in correspondence with the teacher's expectations is needed.

#### 2.2 Motivation and function of impression management

Presenting the self is an inherent part of every social situation regardless of whether the individual is aware of it. Thus, individuals involved in social encounters constantly seek information from each other in order to define the situation, formulate expectations and align their own behaviour accordingly (cf. [13, 17, 22]). Motivation to regulate how they are perceived by others might result from the belief that the impressions others form of them are relevant to achieve a certain goal which is valuable or important to them or to overcome a discrepancy between the impressions they desire others to have of them (presented self [19]) and the image they think others actually hold of them (appearing self [19]; see also [1, 17]). In the context of school, a student might wish to enter university and therefore is interested in good grades. If this student understands that grades are influenced not only by performance but also by the impression he/she makes in terms of commitment, interest and motivation, he/she is likely to invest more in IM. Likewise if a student

Their actions are linked to social expectations and roles. [...] If expectations are met, recognition and reward follow, if they are not met, rejection, punishment or even sanction follow. [...] The better students adapt to teachers' expectations and ideas and the better they succeed in camouflaging themselves by integrating both curricula [official and secret curriculum, authors' note], the greater the chance for a successful school career" ([6], pp. 101 and 109, translated from German by the authors). Empirical studies confirmed that on the one hand, students are able to influence teachers' perception and assessment (cf. [7, 8]) and on the other hand that the teachers' perception has consequences for students. Thus, as, for instance, the following references [9, 10] emphasised, students, who are perceived as more committed by their teacher often have better grades than those who are perceived as less committed, with the same school performance. In this context, Reichenbach [11] speaks of privileged students and means that those students who know and understand how to present themselves according to expectations and norms have a higher chance of success at school. Impression management (IM) therefore plays an important role not only in everyday life (cf. [12, 13]) but also in school careers (cf. [11, 14–16]). The aim of this contribution is to elaborate conceptually as well as empirically students' IM within class. Thus, despite its obvious significance, IM of

Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges

students has received little interest from educational research so far.

management, which describes a conscious process of managing the self-

presentation. With regard to the school context, a student might be more or less concerned about the image the teacher has of him/her and therefore invests more or less in IM. If the student is more concerned and provided, he/she understands the expectations and norms of the teacher; he/she will probably invest more in presenting the self as being committed, motivated and interested within class. In other words, to care about the impression one leaves in a situation requires that students are aware of social perceptual processes and the fact that one always leaves an impression, whether intentional or not. Leary [17] distinguished between four levels of impression monitoring. On the level of impression oblivion, a person is unaware "even of the possibility that others are forming impressions of him or her" ([17], p. 49). This level is, however, relatively rare [17]. Nevertheless, students who are at this level of oblivion may be at a disadvantage because, as mentioned earlier, grades are also influenced by how teachers perceive their students' commitment.

The topic of IM has gained some attention within sociology (cf. [13]) as well as social psychology (cf. [17]). Commonly, impression management is defined as an individual's active efforts to cast himself/herself in a certain light, to present, create and maintain a specific image in public (social situation) with a particular purpose (cf. [9, 13, 18]). Since IM is concerned with the image a person tries to convey to another person, on the one hand, IM expresses itself in self-presentation. On the other hand, self-presentation tactics serve the purpose of IM. Self-presentation therefore is a process "by which people [try to] convey to others that they are a certain kind of person or possess certain characteristics" ([17], p. 3). Consequently, the self has an inherent role in IM and can be defined as a cognitive structure that allows a person to think consciously about himself/herself and allows interpretation which are directed towards understanding one's own inner world (cf. [17, 19]). Although one could argue that self-presentation is involved in every social encounter whether conscious or not, in literature, it is often used as synonym to impression

2. Impression management

2.1 The presentation of the self

78

experiences a discrepancy between actual school grades and educational aspiration, he/she might invest more in IM (cf. [1]) or if the student wants his/her teacher to have a certain (good) impression of him/her, but does not yet think to appear as such (cf. [19]). IM and self-presentation tactics are, however, not only influenced by the person's goals and attributed value but also by norms and roles. Norms specify how people should act and what images they should or should not convey in particular situations and are gender-, context- and culture-specific (cf. [17]). For instance, boys are encouraged to act independent, powerful and competent, whereas girls are encouraged to be expressive, interpersonal and nurturant [17]. These different expectations result consequently in different self-presentation tactics. Beside influencing other people's behaviour and attitudes, IM serves the individual for constructing and maintaining the self-esteem as well as emotional regulation. But it has also an interpersonal function as a certain degree of concern of one's public impression is considered essential for smooth and successful social interaction (cf. [13, 17]). With regard to school, students' are being concerned about a good impression contribute to a more smoothly running teaching with less disturbances (cf. [1, 16]). Managing a good impression in social situations (i.e., during teaching) is therefore also linked to courtesy and respect for the other(s) (cf. [1, 11, 13]). To teachers this means that it should be important to them that all students understand the expectations, norms and cultural frames of schools and classrooms. Teachers can thus support their students in presenting themselves in a good light by discussing such norms and expectations as well as successful impression management.

positioning within question-answer teaching. In our own study [15, 27], student's IM within German teaching was studied. The study's focus was on the students'selfpresentation tactics that deliberately try to convey a positive image of the self as being interested, motivated and competent. Based on the self-presentation tactics of Eder [14], five different dimensions of IM could be extracted: demonstrative engagement, self-promotion, situational adaptation, personal adaptation and ingratiation (see Section 4.2). While demonstrative engagement describes the active effort to appear as interested and committed through participation, situational adaption tactics are used not to let demotivation or disinterest show. Personal adaptation and ingratiation describe tactics that rather invest in relationship work with the teacher. Self-promotion takes somehow a special position as it refers to showing one's own competence in situation in which one does not entirely understand what the teacher tries to explain. It was found that those students who experience a discrepancy in the sense that they perceive themselves more positively (real self)<sup>1</sup> than they think they are perceived (appearing self) or that they want to be perceived more positively (presented self) than they think they are perceived seem to invest more in their relationship work with their German class teacher through conscious impression management [15]. These results confirm the hypoth-

The Power of Appearance: Students' Impression Management within Class

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88850

With regard to the empirical part of this contribution, the aim was to deepen the understanding of students' IM within class and to analyse motivational aspects but also context-related differences resulting from the cultural context as well as from gender norms. Therefore, the first question addresses country-specific differences in terms of IM. The second question asks whether female students differ in their IM from male students. Question three, finally, studies the relationship between school grades, aspiration level and IM and asks for interactional effects on IM (discrepancy

1.Are there any country-specific differences with regard to IM in math teaching?

2.Are there any gender-specific differences with regard to IM in math teaching?

3. Is there a correlation and interactional effect of aspiration and school grades

In order to answer the research questions (see Section 3) a paper-pencil questionnaire study with foremost closed items on IM was conducted. Data collection took place during a school lesson (class wise), and it took the students about 30 minutes to complete the questionnaire. Trained test administrators ensured a standardised survey process. The survey was conducted by class. All items were

<sup>1</sup> The distinction between real, ideal, appearing and presented self was made by Fend [19]. The real self describes the way I see myself; the ideal self is the self I would like to be/become. The self I think others attribute to me is the appearing self (as I think to appear/be perceived by others), and the self I wish

esis that experienced discrepancy is a motivator for IM [17].

3. Research questions

hypothesis).

with IM?

others would attribute to me is called presented self.

4. Method

81

#### 2.3 Students' impression management within class

Empirical studies such as the self-fulfilling prophecy [23], the halo effect [4, 5] as well as the Matthew effect [24] confirmed the significance of a positive perception of the student for school success. These studies, however, took a rather unidirectional perspective on the teacher-student relationship and the social interaction process, picturing the students as rather passively exposed to the teachers' expectations. Attributing the students as an active part in the social interaction process and attesting them the power to be able to influence the teachers' perception has not been the focus of research so far. Nevertheless, there are a few studies reporting that students are actually able to self-verify and to influence the teachers' perception (cf. [7, 8]). In the 1980s, some researchers asked students for advice they would give their younger siblings to succeed at school, implicitly addressing students'self-presentation tactics (cf. [14, 25, 26]). Eder [14] identified nine different categories of advices, recommended to younger siblings: (1) cooperation and learning, (2) demonstrative engagement, (3) identification, (4) integration, (5) situational adaptation, (6) personal adaptation, (7) ingratiation, (8) resistance and (9) distance and withdrawal. An analysis of the nine categories showed that four categories (2, 5, 6 and 7) represent self-presentation tactics which consciously aim at conveying to the teacher the image of a motivated, interested and competent student [27]. Maschke and Stecher [16] operationalised these nine categories of students' advices and assigned them to three dimensions: (1) learning work, (2) relationship cultivation and (3) self-assertion. The dimensions learning work and relationship cultivation were also related to IM. The amount of quantitative studies on students' impression strategies is very small. By means of qualitative studies, however, the students' awareness of IM's importance as well as their conscious employment of IM strategies was confirmed (cf. [1, 28]). Woods [28] found that students use different strategies and tactics in order to meet the teachers' expectation and to attract positive attention—for example, through a positive

The Power of Appearance: Students' Impression Management within Class DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88850

positioning within question-answer teaching. In our own study [15, 27], student's IM within German teaching was studied. The study's focus was on the students'selfpresentation tactics that deliberately try to convey a positive image of the self as being interested, motivated and competent. Based on the self-presentation tactics of Eder [14], five different dimensions of IM could be extracted: demonstrative engagement, self-promotion, situational adaptation, personal adaptation and ingratiation (see Section 4.2). While demonstrative engagement describes the active effort to appear as interested and committed through participation, situational adaption tactics are used not to let demotivation or disinterest show. Personal adaptation and ingratiation describe tactics that rather invest in relationship work with the teacher. Self-promotion takes somehow a special position as it refers to showing one's own competence in situation in which one does not entirely understand what the teacher tries to explain. It was found that those students who experience a discrepancy in the sense that they perceive themselves more positively (real self)<sup>1</sup> than they think they are perceived (appearing self) or that they want to be perceived more positively (presented self) than they think they are perceived seem to invest more in their relationship work with their German class teacher through conscious impression management [15]. These results confirm the hypothesis that experienced discrepancy is a motivator for IM [17].

#### 3. Research questions

experiences a discrepancy between actual school grades and educational aspiration, he/she might invest more in IM (cf. [1]) or if the student wants his/her teacher to have a certain (good) impression of him/her, but does not yet think to appear as such (cf. [19]). IM and self-presentation tactics are, however, not only influenced by the person's goals and attributed value but also by norms and roles. Norms specify how people should act and what images they should or should not convey in particular situations and are gender-, context- and culture-specific (cf. [17]). For instance, boys are encouraged to act independent, powerful and competent, whereas girls are encouraged to be expressive, interpersonal and nurturant [17]. These different expectations result consequently in different self-presentation tactics. Beside influencing other people's behaviour and attitudes, IM serves the individual for constructing and maintaining the self-esteem as well as emotional regulation. But it has also an interpersonal function as a certain degree of concern of one's public impression is considered essential for smooth and successful social interaction (cf. [13, 17]). With regard to school, students' are being concerned about a good impression contribute to a more smoothly running teaching with less disturbances (cf. [1, 16]). Managing a good impression in social situations (i.e., during teaching) is therefore also linked to courtesy and respect for the other(s) (cf. [1, 11, 13]). To teachers this means that it should be important to them that all students understand the expectations, norms and cultural frames of schools and classrooms. Teachers can thus support their students in presenting themselves in a good light by discussing such norms and expectations as well as successful impres-

Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges

Empirical studies such as the self-fulfilling prophecy [23], the halo effect [4, 5] as well as the Matthew effect [24] confirmed the significance of a positive perception of the student for school success. These studies, however, took a rather unidirectional perspective on the teacher-student relationship and the social interaction process, picturing the students as rather passively exposed to the teachers' expectations. Attributing the students as an active part in the social interaction process and attesting them the power to be able to influence the teachers' perception has not been the focus of research so far. Nevertheless, there are a few studies reporting that students are actually able to self-verify and to influence the teachers' perception (cf. [7, 8]). In the 1980s, some researchers asked students for advice they would give their younger siblings to succeed at school, implicitly addressing students'self-presentation tactics (cf. [14, 25, 26]). Eder [14] identified nine different categories of advices, recommended to younger siblings: (1) cooperation and learning, (2) demonstrative engagement, (3) identification, (4) integration, (5) situational adaptation, (6) personal adaptation, (7) ingratiation, (8) resistance and (9) distance and withdrawal. An analysis of the nine categories showed that four categories (2, 5, 6 and 7) represent self-presentation tactics which consciously aim at conveying to the teacher the image of a motivated, interested and competent student [27]. Maschke and Stecher [16] operationalised these nine categories of students' advices and assigned them to three dimensions: (1) learning work, (2) relationship cultivation and (3) self-assertion. The dimensions learning work and relationship cultivation were also related to IM. The amount of quantitative studies on students' impression strategies is very small. By means of qualitative studies, however, the students' awareness of IM's importance as well as their conscious employment of IM strategies was confirmed (cf. [1, 28]). Woods [28] found that students use different strategies and tactics in order to meet the teachers' expectation and to attract positive attention—for example, through a positive

sion management.

80

2.3 Students' impression management within class

With regard to the empirical part of this contribution, the aim was to deepen the understanding of students' IM within class and to analyse motivational aspects but also context-related differences resulting from the cultural context as well as from gender norms. Therefore, the first question addresses country-specific differences in terms of IM. The second question asks whether female students differ in their IM from male students. Question three, finally, studies the relationship between school grades, aspiration level and IM and asks for interactional effects on IM (discrepancy hypothesis).


#### 4. Method

In order to answer the research questions (see Section 3) a paper-pencil questionnaire study with foremost closed items on IM was conducted. Data collection took place during a school lesson (class wise), and it took the students about 30 minutes to complete the questionnaire. Trained test administrators ensured a standardised survey process. The survey was conducted by class. All items were

<sup>1</sup> The distinction between real, ideal, appearing and presented self was made by Fend [19]. The real self describes the way I see myself; the ideal self is the self I would like to be/become. The self I think others attribute to me is the appearing self (as I think to appear/be perceived by others), and the self I wish others would attribute to me is called presented self.

related to math teaching and its belonging teacher.<sup>2</sup> The sample is an occasional sample, not randomly drawn.

#### 4.1 Participants

A total of 293 students at the secondary II level (seventh-tenth grade) responded to the questionnaire. In order to test for country-specific differences, 202 students were at Austrian grammar schools (69%) and 91 at Swiss grammar schools. About 46% were female (135) and 154 students were male (4 missing answers). The average age was about 14.5 years (SD = 1.6 years). Since all students questioned were at a grammar school which prepares them for university entrance, it is not surprising that 65% of the respondents are aiming for an education at university. However, 35% of the students did not mention at the time of survey that they aspire to enter university but had other perspectives or more immediate goals such as obtaining the graduation certificate of grammar school. About 5% of the students reported to have insufficient math grades, about 38% of the students had sufficient math grades, and about 32% had good and another 24% very good math grades. Table 1 gives an overview of the sample characteristics.

• Demonstrative engagement describes a conscious tactic of students to present themselves as motivated, interested and committed through active

Total N 293 Austrian 202 (69%) Swiss 91 (31%) Female 135 (46%) Male 154 (53%)<sup>b</sup> Average age (SD) 14.5 (1.6 years)

The Power of Appearance: Students' Impression Management within Class

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88850

The items on impression management were directed to the math teaching and its teacher.

thinks I am motivated. (Three items)

interested in math lessons. (Five items)

teacher's expectations. (Three items)

4.3 Hypotheses

83

as if I knew it. (Three items)

a

b

Table 1.

4 cases missing.

Sample characteristics.

cooperation: During math lessons I often get in touch with my teacher so that he/she

Math teachinga

• Self-promotion describes a students' tactic to present themselves as competent (knowing and understanding) even if one does not fully understand the subject of teaching: In math lessons, even if I do not know the right solution, I try to behave

• Situational adaptation is a rather adaptive tactic with the aim of not letting one's own noncommitment be noticed: I will not let you tell me if I'm not

• Personal adaptation describes students adapting to the teacher's expectation of showing interest and motivation (relationship management): In math lessons I sometimes fake motivation in order to leave a positive impression. (Four items)

• Ingratiation is an active relationship management, with the aim of signalising recognition, respect and obedience to the teacher: I pretend to meet the math

In order to analyse the reliability of IM dimensions, the extracted factor solutions were compared to the one of the German teaching sample (reference sample), and Cronbach's alphas were calculated. Table 2 presents the scale characteristics for the math teaching sample. It shows that Cronbach's alphas of the different IM dimensions were ranging between 0.63 and 0.87,5 which can be considered satisfactory for social science studies [30]. Furthermore, Table 2 shows that the average scores of the five dimensions

Since there are culture-specific norms which influences IM and self-presentation (cf. [13, 17]) and since school culture of countries probably differ in certain norms

<sup>5</sup> The Cronbach's alphas are comparable to the German teaching sample in which they varied between 0.66 and 0.86. Furthermore it showed that students answering the items with reference to math teaching and its belonging teacher did not differ in their mean score on IM dimensions compared to the students

who answered the questions with reference to German teaching (reference sample).

of IM were semantically between somewhat does not apply and somewhat applies.

#### 4.2 Scales and measures

Besides some socio-demographic variables such as gender, country and age, the newly developed questionnaire included questions on educational aspiration and school grades in math as well as items on IM (adapted for math teaching). The scales, dimensions and items as well as some scale characteristics will be described in more detail.

#### 4.2.1 Scale: impression management

As mentioned (see Section 2.3) in a previous study [15, 27], students' IM was operationalized and validated with regard to teaching of German and its belonging teacher.<sup>3</sup> Based on school-specific coping strategies identified by Eder [14], this instrument was supposed to capture the student perspective on self-presentation tactics. By means of a CFA with latent constructs [27], a five-dimensional correlative factor structure was confirmed. For this current study, the correlative fivedimensional IM scale for German teaching was adapted to math teaching. All items could be answered on a four-point Likert-scale ranging from does not apply to applies. An even number of response categories was chosen to avoid a neutral response opportunity.<sup>4</sup>

<sup>2</sup> It is to assume that students adapt their IM depending on the school subject but especially its belonging teacher. Therefore, the items of IM were formulated with reference to math teaching.

<sup>3</sup> The sample of validation consisted of 201 students at Austrian grammar schools [27].

<sup>4</sup> There has been some methodological discussion about whether an even or odd number of response categories should be used when constructing a questionnaire with closed answer format [29]. The central argument for collecting and measuring a construct with a straight response category (with four or six levels) is that the participants questioned are deprived of the opportunity to position themselves indifferently or (only) in the middle of the item [29]. From a conceptual point of view, it would not make sense to have a neutral answer response when asking students about their deliberative effort for IM. Therefore, an even number of four-answer categories was chosen as it is also often applied in the PISA study when questioning attitudes or behaviour.

The Power of Appearance: Students' Impression Management within Class DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88850


b 4 cases missing.

#### Table 1.

related to math teaching and its belonging teacher.<sup>2</sup> The sample is an occasional

Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges

Table 1 gives an overview of the sample characteristics.

A total of 293 students at the secondary II level (seventh-tenth grade) responded to the questionnaire. In order to test for country-specific differences, 202 students were at Austrian grammar schools (69%) and 91 at Swiss grammar schools. About 46% were female (135) and 154 students were male (4 missing answers). The average age was about 14.5 years (SD = 1.6 years). Since all students questioned were at a grammar school which prepares them for university entrance, it is not surprising that 65% of the respondents are aiming for an education at university. However, 35% of the students did not mention at the time of survey that they aspire to enter university but had other perspectives or more immediate goals such as obtaining the graduation certificate of grammar school. About 5% of the students reported to have insufficient math grades, about 38% of the students had sufficient math grades, and about 32% had good and another 24% very good math grades.

Besides some socio-demographic variables such as gender, country and age, the newly developed questionnaire included questions on educational aspiration and school grades in math as well as items on IM (adapted for math teaching). The scales, dimensions and items as well as some scale characteristics will be described

As mentioned (see Section 2.3) in a previous study [15, 27], students' IM was operationalized and validated with regard to teaching of German and its belonging teacher.<sup>3</sup> Based on school-specific coping strategies identified by Eder [14], this instrument was supposed to capture the student perspective on self-presentation tactics. By means of a CFA with latent constructs [27], a five-dimensional correlative factor structure was confirmed. For this current study, the correlative fivedimensional IM scale for German teaching was adapted to math teaching. All items could be answered on a four-point Likert-scale ranging from does not apply to applies. An even number of response categories was chosen to avoid a neutral

<sup>2</sup> It is to assume that students adapt their IM depending on the school subject but especially its belonging

<sup>4</sup> There has been some methodological discussion about whether an even or odd number of response categories should be used when constructing a questionnaire with closed answer format [29]. The central argument for collecting and measuring a construct with a straight response category (with four or six levels) is that the participants questioned are deprived of the opportunity to position themselves indifferently or (only) in the middle of the item [29]. From a conceptual point of view, it would not make sense to have a neutral answer response when asking students about their deliberative effort for IM. Therefore, an even number of four-answer categories was chosen as it is also often applied in the

teacher. Therefore, the items of IM were formulated with reference to math teaching. <sup>3</sup> The sample of validation consisted of 201 students at Austrian grammar schools [27].

sample, not randomly drawn.

4.2 Scales and measures

4.2.1 Scale: impression management

response opportunity.<sup>4</sup>

82

PISA study when questioning attitudes or behaviour.

in more detail.

4.1 Participants

Sample characteristics.


In order to analyse the reliability of IM dimensions, the extracted factor solutions were compared to the one of the German teaching sample (reference sample), and Cronbach's alphas were calculated. Table 2 presents the scale characteristics for the math teaching sample. It shows that Cronbach's alphas of the different IM dimensions were ranging between 0.63 and 0.87,5 which can be considered satisfactory for social science studies [30]. Furthermore, Table 2 shows that the average scores of the five dimensions of IM were semantically between somewhat does not apply and somewhat applies.

#### 4.3 Hypotheses

Since there are culture-specific norms which influences IM and self-presentation (cf. [13, 17]) and since school culture of countries probably differ in certain norms

<sup>5</sup> The Cronbach's alphas are comparable to the German teaching sample in which they varied between 0.66 and 0.86. Furthermore it showed that students answering the items with reference to math teaching and its belonging teacher did not differ in their mean score on IM dimensions compared to the students who answered the questions with reference to German teaching (reference sample).


The methods used in order to test these hypotheses are discussed directly when

In order to test Hypothesis 1 that students from Austrian grammar schools differ in their average on IM in math teaching from students from Swiss grammar schools, t-tests for independent groups were calculated by means of the statistical program SPSS (Version 24). Significant country differences were found on four of the five dimensions on IM in math teaching. Only with regard to situational adaptation was no country-specific difference found. Generally, students from Austrian schools achieved higher mean scores on the dimensions of IM. Consequently, students from Austrian schools seem more involved in active impression management conveying the image of a competent, motivated and interested student that respects the teacher. The effect sizes<sup>6</sup> were, however, rather small between 0.36 and 0.40 (see Table 3). This study is not able to conclusively clarify these differences between countries, as there is a lack of information on different norms and expectations of students. Studies including school culture characteristics of different countries would be valuable for further understanding how context characteristics influence

5.1 Mean differences in impression management between countries

5.2 Mean differences in impression management between genders

Austria Switzerland

Mean differences in impression management between students of Swiss and Austrian schools.

As Hedges' g is often used similar to Cohen's d, the abbreviation effect size d is used.

Scale Mean (SD) Mean (SD) t-value Effect size d Demonstrative engagement 2.7 (0.86) 2.4 (0.88) t(285) = 2.72; p<0:01 0.36 Self-promotion 2.2 (0.83) 1.9 (0.74) t(290) = 3.22; p <0:001 0.39 Situational adaptation 2.9 (0.68) 2.8 (0.68) t(287) = 1.5; ns — Personal adaptation 2.6 (0.68) 2.4 (0.68) t(284) = 3.06; p <0:01 0.40 Ingratiation 2.7 (0.66) 2.4 (0.75) t(285) = 3.03; p<0:01 0.38

<sup>6</sup> Effect sizes were calculated using the formula Hedges' g in order to correct for unequal group sizes [31].

Hypothesis 2a–c assumed that male students score higher on self-promotion but less on personal adaptation and ingratiation than females do. Results showed, however, that—according to expectation—gender only differed significantly in the mean score of ingratiation and additionally on situational adaptation (method of analysis: independent sample t-test, SPSS; Version 24). Female students had higher average scores on both dimensions and seem to try more not to show disinterest or demotivation during class and try to ingratiate more than male students do. The effect sizes were, however, rather small with 0.26 and 0.40, respectively (see Table 4). The hypothesis that female students invest more into relationship management was therefore only partially confirmed. In order to analyse whether these

presenting the corresponding results (see Section 5).

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88850

The Power of Appearance: Students' Impression Management within Class

5. Results and discussion

IM and self-presentation tactics.

Table 3.

85

Table 2.

Scale characteristics on IM for math teaching sample.

and expectations, it was assumed that students from Austrian grammar schools differ on average in their scores on IM from students from Swiss grammar schools. Differential learning environments have an individual influence on the description and development of cognitive and noncognitive outcomes of students. Such contextual factors can also be identified at the institutional or organisational level within the framework of educational spaces. Based on differences in the school structure between the Swiss and Austrian school education systems, but given the fact that studies comparing IM between students of Austrian and Swiss schools are missing, an undirected hypothesis was formulated (Hypothesis 1), which should be understood as rather explorative in nature. Likewise it was argued that genders also are confronted with different expectations and norms [17]. Therefore, it was expected that male students score higher on self-promotion and female students score higher on IM concerning explicit relationship management (personal adaptation and ingratiation, Hypotheses 2). In general, students with a higher educational aspiration level are expected to be more interested in a positive IM and therefore score higher on the self-presentation tactics (Hypothesis 3). Likewise, students with good grades are expected to have higher scores on IM (Hypothesis 4). With regard to the motivation of IM [17], it is expected that students experiencing a discrepancy (high aspiration level but low school grades) are more interested in a good IM and therefore score higher on its dimensions (Hypothesis 5).


The methods used in order to test these hypotheses are discussed directly when presenting the corresponding results (see Section 5).

### 5. Results and discussion

and expectations, it was assumed that students from Austrian grammar schools differ on average in their scores on IM from students from Swiss grammar schools. Differential learning environments have an individual influence on the description and development of cognitive and noncognitive outcomes of students. Such contextual factors can also be identified at the institutional or organisational level within the framework of educational spaces. Based on differences in the school structure between the Swiss and Austrian school education systems, but given the fact that studies comparing IM between students of Austrian and Swiss schools are missing, an undirected hypothesis was formulated (Hypothesis 1), which should be understood as rather explorative in nature. Likewise it was argued that genders also are confronted with different expectations and norms [17]. Therefore, it was expected that male students score higher on self-promotion and female students score higher on IM concerning explicit relationship management (personal adaptation and ingratiation, Hypotheses 2). In general, students with a higher educational aspiration level are expected to be more interested in a positive IM and therefore score higher on the self-presentation tactics (Hypothesis 3). Likewise, students with good grades are expected to have higher scores on IM (Hypothesis 4). With regard to the motivation of IM [17], it is expected that students experiencing a discrepancy (high aspiration level but low school grades) are more interested in a good IM and

Dimensions of IM Mean (SD) Cronbach's alpha Demonstrative engagement 2.63 (0.87) 0.87 Self-promotion 2.13 (0.82) 0.74 Situational adaptation 2.85 (0.68) 0.81 Personal adaptation 2.57 (0.69) 0.70 Ingratiation 2.62 (0.70) 0.63

Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges

Sample size (n = 293)

• Hypothesis 1: Students from Austrian grammar schools differ in their IM from

competence, Hypothesis 2a) and on the other hand, that female students score higher on personal adaptation (Hypothesis 2b) and ingratiation (Hypothesis 2c), both aiming at conscious teacher-student relationship management.

• Hypothesis 3: Students who aim at entering university (high aspiration level) score higher in the IM dimensions than students with a lower aspiration level.

• Hypothesis 4: Students with good grades are expected to score higher on IM

• Hypothesis 5: Students with a high aspiration level but low school grades (discrepancy experience) score higher on IM than students with low grades

• Hypothesis 2: Due to gender-specific norms, it is expected that on the one hand, male students score higher on self-promotion (demonstrating

therefore score higher on its dimensions (Hypothesis 5).

students from Swiss grammar schools.

Scale characteristics on IM for math teaching sample.

Table 2.

than students with lower grades.

and low educational aspiration level.

84

#### 5.1 Mean differences in impression management between countries

In order to test Hypothesis 1 that students from Austrian grammar schools differ in their average on IM in math teaching from students from Swiss grammar schools, t-tests for independent groups were calculated by means of the statistical program SPSS (Version 24). Significant country differences were found on four of the five dimensions on IM in math teaching. Only with regard to situational adaptation was no country-specific difference found. Generally, students from Austrian schools achieved higher mean scores on the dimensions of IM. Consequently, students from Austrian schools seem more involved in active impression management conveying the image of a competent, motivated and interested student that respects the teacher. The effect sizes<sup>6</sup> were, however, rather small between 0.36 and 0.40 (see Table 3). This study is not able to conclusively clarify these differences between countries, as there is a lack of information on different norms and expectations of students. Studies including school culture characteristics of different countries would be valuable for further understanding how context characteristics influence IM and self-presentation tactics.

#### 5.2 Mean differences in impression management between genders

Hypothesis 2a–c assumed that male students score higher on self-promotion but less on personal adaptation and ingratiation than females do. Results showed, however, that—according to expectation—gender only differed significantly in the mean score of ingratiation and additionally on situational adaptation (method of analysis: independent sample t-test, SPSS; Version 24). Female students had higher average scores on both dimensions and seem to try more not to show disinterest or demotivation during class and try to ingratiate more than male students do. The effect sizes were, however, rather small with 0.26 and 0.40, respectively (see Table 4). The hypothesis that female students invest more into relationship management was therefore only partially confirmed. In order to analyse whether these


Table 3.

Mean differences in impression management between students of Swiss and Austrian schools.

<sup>6</sup> Effect sizes were calculated using the formula Hedges' g in order to correct for unequal group sizes [31]. As Hedges' g is often used similar to Cohen's d, the abbreviation effect size d is used.


Table 4.

Mean differences in impression management between female and male students.

findings result from different gender-specific expectations that influence selfpresentation tactics, it would be beneficial to include in a further study also information on such expectations.

#### 5.3 Relationship between grades and educational aspiration with IM

In order to test Hypotheses 3 and 4, the educational aspiration as well as the math grades were dichotomised. Students who already knew they want to enter university were assigned to the group aspiration high which correspond to 65% of the participants. The others were allocated to the group aspiration low. Students (56%) reporting a math grade that means semantically "good" or "very good" were allocated to the group high grades, the others to the group low grades. By means of a 2 2 factorial ANOVA, it was tested for main and interaction effects of educational aspiration and math grades (independent variables). The dependent variables (DV) were the five dimensions of IM. For each DV a separate ANOVA was calculated. Table 5 summarises the results of the ANOVA. With regard to Hypothesis 3, it was found that the educational aspiration level had an influence on self-promotion (F(1, 277) = 4.482; p <0:01) as well as on ingratiation (F(1, 273) = 4.61; p <0:05). In alignment with expectations, students in the group high aspiration scored on average higher on self-promotion (mean = 2.21, SD = 0.85), than the group low aspiration (mean = 2.02, SD = 0.73) as well as on ingratiation (mean = 2.70, SD = 0.66), than the group low aspiration (mean = 2.52, SD = 0.73). Effect sizes of these main effects were, however, rather low ranging between 0.265 and 0.271. With regard to Hypothesis 4, school grades were found to have an influence (main effect) on demonstrative engagement (F(1, 272) = 7.661 p< 0:01), self-promotion (F(1, 277) = 6.523; p <0:01) as well as situational adaptation (F (1, 274) = 4.526; p <0:05). The two dimensions of IM aiming more at relationship work seem not to be affected by student's school grades. Put differently, independent of the math grades, students tried more or less to ingratiate and personally adapt to the image of a good student. In accordance with Hypothesis 4, students in the group high grades scored on average higher on the IM dimension of demonstrative engagement (mean = 2.76, SD = 0.86) than the group low grade (mean = 2.49, SD = 0.85). Likewise, students with high grades scored on average higher on the dimension situational adaptation (mean = 2.92, SD = 0.66) than the group low grade (mean = 2.77, SD = 0.66). There are at least two possible explanations for these results: (1) investing more into demonstrative engagement of commitment and effort as well as investing more in not letting demotivation and disinterest show leads to better grades, and (2) understanding teaching as a trade, students with better grades trade for them with

demonstrative engagement and situational adaptation. Contrary to expectation, students with high grades had lower mean score on self-promotion (mean = 2.01, SD = 0.79) than the group low grade (mean = 2.31, SD = 0.82). Again, there are at least two explanations possible: (1) there is no need for good students to show competence as their school performance already shows, and (2) good students are more aware of the "risks" of faking competence and understanding. Thus, if self-presentation is successful, the teacher is convinced that the students understood the content and proceeds to the next topic/step. Teachers may not recognise students' incomprehension and erroneous concepts. Due to the fact that there was only one measurement point (cross-sectional study), these various possible explanations cannot be conclusively clarified. Consequently, longitudinal studies are needed. Effect sizes of these

Tests of 2 2 factorial ANOVA: Statistics for main effects and interactions between grades and aspiration

SS df MS Fa Effect size d

Aspiration level 0.759 1 0.759 1.037 ns Math grade 5.607 1 5.607 7.661\*\* 0.338 Aspiration\*grade 0.707 1 0.707 0.966 ns

Aspiration level 2.826 1 2.826 4.482\*\* 0.265 Grade 4.112 1 4.112 6.523\* 0.309 Aspiration\*math grade 1.657 1 1.657 2.628 ns

Aspiration level 0.441 1 0.441 0.958 ns Math grade 2.084 1 2.084 4.526\* 0.259 Aspiration\*math grade 0.582 1 0.582 1.265 ns

Aspiration level 1.589 1 1.589 3.499 ns Math grade 0.615 1 0.615 1.354 ns Aspiration\*math grade 2.498 1 2.498 5.501\* 0.54

Aspiration level 2.173 1 2.173 4.610\* 0.271 Math grade 0.541 1 0.541 1.148 ns Aspiration\*math grade 0.635 1 0.635 1.347 ns

Error 199.078 272 0.732

The Power of Appearance: Students' Impression Management within Class

Error 174.628 277 0.630

Error 126.161 274 0.460

Error 123.524 272 0.454

Error 128.709 273 0.471

Demonstrative engagement

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88850

Self-promotion

Situational adaptation

Personal adaptation

Ingratiation

\*p < .05, \*\*p <.01, ns = nonsignificant.

a

Table 5.

on IM.

87

main effects were, however, rather low ranging between 0.259 and 0.338.

Although Hypothesis 5 which states that students with a high aspiration level but low school grades (discrepancy experience) score higher on IM than students with


#### The Power of Appearance: Students' Impression Management within Class DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88850

#### Table 5.

findings result from different gender-specific expectations that influence selfpresentation tactics, it would be beneficial to include in a further study also infor-

In order to test Hypotheses 3 and 4, the educational aspiration as well as the math grades were dichotomised. Students who already knew they want to enter university were assigned to the group aspiration high which correspond to 65% of the participants. The others were allocated to the group aspiration low. Students (56%) reporting a math grade that means semantically "good" or "very good" were allocated to the group high grades, the others to the group low grades. By means of a 2 2 factorial ANOVA, it was tested for main and interaction effects of educational aspiration and math grades (independent variables). The dependent variables (DV) were the five dimensions of IM. For each DV a separate ANOVA was calculated. Table 5 summarises the results of the ANOVA. With regard to Hypothesis 3, it was found that the educational aspiration level had an influence on self-promotion (F(1, 277) = 4.482; p <0:01) as well as on ingratiation (F(1, 273) = 4.61; p <0:05). In alignment with expectations, students in the group high aspiration scored on average higher on self-promotion (mean = 2.21, SD = 0.85), than the group low aspiration (mean = 2.02, SD = 0.73) as well as on ingratiation (mean = 2.70, SD = 0.66), than the group low aspiration (mean = 2.52, SD = 0.73). Effect sizes of these main effects were, however, rather low ranging between 0.265 and 0.271. With regard to Hypothesis 4, school grades were found to have an influence (main effect) on demonstrative engagement (F(1, 272) = 7.661 p< 0:01), self-promotion (F(1, 277) = 6.523; p <0:01) as well as situational adaptation (F (1, 274) = 4.526; p <0:05). The two dimensions of IM aiming more at relationship work seem not to be affected by student's school grades. Put differently, independent of the math grades, students tried more or less to ingratiate and personally adapt to the image of a good student. In accordance with Hypothesis 4, students in the group high grades scored on average higher on the IM dimension of demonstrative engagement (mean = 2.76, SD = 0.86) than the group low grade (mean = 2.49, SD = 0.85). Likewise, students with high grades scored on average higher on the dimension situational adaptation (mean = 2.92, SD = 0.66) than the group low grade (mean = 2.77, SD = 0.66). There are at least two possible explanations for these results: (1) investing more into demonstrative engagement of commitment and effort as well as investing more in not letting demotivation and disinterest show leads to better grades, and (2) under-

5.3 Relationship between grades and educational aspiration with IM

Female students

Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges

Mean differences in impression management between female and male students.

Male students

2.7 (0.89) 2.6 (0.86) t(281) = 0.82; ns —

Scale Mean (SD) Mean (SD) t-value Effect size d

Self-promotion 2.2 (0.83) 2.1(0.79) t(286) = 1.15; ns — Situational adaptation 3.0 (0.63) 2.7 (0.70) t(283) = 3.21; p<0:001 0.40 Personal adaptation 2.6 (0.68) 2.5 (0.68) t(280) = 1.49; ns — Ingratiation 2.7 (0.68) 2.5 (0.70) t(281) = 2.14; p<0:05 0.26

standing teaching as a trade, students with better grades trade for them with

mation on such expectations.

Demonstrative engagement

Table 4.

86

Tests of 2 2 factorial ANOVA: Statistics for main effects and interactions between grades and aspiration on IM.

demonstrative engagement and situational adaptation. Contrary to expectation, students with high grades had lower mean score on self-promotion (mean = 2.01, SD = 0.79) than the group low grade (mean = 2.31, SD = 0.82). Again, there are at least two explanations possible: (1) there is no need for good students to show competence as their school performance already shows, and (2) good students are more aware of the "risks" of faking competence and understanding. Thus, if self-presentation is successful, the teacher is convinced that the students understood the content and proceeds to the next topic/step. Teachers may not recognise students' incomprehension and erroneous concepts. Due to the fact that there was only one measurement point (cross-sectional study), these various possible explanations cannot be conclusively clarified. Consequently, longitudinal studies are needed. Effect sizes of these main effects were, however, rather low ranging between 0.259 and 0.338.

Although Hypothesis 5 which states that students with a high aspiration level but low school grades (discrepancy experience) score higher on IM than students with

Studies on teachers' judgement accuracy showed that on average the correlation between teacher's judgement and actual student's cognitive performance is only about 0.66. Depending on whether teachers judge cognitive performance or motivation, this coefficient is even lower (cf. [33, 34]). One discussed reason for this inaccuracy is that teachers can refer less to "hard facts" when they are assessing the student's self-concept than when they are assessing cognitive performance [33]. The question that could also be asked in this context is whether some students are more successful in conveying a positive self-image through successful impression management, which diminishes teacher's judgement accuracy regarding student's selfconcept. There has been intensive research that teachers' perception on students' image has a profound influence on students learning (cf. [35]). Although IM and resulting social exchange processes are seen as important for school success, there are relatively few empirical studies that investigate the extent to which students as active agents have an influence on the teacher's student evaluation. On the contrary, the field of research seems to understand the student mainly as passively exposed to structural, contextual and teacher-based influences. The empirical results presented in this contribution confirmed, however, that students seem to be aware of their efforts in terms of (positive) impression management, not only in German but also in math teaching. They seem to know that they can avail themselves of specific tactics that can be applied for the purpose of self-presentation in different educational situations. It was found that students from Austrian grammar school scored on average higher on all five dimensions of IM than students from Swiss schools. The mean differences showed to be significant on four of the five dimensions. This indicates that different cultural norms might influence self-presentation tactics and corresponding behaviour. Whether these results have anything to do with different beliefs in authority or with the fact that in Switzerland, it is more frowned upon to present oneself as better (this can also be seen from the fact that acquired titles are rarely or only reluctantly listed by Swiss people), are theses to be examined. Likewise, gender-specific norms seem to influence IM within class. Although the effects were only significant with regard to ingratiation and situational adaptation, female students showed higher mean scores on all five dimensions of IM. This goes along with the argumentation that gender-specific norms expect females to be more expressive and interpersonal [17]. Thus the five dimensions of IM can be understood as a special kind of interpersonal expression, namely, to consciously present the self in a good way and connect with the teacher. Moreover, it was found that educational aspiration level had a significant effect on IM. Again, students with the already determined goal to enter university scored higher on all five dimensions of

The Power of Appearance: Students' Impression Management within Class

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88850

IM—even if the main effect was significant on only two dimensions (selfpromotion and ingratiation). Furthermore, better school grades were linked to higher scores on demonstrative engagement and situational adaptation and to lower scores on self-promotion. Interestingly are the two significant main effects in terms of self-promotion. Whereas good students do less present themselves as being competent in situation in which they do not fully understand the school subject, students with high aspiration pretend more to being competent than student with lower educational aspiration do. This is important also for teachers to know. They should encourage their students to let them know if something was not understood fully instead of pretending to master subject matter. Because pretending to have mastered the subject matter of school may be detrimental to students' learning, especially if it leads to less effort on the part of the students. Finally, in alignment with the discrepancy hypothesis, it was found that students with a high educational aspiration (aiming for a university degree) but low grades (insufficient or barely sufficient) scored higher on all of the five dimensions than students with low

89

Figure 1. Interaction effect of grade and aspiration regarding personal adaptation.

low grades and low aspiration level was apparently true comparing the mean scores of these two groups, only one significant interaction effect was found, namely, with regard to personal adaptation (F(1, 272) = 5.501; p<0:05), with a medium effect size of 0.54. As Figure 1 shows, students with a high educational aspiration but low math grades scored on average the highest on personal adaptation (mean = 2.80, SD = 0.64), students with low math grades and low aspiration the lowest (mean = 2.43, SD = 0.65). Students with a low educational aspiration but good math grades (mean = 2.54, SD = 0.67) scored similar like the students with a high aspiration level but low math grades (mean = 2.50, SD = 0.71). Students who want to start at university, but currently do not have good math grades, might hope to achieve better math grades when pretending and faking motivation and interest in order to leave a good impression. This would, however, require that students regard grades as influenceable by other factors than mere school performance (assessed through math exams).

#### 6. Conclusion

Given the fact that compulsory schooling has not only expanded but has degraded to a preliminary state for attending higher educational institutions, the schools' function of selection in particular has become more important in recent years (cf. [1]). Consequently, school success students achieve during their school years is decisive for their future career. Not surprisingly, the quality of pedagogical diagnostics in the teaching profession has become a relevant topic of educational research (cf. [32]). But as discussed, student assessment (including summative and formative assessment) seems rarely to be based on purely objective measurement criteria but to open some scope for decision-making. Where there is scope for decision-making and consideration, there are consequently opportunities for social influence. The bigger this scope, the greater the significance of the many influences (or attempts to influence) on the impression made by the assessors (cf. [5, 20]).

#### The Power of Appearance: Students' Impression Management within Class DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88850

Studies on teachers' judgement accuracy showed that on average the correlation between teacher's judgement and actual student's cognitive performance is only about 0.66. Depending on whether teachers judge cognitive performance or motivation, this coefficient is even lower (cf. [33, 34]). One discussed reason for this inaccuracy is that teachers can refer less to "hard facts" when they are assessing the student's self-concept than when they are assessing cognitive performance [33]. The question that could also be asked in this context is whether some students are more successful in conveying a positive self-image through successful impression management, which diminishes teacher's judgement accuracy regarding student's selfconcept. There has been intensive research that teachers' perception on students' image has a profound influence on students learning (cf. [35]). Although IM and resulting social exchange processes are seen as important for school success, there are relatively few empirical studies that investigate the extent to which students as active agents have an influence on the teacher's student evaluation. On the contrary, the field of research seems to understand the student mainly as passively exposed to structural, contextual and teacher-based influences. The empirical results presented in this contribution confirmed, however, that students seem to be aware of their efforts in terms of (positive) impression management, not only in German but also in math teaching. They seem to know that they can avail themselves of specific tactics that can be applied for the purpose of self-presentation in different educational situations. It was found that students from Austrian grammar school scored on average higher on all five dimensions of IM than students from Swiss schools. The mean differences showed to be significant on four of the five dimensions. This indicates that different cultural norms might influence self-presentation tactics and corresponding behaviour. Whether these results have anything to do with different beliefs in authority or with the fact that in Switzerland, it is more frowned upon to present oneself as better (this can also be seen from the fact that acquired titles are rarely or only reluctantly listed by Swiss people), are theses to be examined. Likewise, gender-specific norms seem to influence IM within class. Although the effects were only significant with regard to ingratiation and situational adaptation, female students showed higher mean scores on all five dimensions of IM. This goes along with the argumentation that gender-specific norms expect females to be more expressive and interpersonal [17]. Thus the five dimensions of IM can be understood as a special kind of interpersonal expression, namely, to consciously present the self in a good way and connect with the teacher. Moreover, it was found that educational aspiration level had a significant effect on IM. Again, students with the already determined goal to enter university scored higher on all five dimensions of IM—even if the main effect was significant on only two dimensions (selfpromotion and ingratiation). Furthermore, better school grades were linked to higher scores on demonstrative engagement and situational adaptation and to lower scores on self-promotion. Interestingly are the two significant main effects in terms of self-promotion. Whereas good students do less present themselves as being competent in situation in which they do not fully understand the school subject, students with high aspiration pretend more to being competent than student with lower educational aspiration do. This is important also for teachers to know. They should encourage their students to let them know if something was not understood fully instead of pretending to master subject matter. Because pretending to have mastered the subject matter of school may be detrimental to students' learning, especially if it leads to less effort on the part of the students. Finally, in alignment with the discrepancy hypothesis, it was found that students with a high educational aspiration (aiming for a university degree) but low grades (insufficient or barely sufficient) scored higher on all of the five dimensions than students with low

low grades and low aspiration level was apparently true comparing the mean scores of these two groups, only one significant interaction effect was found, namely, with regard to personal adaptation (F(1, 272) = 5.501; p<0:05), with a medium effect size of 0.54. As Figure 1 shows, students with a high educational aspiration but low math grades scored on average the highest on personal adaptation (mean = 2.80,

(mean = 2.43, SD = 0.65). Students with a low educational aspiration but good math

SD = 0.64), students with low math grades and low aspiration the lowest

Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges

Interaction effect of grade and aspiration regarding personal adaptation.

through math exams).

6. Conclusion

88

Figure 1.

grades (mean = 2.54, SD = 0.67) scored similar like the students with a high aspiration level but low math grades (mean = 2.50, SD = 0.71). Students who want to start at university, but currently do not have good math grades, might hope to achieve better math grades when pretending and faking motivation and interest in order to leave a good impression. This would, however, require that students regard grades as influenceable by other factors than mere school performance (assessed

Given the fact that compulsory schooling has not only expanded but has degraded to a preliminary state for attending higher educational institutions, the schools' function of selection in particular has become more important in recent years (cf. [1]). Consequently, school success students achieve during their school years is decisive for their future career. Not surprisingly, the quality of pedagogical diagnostics in the teaching profession has become a relevant topic of educational research (cf. [32]). But as discussed, student assessment (including summative and formative assessment) seems rarely to be based on purely objective measurement criteria but to open some scope for decision-making. Where there is scope for decision-making and consideration, there are consequently opportunities for social influence. The bigger this scope, the greater the significance of the many influences (or attempts to influence) on the impression made by the assessors (cf. [5, 20]).

aspiration and low grades, with one significant interaction effect (personal adaptation). Against the background of these results, it seems to be reasonable and necessary to investigate more into what extent the use of self-presentation tactics pays. A developmental research perspective is needed in order to study whether good impressionists are really privileged as it was assumed [1]. Furthermore, it needs to be taken into account that due to a rather small sample size with an unequal group size of students from Austrian and Swiss schools, no hierarchical data analyses were conducted. It would be interesting to take class effects into account as well. Furthermore, the sample used for analysis was not randomly drawn but occasional which certainly is a limitation of the study. In addition, the instrument developed on the basis of the categories of Eder [14] took a rather limited view on impression management and primarily focused on acting as if. There is certainly a need to include other impression management strategies and also addressing strategies that do not aim at leaving a good impression and to ask for students' motivation. Despite some limitations and many open questions regarding student's impression management and self-presentation, this contribution offers theoretical as well as empirical hints and evidence for an in-depth discussion and reflection on further educational research topics:

not only their own perceptions and expectations they have of different students but also the students' impression management. Engaging into the topic of IM might also help teachers to identify students who are considered as non-privileged, who, for example, do not understand socially demanded expectations and do not know how they can adequately meet these expectations. It becomes possible to promote their social-emotional abilities in order to enable them to successfully manage their impression. Teachers can support students to learn to care about the impression they make and to help them understanding social expectations and rules in diverse settings. This is also important for individuals later in life, when they, for example, apply for positions and need to present themselves in a job interview. Reflecting on impression management during teacher education thus supports teachers in their pedagogical effort to create equal opportunities. On the other hand, impression management of students might, as discussed above, also contribute to teaching quality and has direct use not only for the teacher but the whole class. Understanding successful teaching as a "product" of all involved (see introductory remarks) points to the importance of IM. IM—as it was outlined in this paper—describes the effort to cast the self in a positive light. Students who aim to leave a good impression will therefore not involve themselves in disruptive behaviour. With regard to this other perspective on successful teaching, every teacher should care to have in his/ her class as many students which are concerned about conveying a good impression (namely of being interested and motivated) as possible. In this context, it would also be important for teachers to address students' demotivation to present the self in a good light. Leary [17] emphasised that IM also serves emotional regulation, and Woods [28] highlighted that students usually know social rules and expectations. If students' consciously decide against a positive impression management, one reason could also be that students are addressed inappropriately by the teacher. Gao [38] speaks in this context of the student's decision to resist from learning from a teacher for reasons of self-protection. The knowledge and reflection about the impression management of students thus helps teachers to gain a greater understanding of social interaction processes in the classroom and supports them in reacting appro-

The Power of Appearance: Students' Impression Management within Class

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88850

We would like to thank Prof. Dr. Roland Reichenbach, who through his ideas and reflection contributed significantly to the concept of impression management at school and supported us with both the development of the theoretical consider-

priately to (un)desired processes.

Acknowledgements

Abbreviations

Appendix A

91

See Table 6.

ations and the questionnaire.

IM impression management DV dependent variable


Consequently, there are several important reasons why IM should be a topic that is integrated to teacher education. One the one hand, good teachers should strive to create equal opportunities for all students. It is, however, known that teachers' perceptions are influenced by factors not fully determined by students' performance and that these perceptions have an influence on students'school success. Successful IM may impair the diagnostic quality of the teacher's judgement and undermine the ideal of equal opportunities, especially if not all students are equally aware of the importance of IM and not equally competent in managing the impression to present the self in a good light. Teachers should therefore be able to reflect

#### The Power of Appearance: Students' Impression Management within Class DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88850

not only their own perceptions and expectations they have of different students but also the students' impression management. Engaging into the topic of IM might also help teachers to identify students who are considered as non-privileged, who, for example, do not understand socially demanded expectations and do not know how they can adequately meet these expectations. It becomes possible to promote their social-emotional abilities in order to enable them to successfully manage their impression. Teachers can support students to learn to care about the impression they make and to help them understanding social expectations and rules in diverse settings. This is also important for individuals later in life, when they, for example, apply for positions and need to present themselves in a job interview. Reflecting on impression management during teacher education thus supports teachers in their pedagogical effort to create equal opportunities. On the other hand, impression management of students might, as discussed above, also contribute to teaching quality and has direct use not only for the teacher but the whole class. Understanding successful teaching as a "product" of all involved (see introductory remarks) points to the importance of IM. IM—as it was outlined in this paper—describes the effort to cast the self in a positive light. Students who aim to leave a good impression will therefore not involve themselves in disruptive behaviour. With regard to this other perspective on successful teaching, every teacher should care to have in his/ her class as many students which are concerned about conveying a good impression (namely of being interested and motivated) as possible. In this context, it would also be important for teachers to address students' demotivation to present the self in a good light. Leary [17] emphasised that IM also serves emotional regulation, and Woods [28] highlighted that students usually know social rules and expectations. If students' consciously decide against a positive impression management, one reason could also be that students are addressed inappropriately by the teacher. Gao [38] speaks in this context of the student's decision to resist from learning from a teacher for reasons of self-protection. The knowledge and reflection about the impression management of students thus helps teachers to gain a greater understanding of social interaction processes in the classroom and supports them in reacting appropriately to (un)desired processes.

#### Acknowledgements

aspiration and low grades, with one significant interaction effect (personal adaptation). Against the background of these results, it seems to be reasonable and necessary to investigate more into what extent the use of self-presentation tactics pays. A developmental research perspective is needed in order to study whether good impressionists are really privileged as it was assumed [1]. Furthermore, it needs to be taken into account that due to a rather small sample size with an unequal group size of students from Austrian and Swiss schools, no hierarchical data analyses were conducted. It would be interesting to take class effects into account as well. Furthermore, the sample used for analysis was not randomly drawn but occasional which certainly is a limitation of the study. In addition, the instrument developed on the basis of the categories of Eder [14] took a rather limited view on impression management and primarily focused on acting as if. There is certainly a need to include other impression management strategies and also addressing strategies that do not aim at leaving a good impression and to ask for students' motivation. Despite some limitations and many open questions regarding student's impression management and self-presentation, this contribution offers theoretical as well as empirical hints and evidence for an in-depth discussion and reflection on further educational

Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges

• Educational justice and equal opportunities: IM could be discussed in addition to primary and secondary effects as another, tertiary, effect of social origin which shows to be important for school success. As [36] pointed out, these tertiary effects result from socially biased expectations, efforts and evaluations of the counterpart. Bourdieu [37] already stressed the importance of social capital and highlighted that "even manners (behaviour, ways of speaking, etc.) can be classified as social capital" (p. 191). This would mean that social origin would influence students'social understanding of social expectations and thus their IM which would not only affect teachers' perceptions and expectations but also

• Another perspective on successful teaching: Success of teaching and any social interaction is also a question of whether the participants succeed in structurally coordinating their (subjective) situations and perspectives. Cultural guidelines such as school or class rules and rituals help to avoid constantly falling out of one's role and to save one's own face [13]. In this respect, it is important that all students know how to interpret these cultural guidelines and can adapt their behaviour accordingly. This is also linked to the question of educational justice and equal opportunities (see first point). Students understanding expectations and adapting to them in a positive way probably lead to less disturbances and disruptions of teaching and enhance teaching quality. Because teachers who constantly need to address students' behaviour have less time to focus on and

Consequently, there are several important reasons why IM should be a topic that is integrated to teacher education. One the one hand, good teachers should strive to create equal opportunities for all students. It is, however, known that teachers' perceptions are influenced by factors not fully determined by students' performance and that these perceptions have an influence on students'school success. Successful IM may impair the diagnostic quality of the teacher's judgement and undermine the ideal of equal opportunities, especially if not all students are equally aware of the importance of IM and not equally competent in managing the impression to present the self in a good light. Teachers should therefore be able to reflect

research topics:

their success at school.

deepen content of subjects.

90

We would like to thank Prof. Dr. Roland Reichenbach, who through his ideas and reflection contributed significantly to the concept of impression management at school and supported us with both the development of the theoretical considerations and the questionnaire.

#### Abbreviations

IM impression management DV dependent variable

#### Appendix A

See Table 6.

#### Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges


Author details

93

Sarah Forster-Heinzer<sup>1</sup>

\*, Arvid Nagel<sup>2</sup> and Horst Biedermann<sup>2</sup>

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

1 Institute of Education, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland

The Power of Appearance: Students' Impression Management within Class

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88850

\*Address all correspondence to: sarah.forster-heinzer@ife.uzh.ch

2 University of Teacher Education, St. Gallen, Switzerland

provided the original work is properly cited.

#### Table 6.

Item characteristic of the five IM dimensions.

The Power of Appearance: Students' Impression Management within Class DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88850

### Author details

Dimensions of impression management Loading Mean SD

... even if I do not know the correct solution, I try to behave as if I know it. 0.87 2.38 0.98

... I try to look as if I know the answer. 0.78 2.25 1.03

... I do not let my disinterest show. 0.71 2.90 0.93 ... I try to appear motivated even though I'm (sometimes) not motivated. 0.82 2.99 0.88 ... I do not let it show that I'm not motivated. 0.76 2.74 0.93 ... I behave as if I were interested in math. 0.71 2.82 0.91 ... I behave as if I were motivated. 0.79 2.81 0.83

... I sometimes fake interest because I want to leave a positive impression. 0.80 2.60 0.99

... I sometimes fake motivation because I want to leave a positive impression. 0.82 2.53 0.92

... I pretend to fulfil my teacher's expectations. 0.79 2.74 0.90 ... I pretend to follow my teacher's instructions. 0.76 2.61 0.94

0.92 2.66 1.01

0.92 2.66 0.91

0.84 2.58 1.02

0.79 1.75 1.01

0.72 2.75 0.91

0.56 2.39 0.99

0.73 2.54 0.93

... I often put my hand up with the intention of making my teacher believe

Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges

... I actively take initiative with the intention of my teacher ascribing a high

... I often put my hand up with the intention of making my teacher think that

... when many students put their hand up, I put my hand up too to make the teacher think that I know the answer even if this is not always true.

...I sometimes fake participation because I want my teacher to think that I'm a

... I sometimes make my teacher believe that I have prepared myself for class

... when my teacher explains what we are supposed to do, I pretend to find this

In my math class, ... Demonstrative engagement

that I'm motivated.

I'm interested.

Self-promotion

Situational adaptation

Personal adaptation

even if it is not true.

good student.

Ingratiation

important.

Item characteristic of the five IM dimensions.

Table 6.

92

level of motivation to me.

Sarah Forster-Heinzer<sup>1</sup> \*, Arvid Nagel<sup>2</sup> and Horst Biedermann<sup>2</sup>

1 Institute of Education, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland

2 University of Teacher Education, St. Gallen, Switzerland

\*Address all correspondence to: sarah.forster-heinzer@ife.uzh.ch

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

### References

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[3] Goffman E. Interaction Ritual: Essays in Face-to-Face Behavior. Chicago, IL: Aldine Publishing; 1967

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The Power of Appearance: Students' Impression Management within Class

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[12] Forgas JP, Bower GH, Krantz SE. The influence of mood on perceptions of social interactions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 1984; 20:497-513

[13] Goffman E. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books; 1971

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[15] Forster-Heinzer S. Eindruckssteuerung am Gymnasium. Wer hat sie nötig? [Impression management at grammar school. Who needs it?].

The Power of Appearance: Students' Impression Management within Class DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88850

In: Holtsch D, Oepke M, Schumann S, editors. Lehren und Lernen auf der Sekundarstufe II. Gymnasial und wirtschaftspädagogische Perspektiven. [Teaching and Learning at Upper Secondary Level. Grammar School and Economic-Pedagogical Perspectives]. Bern: hep Verlag; 2019. pp. 199-213

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Suhrkamp; 2002

Press; 1985

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94

Aldine Publishing; 1967

[1] Reichenbach R. Für die Schule lernen wir [For the School We Learn]. Seelze:

Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges

[10] Neuenschwander M.

Rüegger; 2010. pp. 15-34

pp. 239-252

20:497-513

100-110

Penguin Books; 1971

[15] Forster-Heinzer S.

[11] Reichenbach R. Führen und sich führen lassen: Zur Qualität schulischer Austauschprozesse [Leading and being led: On the quality of school exchange processes]. In: Benner D editor. Bildungsstandards. Instrumente zur Qualitätssicherung im Bildungswesen. Chancen und Grenzen—Beispiele und Perspektiven [Educational Standards. Instruments for Quality Assurance in Education. Opportunities and Limits - Examples and Perspectives]. Paderborn, München: Ferdinand Schöningh; 2007.

[12] Forgas JP, Bower GH, Krantz SE. The influence of mood on perceptions of

Experimental Social Psychology. 1984;

[13] Goffman E. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. Harmondsworth:

Eindruckssteuerung am Gymnasium. Wer hat sie nötig? [Impression management at grammar school. Who needs it?].

[14] Eder F. Schulische Umwelt und Strategien zur Bewältigung von Schule [School environment and strategies for coping with school]. Psychologie in Erziehung und Unterricht. 1987;34:

social interactions. Journal of

Selektionsprozess beim Übergang von der Primarschule in die Berufsbildung [Selection process in the transition from primary school to vocational education and training]. In: Neuenschwander M, Grunder HU, editors. Schulübergang und Selektion. Forschungsbefunde—Praxisbeispiele— Umsetzungsperspektiven [School Transition and Selection. Research Findings - Practical Examples - Implementation Perspectives]. Zürich:

[2] Luhmann N. Das Erziehungssystem der Gesellschaft [The Educational System of Society]. Frankfurt am Main:

[3] Goffman E. Interaction Ritual: Essays in Face-to-Face Behavior. Chicago, IL:

[4] Aronson E, Wilson TD, Akert RM. Sozialpsychologie [Social Psychology]. 4th ed. München: Pearson Studium; 2004

[5] Forgas JP, Richard J. Interpersonal Behaviour: The Psychology of Social Interaction. Elmsford, NY: Pergamon

[6] Niederbacher A, Zimmermann P. Grundwissen Sozialisation. Einführung zur Soziallisation im Kindes- und Jugendalter [Basic Socialization. Introduction to Socialisation in

Childhood and Adolescence]. 4th ed. VS

[7] Eder F, Bergmann C. Der Einfluss von Interessen auf die Lehrer-

Wahrnehmung von Schülerinnen und Schülern [The influence of interests on teacher perceptions of students]. Empirische Pädagogik. 2004;18(4):

Russell DW, Eccles JS, Palumbo P, et al. Am I as you see me or do you see me as I am? Self-fulfilling prophecies and selfverification. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2001;27(9):

[9] Matteucci MC. Social utility versus

social desirability of students' attributional self-presentation strategies. Social Psychology of Education. 2014;17:541-563

[8] Madon S, Smith A, Jusim L,

Verlag: Wiesbaden; 2011

[16] Maschke S, Stecher L. Strategie und Struktur, oder: wie kommen SchülerInnen gut durch die Schule? [Strategy and structure, or: How do students get through school well?] Diskurs Kindheits- und Jugendforschung. 2006;1(4):497-516

[17] Leary MR. Self-Presentation: Impression Management and Interpersonal Behavior. Colorado: Westview Press; 1996

[18] Baumeister RF. The Self in Social Psychology. Hove: Psychology Press; 1999

[19] Fend H. Die Entdeckung des Selbst und die Verarbeitung der Pubertät. Entwicklungspsychologie der Adoleszenz in der Moderne [The Discovery of the Self and the Processing of Puberty. Developmental Psychology of Adolescence in Modernity]. Bern: Huber; 1994

[20] Forgas JP. Soziale Interaktion und Kommunikation. Eine Einführung in die Sozialpsychologie [Social Interaction and Communication. An Introduction to Social Psychology]. 4th ed. Weinheim: Beltz Psychologie Verlags Union; 1999

[21] Goffman E. Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience. New York: Harper & Row; 1974

[22] Strauss K. Masken, Lügen, Demaskierung—Zur Ethnographie des Alltags [Masks, Lies, Demasking - On the Ethnography of Everyday Life]. Dr. Kovac: Hamburg; 2005

[23] Rosenthal R, Jacobson L. Pygmalion in the Classroom. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston; 1968

[24] Merton RK. The Matthew effect in science. Science. 1968;159:56-63

[25] Hoferichter HU. Schülerrezepte. Strategien zum Umgang mit Schule und Lehrern [Student recipes. Strategies for dealing with school and teachers]. Westermanns pädagogische Beiträge. 1980;32(10):416-421

[26] Heinze T. Schülertaktiken [Tactics of Students]. München: U & S Pädagogik; 1980

[27] Forster-Heinzer S, Nagel A, Reichenbach R, Biedermann H. Students' in-class impression management: Comparing models for measuring student strategies of selfpresentation; submitted in Social Psychology of Education

[28] Woods P. L'ethnographie de l'école [Ethnography of School]. Paris: Armand Colin Editeur; 1990

[29] Lozano LM, Garcìa-Cueto E, Muñiz J. Effect of the number of response categories on the reliability and validity of rating scales. Methodology European Journal of Research Methods for the Behavioral and Social Sciences. 2008;4(2):73-79

[30] Field A. Discovering Statistics Using SPSS. 3rd ed. California, London: Sage; 2009

[31] Lenhard W, Lenhard A. Berechnung von Effektstärken [Calculation of effect sizes]. Psychometrica. 2016. Available from: https://www.psychometrica.de/ effektstaerke.html [Accessed: 21 June 2019]

[32] Ohle A, Elvany NM. Teachers' diagnostic competence and their practical relevance. Journal for Educational Research Online. 2015;7(2):5-10

Chapter 7

Abstract

during teaching and learning.

1. Introduction

97

lesson study, mathematical teacher noticing

Students' Productive Struggles in

Using a predetermined framework on students' productive struggles, the purpose of this study is to explore high school students' productive struggles during the simplification of rational algebraic expressions in a high school mathematics classroom. This study is foregrounded in the anthropological theory of the didactic, and its central notion of a "praxeology" – a praxeology refers to the study of human action, based on the notion that humans engage in purposeful behavior of which the simplification of rational algebraic expressions is an example. The research methodology comprised a lesson study involving a sample of 28 students, and the productive struggle framework was used for data analysis. Findings show that the productive struggle framework is a useful tool that can be used to analyze students' thinking processes during the simplification of rational algebraic expressions. Further research is required on the roles that noticing and questioning can play for mathematics teachers to respond to and effectively support the students'struggles

Keywords: anthropological theory of the didactic, productive struggles,

The purpose of this study is to explore high school mathematics students' productive struggles during the simplification of rational algebraic expressions. In recent research in mathematics learning and teaching [1–3], struggle is often associated with negative meanings of how mathematics is practiced in classrooms. Teachers of mathematics often view students'struggles in mathematics as something that should be avoided and/or as a learning problem that needs to be diagnosed and remediated or simply eradicated [4, 5]. Struggle in mathematics learning and teaching is an essential component of students' intellectual growth, and of deep learning of mathematical concepts with understanding [6]. Research suggests that the apparent confusion and/or doubt displayed by students during problem- solving provide students with opportunities for deepening their conceptual understanding of mathematical concepts during teaching [7, 8]. However, exposing students to complex problem-solving tasks which are beyond their cognitive levels, skills and abilities can result in productive failures on the part of students [7]. When students engage in complex problem-solving tasks, they are likely to experience productive failure unless support structures are put in place. Broadly, support structure refers to "[re-] structuring the problem itself, scaffolding, instructional facilitation,

Mathematics Learning

Anthony Sayster and Duncan Mhakure

[33] Pielmeier M, Huber S, Seidel T. Is teacher judgment accuracy of students' characteristics beneficial for verbal teacher-student interactions in classroom? Teaching and Teacher Education. 2018;76:255-266

[34] Spinath B. Akkuratheit der Einschätzung von Schülermerkmalen durch Lehrer und das Konstrukt der diagnostischen Kompetenz [Accuracy of teacher assessment of student characteristics and the construct of diagnostic competence]. Zeitschrift für Pädagogik. 2005;19:85-95

[35] Delpit L. Other People's Children: Cultural Conflict in the Classroom. New York: The New Press; 2006

[36] Esser H. Sorting and (much) more: Prior ability, school effects and the impact of ability tracking on educational inequalities in achievement. In: Hadjar A, Gross C, editors. Education Systems and Inequalities: International Comparisons. Bristol, UK: Policy Press; 2016. p. 95

[37] Bourdieu P. Ökonomisches Kapital, kulturelles Kapital, soziales Kapital [Economic capital, cultural capital, social capital]. In: Kreckel R editor. Soziale Ungleichheiten [Social Inequalities]. Göttingen: Schwarz & Company; 1983. pp. 183-198

[38] Gao P. I love to learn, but I hate to be taught. Journal of Education and Training Studies. 2014;2(3):104-107

#### Chapter 7

[33] Pielmeier M, Huber S, Seidel T. Is teacher judgment accuracy of students' characteristics beneficial for verbal teacher-student interactions in classroom? Teaching and Teacher Education. 2018;76:255-266

Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges

[34] Spinath B. Akkuratheit der Einschätzung von Schülermerkmalen durch Lehrer und das Konstrukt der diagnostischen Kompetenz [Accuracy of

teacher assessment of student characteristics and the construct of diagnostic competence]. Zeitschrift für

[35] Delpit L. Other People's Children: Cultural Conflict in the Classroom. New

[36] Esser H. Sorting and (much) more: Prior ability, school effects and the impact of ability tracking on educational

[37] Bourdieu P. Ökonomisches Kapital, kulturelles Kapital, soziales Kapital [Economic capital, cultural capital, social capital]. In: Kreckel R editor. Soziale Ungleichheiten [Social Inequalities]. Göttingen: Schwarz &

[38] Gao P. I love to learn, but I hate to be taught. Journal of Education and Training Studies. 2014;2(3):104-107

Pädagogik. 2005;19:85-95

York: The New Press; 2006

inequalities in achievement. In: Hadjar A, Gross C, editors. Education Systems and Inequalities: International Comparisons. Bristol, UK: Policy Press;

Company; 1983. pp. 183-198

2016. p. 95

96

## Students' Productive Struggles in Mathematics Learning

Anthony Sayster and Duncan Mhakure

#### Abstract

Using a predetermined framework on students' productive struggles, the purpose of this study is to explore high school students' productive struggles during the simplification of rational algebraic expressions in a high school mathematics classroom. This study is foregrounded in the anthropological theory of the didactic, and its central notion of a "praxeology" – a praxeology refers to the study of human action, based on the notion that humans engage in purposeful behavior of which the simplification of rational algebraic expressions is an example. The research methodology comprised a lesson study involving a sample of 28 students, and the productive struggle framework was used for data analysis. Findings show that the productive struggle framework is a useful tool that can be used to analyze students' thinking processes during the simplification of rational algebraic expressions. Further research is required on the roles that noticing and questioning can play for mathematics teachers to respond to and effectively support the students'struggles during teaching and learning.

Keywords: anthropological theory of the didactic, productive struggles, lesson study, mathematical teacher noticing

#### 1. Introduction

The purpose of this study is to explore high school mathematics students' productive struggles during the simplification of rational algebraic expressions. In recent research in mathematics learning and teaching [1–3], struggle is often associated with negative meanings of how mathematics is practiced in classrooms. Teachers of mathematics often view students'struggles in mathematics as something that should be avoided and/or as a learning problem that needs to be diagnosed and remediated or simply eradicated [4, 5]. Struggle in mathematics learning and teaching is an essential component of students' intellectual growth, and of deep learning of mathematical concepts with understanding [6]. Research suggests that the apparent confusion and/or doubt displayed by students during problem- solving provide students with opportunities for deepening their conceptual understanding of mathematical concepts during teaching [7, 8]. However, exposing students to complex problem-solving tasks which are beyond their cognitive levels, skills and abilities can result in productive failures on the part of students [7]. When students engage in complex problem-solving tasks, they are likely to experience productive failure unless support structures are put in place. Broadly, support structure refers to "[re-] structuring the problem itself, scaffolding, instructional facilitation,

provision of tools, expert help, and so on" ([7], p. 524). Research has shown that exposing students to complex problem-solving without putting in place efficient support structures can result in an unproductive cognitive process [9, 10]. The notion of productive failure is centered on view that students are not in position to find the solution to a mathematical problem on their own in the short term. With assistance from teachers and capable peers, and taping from their prior knowledge, students can overcome their productive failures. Students can also experience unproductive success when they experience immediate learning gains through drilland-practice, and memorization approaches. Unproductive failure learning situations arise when the conditions in a learning environment do not favor neither learning in short term nor long term. While there is no "recipe" in avoiding and/or addressing unproductive failure situations when students are engaging in complex tasks, for example – simplifying rational algebraic expressions, teachers can adopt approaches that ameliorate unproductive situations. According to [11] and others [12, 13], learners who engage in unguided problem solving are likely to experience productive failure. ([13], p. 128) posits that "What can be conceivably be gained by leaving the learner [student] to search for a solution when the search is usually very time consuming, may result in … no solution at all." Hence, to avoid unproductive failure learning situations, students must be provided with guidance during problem-solving. By guidance, we are referring to: scaffolding of problems; feedback through questioning, among others.

equivalences. Thus, to explore students' productive struggles during the simplification of rational algebraic expressions in high school, this study is guided by the following research questions: What are the types of productive struggles experienced by the students while simplifying rational algebraic expressions in a high school lesson? How do teachers notice, and respond to the students' productive struggles during classroom activities? What questioning techniques are used by the

In this section, we define the anthropological theory of the didactic – in which the study is based, and the students' productive struggle framework that is used for

This study is founded in the anthropological theory of didactics and its central notion of a "praxeology" – a praxeology refers the study of human action, based on the notion that humans engage in purposeful behavior of which learning mathematics is an example [29, 30]. Nicaud et al. [28] argues that anthropological theory of the didactic as a general epistemological model for mathematical knowledge can be used to understand human mathematical activities, such as, in the context of this chapter, the simplification of rational algebraic expressions. Like any praxeology, the mathematical knowledge emerging from human activities is constituted by an amalgamation of four critical components, namely: type of task; technique; technology; and theory [28]. In human activities related to the learning of mathematics, Nicaud et al. [28] further re-classified the four critical components into two main praxeological models – the practical block and the knowledge block. The practical block is made up of the type of task and the technique. In the context of this study, the specific task is the simplification of rational algebraic expressions, whereas the technique refers to the tools that students need to carry out these simplifications.

Examples of tools include: factorizations; finding common denominators,

expanding expressions, and cancelation procedures among others. The knowledge block consists of a technology – which is used to explain the technique, and a theory – which is used to justify the technology. A point to be stressed here is that the word "technology" is used here to refer to a discourse on a given technique. In other words, "this discourse is supposed, at least in the best-case scenario, both to justify the technique as a valid way of performing tasks and throw light on the logic and workings of that technique" ([31], p. 2616). For instance, in this study, the technique is the "know how" to simplify the rational algebraic expressions, while the technology consists of what mathematical knowledge or logic justifies the way

At the core of ATD [29] is the notion of an epistemological model aimed at understanding the "ecology of mathematical knowledge that emerges from human practices" ([30], p. 1). Research shows that there many traditions of didactics at the core of teaching and learning in schools – the German Didaktik, whose origins hail from the seventeenth century, is one them [32, 33]. In general, the word "didaktik" refers to both the art of teaching, and to a theory of teaching. It is worthwhile noting that the German Didaktik does not cover subject areas issues but covers general issues of theory and practice of teaching [34]. However, the German Didaktik is guided by three core tenets: bildung; theory of educational content; and the notion of teaching as a meaningful endeavor which is encountered between students and

teachers to support the students' productive struggles?

Students' Productive Struggles in Mathematics Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90802

2. Theoretical framework

analyzing students' learning activities.

these techniques are operationalized.

99

2.1 Anthropological theory of didactics

In other words, the struggle becomes a process in which students restructure their existing knowledge while moving towards a new understanding of what is being taught [14–16]. Students'struggles become productive in classrooms where they are afforded opportunities to solve complex problems, while being encouraged to try various approaches; even though in these classrooms, students can still fail and struggle, they will feel motivated and good about solving complex problems [17]. Equally, productive struggles ensue when students are given the support structure during problem-solving [7]. In classrooms, at the center of teaching and learning, teachers are expected to create a learning environment that values and promotes productive struggles among students by using challenging learning tasks that are nonetheless accessible to all students [18–21]. Productive struggle, which is stimulated by using challenging tasks during learning and teaching, supports students' cognitive growth and is essential for their learning of mathematics with understanding. While facilitating students' productive struggles teachers should avoid "reducing the cognitive load of the task such as [by] providing routine instructions tasks and over-modelling how to approach the task" ([17], p. 20). ([18], p. 178), similarly, encourages teachers to avoid "effortless achievement" by students; instead, teachers should value persistence and hard thinking.

While substantial research has been carried out on the types of errors that are committed by students when simplifying rational algebraic expressions in high school mathematics [22–24], this study explores the students' productive struggles during the simplification of rational algebraic expressions in real time, unlike the previous studies that focused only on students' errors. It is apropos to mention that students' productive struggles also include an understanding of how students deal with conceptual errors and misconceptions. As such, this study uses a predetermined framework [6] to analyze students' productive struggles as well as for analyzing the teachers' responses to the students' productive struggles. Existing research has focused on the difficulties encountered by students in understanding the equivalence of rational algebraic expressions through simplification and by valuing the importance of working and/or manipulating these expressions accurately with great flexibility [25–28]. The challenge here lies in the ability of students to work with more than one rational algebraic expressions and to find their

Students' Productive Struggles in Mathematics Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90802

equivalences. Thus, to explore students' productive struggles during the simplification of rational algebraic expressions in high school, this study is guided by the following research questions: What are the types of productive struggles experienced by the students while simplifying rational algebraic expressions in a high school lesson? How do teachers notice, and respond to the students' productive struggles during classroom activities? What questioning techniques are used by the teachers to support the students' productive struggles?

#### 2. Theoretical framework

provision of tools, expert help, and so on" ([7], p. 524). Research has shown that exposing students to complex problem-solving without putting in place efficient support structures can result in an unproductive cognitive process [9, 10]. The notion of productive failure is centered on view that students are not in position to find the solution to a mathematical problem on their own in the short term. With assistance from teachers and capable peers, and taping from their prior knowledge, students can overcome their productive failures. Students can also experience unproductive success when they experience immediate learning gains through drilland-practice, and memorization approaches. Unproductive failure learning situations arise when the conditions in a learning environment do not favor neither learning in short term nor long term. While there is no "recipe" in avoiding and/or addressing unproductive failure situations when students are engaging in complex tasks, for example – simplifying rational algebraic expressions, teachers can adopt approaches that ameliorate unproductive situations. According to [11] and others [12, 13], learners who engage in unguided problem solving are likely to experience productive failure. ([13], p. 128) posits that "What can be conceivably be gained by leaving the learner [student] to search for a solution when the search is usually very time consuming, may result in … no solution at all." Hence, to avoid unproductive

Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges

failure learning situations, students must be provided with guidance during problem-solving. By guidance, we are referring to: scaffolding of problems; feed-

students; instead, teachers should value persistence and hard thinking.

with conceptual errors and misconceptions. As such, this study uses a

While substantial research has been carried out on the types of errors that are committed by students when simplifying rational algebraic expressions in high school mathematics [22–24], this study explores the students' productive struggles during the simplification of rational algebraic expressions in real time, unlike the previous studies that focused only on students' errors. It is apropos to mention that students' productive struggles also include an understanding of how students deal

predetermined framework [6] to analyze students' productive struggles as well as for analyzing the teachers' responses to the students' productive struggles. Existing research has focused on the difficulties encountered by students in understanding the equivalence of rational algebraic expressions through simplification and by valuing the importance of working and/or manipulating these expressions accurately with great flexibility [25–28]. The challenge here lies in the ability of students

to work with more than one rational algebraic expressions and to find their

98

In other words, the struggle becomes a process in which students restructure their existing knowledge while moving towards a new understanding of what is being taught [14–16]. Students'struggles become productive in classrooms where they are afforded opportunities to solve complex problems, while being encouraged to try various approaches; even though in these classrooms, students can still fail and struggle, they will feel motivated and good about solving complex problems [17]. Equally, productive struggles ensue when students are given the support structure during problem-solving [7]. In classrooms, at the center of teaching and learning, teachers are expected to create a learning environment that values and promotes productive struggles among students by using challenging learning tasks that are nonetheless accessible to all students [18–21]. Productive struggle, which is stimulated by using challenging tasks during learning and teaching, supports students' cognitive growth and is essential for their learning of mathematics with understanding. While facilitating students' productive struggles teachers should avoid "reducing the cognitive load of the task such as [by] providing routine instructions tasks and over-modelling how to approach the task" ([17], p. 20). ([18], p. 178), similarly, encourages teachers to avoid "effortless achievement" by

back through questioning, among others.

In this section, we define the anthropological theory of the didactic – in which the study is based, and the students' productive struggle framework that is used for analyzing students' learning activities.

#### 2.1 Anthropological theory of didactics

This study is founded in the anthropological theory of didactics and its central notion of a "praxeology" – a praxeology refers the study of human action, based on the notion that humans engage in purposeful behavior of which learning mathematics is an example [29, 30]. Nicaud et al. [28] argues that anthropological theory of the didactic as a general epistemological model for mathematical knowledge can be used to understand human mathematical activities, such as, in the context of this chapter, the simplification of rational algebraic expressions. Like any praxeology, the mathematical knowledge emerging from human activities is constituted by an amalgamation of four critical components, namely: type of task; technique; technology; and theory [28]. In human activities related to the learning of mathematics, Nicaud et al. [28] further re-classified the four critical components into two main praxeological models – the practical block and the knowledge block. The practical block is made up of the type of task and the technique. In the context of this study, the specific task is the simplification of rational algebraic expressions, whereas the technique refers to the tools that students need to carry out these simplifications. Examples of tools include: factorizations; finding common denominators, expanding expressions, and cancelation procedures among others. The knowledge block consists of a technology – which is used to explain the technique, and a theory – which is used to justify the technology. A point to be stressed here is that the word "technology" is used here to refer to a discourse on a given technique. In other words, "this discourse is supposed, at least in the best-case scenario, both to justify the technique as a valid way of performing tasks and throw light on the logic and workings of that technique" ([31], p. 2616). For instance, in this study, the technique is the "know how" to simplify the rational algebraic expressions, while the technology consists of what mathematical knowledge or logic justifies the way these techniques are operationalized.

At the core of ATD [29] is the notion of an epistemological model aimed at understanding the "ecology of mathematical knowledge that emerges from human practices" ([30], p. 1). Research shows that there many traditions of didactics at the core of teaching and learning in schools – the German Didaktik, whose origins hail from the seventeenth century, is one them [32, 33]. In general, the word "didaktik" refers to both the art of teaching, and to a theory of teaching. It is worthwhile noting that the German Didaktik does not cover subject areas issues but covers general issues of theory and practice of teaching [34]. However, the German Didaktik is guided by three core tenets: bildung; theory of educational content; and the notion of teaching as a meaningful endeavor which is encountered between students and

content [35–37]. The bildung – encapsulates the aims and values of the education system centered on "formation of the mind, the unfolding of capability, and the development of the sensitivity of the learner [student]" ([35], p. 544). In the German Didaktik, theory of educational content is construed as: the nature of content; educational value of the content; and the general organization of the content for educational purposes [38]. Also, at the core of German Didaktik, is the notion of "productive encounter" between content and students, which is analyzed and facilitated by teachers during teaching and learning [39, 40]. To provide context to this discussion between ATD and the German Didaktik, our position is that the German Didaktik is a general theory on the art of teaching and learning, while ATD seeks to address teaching and learning issues within a subject area – for example mathematics. In this study, the focus is exploring students' productive struggles when simplifying rational algebraic expressions. As such, the ATD with its praxeologies is used as theory for understanding how students conceptualize the simplification of rational algebraic expressions in mathematics.

#### 2.2 Productive struggles

In the previous section, this study has alluded to the importance of students' struggle during learning activities on simplification of rational algebraic expressions and explained how this leads to overcoming conceptual difficulties and achieving deeper and more long-lasting learning [41]. Kapur [11] posits that, during productive struggles, a failed initial attempt on a certain task can lead to improved learning. This learning process envisioned by [11] occurs in two stages. Firstly, students are given a learning activity or problem they cannot solve immediately, and thus the teacher encourages them to conjecture on the possible solutions to the problem. Secondly, once the initial attempts have failed, students receive instruction on possible ways to solve the problem and are given another opportunity to try to solve the problem themselves. In other words, productive struggle "can prime students for subsequent instruction by making them more aware of their own knowledge gaps and more interested in filling those gaps" ([41], p. 85). Depending on individual students' levels of conceptual understanding, it is apropos to say that they experience different types of struggles. After observing these different types of productive struggles in a classroom situation when working on challenging problems, Warshauer [42] developed a productive struggle framework that consists of four types.

The main four types of productive struggles identified by [6, 16, 42] relate to the following aspects: getting started; carrying out a process; experiencing uncertainty in explaining and sense making; and expressing misconceptions and errors. Table 1 shows the types students' productive struggles and their respective general descriptions [6, 16, 42].

that attending is also about identifying what is noteworthy, that interpreting is about making general connections between specific classroom interactions and broader theories of teaching and learning, and that deciding is also about how teachers use what they know and understand about their learning contexts to decide how to respond or reason about classroom activities. Teachers use the construct of noticing to identify students' productive struggles. Once the students'struggles have been identified, the teachers will make intentional efforts to support these struggles – in this context, the simplification of rational algebraic expressions. In other words, supporting students' productive struggles requires the teacher to find ways of addressing or responding to the struggles by converting them into positive learning endeavors that create further opportunities for deep learning, rather than episodes in which learners experience difficulties and frustration [4, 6, 16]. Recent studies have illustrated many possible ways teachers can use to respond to the students' productive struggles in mathematics [4–6, 47] - these ways are not mutually exclusive. Teachers mainly respond to the students' productive struggles in the following four ways: Firstly, they can use telling – in other words, after evaluating the nature of the students' productive struggles, a teacher can help a student by: suggesting new approaches to solve the problem; directly correcting the student's errors and/or misconceptions; and giving the student a simpler problem to work on first. [48, 49] stress the notion of "judicious telling," which requires teachers to support students'

Type of productive struggle Description of the productive struggle

Students' Productive Struggles in Mathematics Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90802

Getting started Students feel cognitively overloaded and confused about the task –

Carrying out a process This relates to students encountering an impasse while attempting

an equivalent fraction.

Experiencing uncertainty in explaining and sense-making

Expressing misconception and

Types of students' productive struggles and their descriptions.

errors

Table 1.

101

understand the illustration from the question.

this is evidenced by the fact that there are no written answers or attempts on paper. Students also claim that they do not remember the work and/or the type of problems, and there could be gestures of uncertainty, and resignation. As a sign of frustration, students' utterances could be: "I do not know what to do," "Oh dear! I am very confused," "I wish I knew where to start," etc. In term of simplifying rational algebraic expressions, students might not fully

to solve a given task. For example, students may find it difficult to demonstrate or follow a known procedure or algorithm. Also, students may fail to recall the facts or formulae required to successfully implement a process, such as factorizations, multiplication of factors, or division of factors required to obtain

Students may find it difficult to explain their work to other members of the group, when working in small groups, or to the whole class, when asked to do so by the teacher. In many cases, students fail to verbalize their thinking processes or to justify their correct answers. For example, the student may say "I know this is the correct simplification, but I cannot explain how I got it."

Errors can be classified as: careless and conceptual. On one hand, conceptual errors occur when students fail to observe the correct relational ideas when solving problems. On the other hand, careless errors relate to unintentional and yet avoidable procedures that students commit during problem solving. A misconception is usually not wrong thinking; however, it can be interpreted as an indication of deep-seated misplaced ideas that are used to justify the process of finding a solution to a problem – these can manifest as local generalizations made by students.

The study uses the above four pre-determined types of students' productive struggles as a framework for analyzing students' ways of simplifying rational algebraic expressions.

#### 2.3 Responses to productive struggles

The construct of "noticing" in mathematics teaching is a widely researched phenomenon in mathematics education, particularly in the high school context [43–45]. Mathematical noticing or simply noticing during teaching consists of three interrelated skills: "attending to children's [students'] strategies, interpreting children [students'] understandings, and deciding how to respond based on children's [students'] understandings" ([45], p. 117). Huang and Li [46] further elaborates on this, positing


#### Table 1.

content [35–37]. The bildung – encapsulates the aims and values of the education system centered on "formation of the mind, the unfolding of capability, and the development of the sensitivity of the learner [student]" ([35], p. 544). In the German Didaktik, theory of educational content is construed as: the nature of content; educational value of the content; and the general organization of the content for educational purposes [38]. Also, at the core of German Didaktik, is the notion of "productive encounter" between content and students, which is analyzed and facilitated by teachers during teaching and learning [39, 40]. To provide context to this discussion between ATD and the German Didaktik, our position is that the German Didaktik is a general theory on the art of teaching and learning, while ATD seeks to address teaching and learning issues within a subject area – for example mathematics. In this study, the focus is exploring students' productive struggles when simplifying rational algebraic expressions. As such, the ATD with its praxeologies is used as theory for understanding how students conceptualize the

Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges

In the previous section, this study has alluded to the importance of students' struggle during learning activities on simplification of rational algebraic expressions and explained how this leads to overcoming conceptual difficulties and achieving deeper and more long-lasting learning [41]. Kapur [11] posits that, during productive struggles, a failed initial attempt on a certain task can lead to improved learning. This learning process envisioned by [11] occurs in two stages. Firstly, students are given a learning activity or problem they cannot solve immediately, and thus the teacher encourages them to conjecture on the possible solutions to the problem. Secondly, once the initial attempts have failed, students receive instruction on possible ways to solve the problem and are given another opportunity to try to solve the problem themselves. In other words, productive struggle "can prime students for subsequent instruction by making them more aware of their own knowledge gaps and more interested in filling those gaps" ([41], p. 85). Depending on individual students' levels of conceptual understanding, it is apropos to say that they experience different types of struggles. After observing these different types of productive struggles in a classroom situation when working on challenging problems, Warshauer [42] developed a productive struggle framework that consists of

The main four types of productive struggles identified by [6, 16, 42] relate to the following aspects: getting started; carrying out a process; experiencing uncertainty in explaining and sense making; and expressing misconceptions and errors. Table 1

The study uses the above four pre-determined types of students' productive struggles as a framework for analyzing students' ways of simplifying rational alge-

The construct of "noticing" in mathematics teaching is a widely researched phenomenon in mathematics education, particularly in the high school context [43–45]. Mathematical noticing or simply noticing during teaching consists of three interrelated skills: "attending to children's [students'] strategies, interpreting children [students'] understandings, and deciding how to respond based on children's [students'] understandings" ([45], p. 117). Huang and Li [46] further elaborates on this, positing

shows the types students' productive struggles and their respective general

simplification of rational algebraic expressions in mathematics.

2.2 Productive struggles

four types.

descriptions [6, 16, 42].

2.3 Responses to productive struggles

braic expressions.

100

Types of students' productive struggles and their descriptions.

that attending is also about identifying what is noteworthy, that interpreting is about making general connections between specific classroom interactions and broader theories of teaching and learning, and that deciding is also about how teachers use what they know and understand about their learning contexts to decide how to respond or reason about classroom activities. Teachers use the construct of noticing to identify students' productive struggles. Once the students'struggles have been identified, the teachers will make intentional efforts to support these struggles – in this context, the simplification of rational algebraic expressions. In other words, supporting students' productive struggles requires the teacher to find ways of addressing or responding to the struggles by converting them into positive learning endeavors that create further opportunities for deep learning, rather than episodes in which learners experience difficulties and frustration [4, 6, 16]. Recent studies have illustrated many possible ways teachers can use to respond to the students' productive struggles in mathematics [4–6, 47] - these ways are not mutually exclusive.

Teachers mainly respond to the students' productive struggles in the following four ways: Firstly, they can use telling – in other words, after evaluating the nature of the students' productive struggles, a teacher can help a student by: suggesting new approaches to solve the problem; directly correcting the student's errors and/or misconceptions; and giving the student a simpler problem to work on first. [48, 49] stress the notion of "judicious telling," which requires teachers to support students' productive struggles by repeating the students' own contributions with the aim of highlighting the mathematical ideas that students have already grasped and understood to enable students to better understand the contexts and terminology in the specific tasks. Secondly, teachers can utilize directed guidance, which involves the teacher breaking down the problem given to the student into manageable parts, which can assist him/her to anticipate the next step in solving the problem. Directed guidance can also be used, as in this study, for instance, to allow a student to do operations on numerical fractions before he/she attempts simplifications of rational algebraic expressions. Teachers can also use "advancing questions," which can "extend students' current mathematical thinking towards a mathematical goal (simplifications of rational algebraic expressions) of a lesson" ([47], p. 178). Thirdly, teachers could use probing guidance, in which the teacher assesses the student's thinking by asking him/her to justify and explain his/her proposed solution. This is done by asking assessing questions and advancing questions (as explained above). Asking assessing questions allows the teacher: to discover students' thinking processes, evaluate their cognitive capabilities, and encourage them to share their thinking on the simplification of rational algebraic expressions [47]. Lastly, teachers can use affordance, which involves the teacher's ability to engage students by emphasizing justifications and sense-making with the entire group or with individuals. The term also refers to affording the students time and space to think and solve the problem with encouragement from the teacher but with minimum help. By using these four ways to respond to students' productive struggles, and teachers are afforded the opportunity to deepen their own understanding and more appropriately access students' thinking processes, while positioning themselves to effectively support students' learning – in this case, their learning on the simplifications of rational algebraic expressions. The teachers' questioning techniques will allow the teachers to deepen his/her understanding of the nature of the struggles students harbor.

United States of America. Twenty-eight students participated, constituting all Grade 11 students at the high school. Since the study involved minors, ethical clearance was sought from the South Carolina County School District, the school principal, and the legal guardians of the students. In addition, consent was also sought from the participating teacher who was responsible for teaching the concept

In this study, data was collected by using a pre-determined research instrument,

bd. Lesson 2 dealt with the simplification of

in other words, a lesson on the simplification of rational algebraic expressions, which was co-planned and co-implemented by the teacher and the researchers. The lesson which is the subject of investigation is part of a series of lessons that were taught on the simplifications of rational algebraic expressions. To be more precise it is the third lesson of the series lessons. Lesson 1 dealt with simplification of rationale

ab <sup>þ</sup> <sup>5</sup>

two rationale algebraic expressions being added or subtracted, for example,

aged. All the problem solved by students during the three lessons outlined are foregrounded in the South African Grade 11 mathematics syllabus and come from a

form of practice-based continuous professional development of mathematics

teachers, which has since been adopted by many other countries [50]. In each of these countries, the emphasis of the lesson study varies, however, its major role of schoolbased continuous professional development for mathematics teachers remain. For example, in China, the focus is on "developing best teaching strategies for specific subject content for student learning," and in Japan, the focus is on "general and longterm educational goals, such as developing students' mathematical thinking through observing student learning in order to collect evidence to improve it" ([51], p. 271). Regardless of the country, the lesson study has three salient features, it is: a deliberate practice – meaning that the task of a lesson study is goal-oriented aimed at improving teacher performance, and affords opportunities for repetition and refinement; a research methodology – aimed at improving both professional and academic knowledge; and an improvement science – through the use of "plan-do-study-act" ([52], p. 54) innovations. In this study, we chose the lesson study as a research methodology to explore the students' productive struggles when simplifying rational algebraic expressions over the design-based research methodology. The lesson study, as a deliberate practice and research methodology can be used in a similar way as the design-based research to narrow the gap between research and practice during

This study uses a lesson plan as research methodology with specific focus on exploring the types of productive struggles students experienced during the simplification of rational algebraic expressions. While the stages of the lesson study of setting goals and planning are given less prominence in the data analyses, they are nonetheless important because they foreground the activities of the implementation and debriefing stages. Since the students' productive struggles manifest during the implementation stage of the lesson study, the study has prioritized the implementation stage to explore the students' productive struggles. The debriefing stage affords the teacher the opportunity to discuss with the researcher the students' productive struggles as he observed and responded to them in class, and in real time. Research studies position the lesson study, which originated from East Asia, as a

single rational algebraic expressions where factorization was envisaged, for exam-

x2�<sup>9</sup>. Lesson 3, which is the focus of this study, deals with the simplification of

x2�5xþ<sup>4</sup>, where factorization and finding common denominators are envis-

of simplification of rational algebraic expressions.

Students' Productive Struggles in Mathematics Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90802

algebraic expressions of the form: <sup>2</sup>

prescribed textbook that students used.

3.2 Data sources

ple: 2x�<sup>6</sup>

x x2þx�<sup>2</sup> � <sup>2</sup>

103

As already alluded to in this chapter, support structures need to be put in place to ameliorate situations where students' productive struggles can be obstacles for student learning or barriers to students' conceptual development in mathematics [7]. In addition, where students struggle as expected during learning, it is apropos for teachers not to rush to provide a support structure, but to wait until students reach an impasse – as evidenced by utterances such as "I am stuck,", and "I have no idea on how to proceed," among others. By extension, support structures can also refer to questioning techniques of teachers, teacher explanations, or feedback in real time on students' work. It is worthwhile noting that a delayed support structure, for instance – teacher's explanation, can lead to performance failure in the short term, but in the longer term benefits the student as it gives the student time to discern the concepts of the problems being solved.

#### 3. Methodology

In this section, we describe the research sample within the context of the study, the lesson study as a research methodology, and the data sources and analysis techniques.

#### 3.1 Participants

This study sought to explore Grade 11 mathematics students' productive struggles during simplification of rational algebraic expression, and the ways in which the teacher noticed, and responded in a high school located in South Carolina in the United States of America. Twenty-eight students participated, constituting all Grade 11 students at the high school. Since the study involved minors, ethical clearance was sought from the South Carolina County School District, the school principal, and the legal guardians of the students. In addition, consent was also sought from the participating teacher who was responsible for teaching the concept of simplification of rational algebraic expressions.

#### 3.2 Data sources

productive struggles by repeating the students' own contributions with the aim of highlighting the mathematical ideas that students have already grasped and understood to enable students to better understand the contexts and terminology in the specific tasks. Secondly, teachers can utilize directed guidance, which involves the teacher breaking down the problem given to the student into manageable parts, which can assist him/her to anticipate the next step in solving the problem. Directed guidance can also be used, as in this study, for instance, to allow a student to do operations on numerical fractions before he/she attempts simplifications of rational algebraic expressions. Teachers can also use "advancing questions," which can "extend students' current mathematical thinking towards a mathematical goal (simplifications of rational algebraic expressions) of a lesson" ([47], p. 178). Thirdly, teachers could use probing guidance, in which the teacher assesses the student's thinking by asking him/her to justify and explain his/her proposed solution. This is done by asking assessing questions and advancing questions (as explained above). Asking assessing questions allows the teacher: to discover students' thinking processes, evaluate their cognitive capabilities, and encourage them to share their thinking on the simplification of rational algebraic expressions [47]. Lastly, teachers can use affordance, which involves the teacher's ability to engage students by emphasizing justifications and sense-making with the entire group or with individuals. The term also refers to affording the students time and space to think and solve the problem with encouragement from the teacher but with minimum help. By using these four ways to respond to students' productive struggles, and teachers are afforded the opportunity to deepen their own understanding and more appropriately access students' thinking processes, while positioning themselves to effectively support students' learning – in this case, their learning on the simplifications of rational algebraic expressions. The teachers' questioning techniques will allow the teachers to deepen his/her understanding of the nature of the

Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges

As already alluded to in this chapter, support structures need to be put in place to ameliorate situations where students' productive struggles can be obstacles for student learning or barriers to students' conceptual development in mathematics [7]. In addition, where students struggle as expected during learning, it is apropos for teachers not to rush to provide a support structure, but to wait until students reach an impasse – as evidenced by utterances such as "I am stuck,", and "I have no idea on how to proceed," among others. By extension, support structures can also refer to questioning techniques of teachers, teacher explanations, or feedback in real time on students' work. It is worthwhile noting that a delayed support structure, for instance – teacher's explanation, can lead to performance failure in the short term, but in the longer term benefits the student as it gives the student time to

In this section, we describe the research sample within the context of the study,

This study sought to explore Grade 11 mathematics students' productive struggles during simplification of rational algebraic expression, and the ways in which the teacher noticed, and responded in a high school located in South Carolina in the

the lesson study as a research methodology, and the data sources and analysis

struggles students harbor.

3. Methodology

techniques.

102

3.1 Participants

discern the concepts of the problems being solved.

In this study, data was collected by using a pre-determined research instrument, in other words, a lesson on the simplification of rational algebraic expressions, which was co-planned and co-implemented by the teacher and the researchers. The lesson which is the subject of investigation is part of a series of lessons that were taught on the simplifications of rational algebraic expressions. To be more precise it is the third lesson of the series lessons. Lesson 1 dealt with simplification of rationale algebraic expressions of the form: <sup>2</sup> ab <sup>þ</sup> <sup>5</sup> bd. Lesson 2 dealt with the simplification of single rational algebraic expressions where factorization was envisaged, for example: 2x�<sup>6</sup> x2�<sup>9</sup>. Lesson 3, which is the focus of this study, deals with the simplification of two rationale algebraic expressions being added or subtracted, for example, x x2þx�<sup>2</sup> � <sup>2</sup> x2�5xþ<sup>4</sup>, where factorization and finding common denominators are envisaged. All the problem solved by students during the three lessons outlined are foregrounded in the South African Grade 11 mathematics syllabus and come from a prescribed textbook that students used.

This study uses a lesson plan as research methodology with specific focus on exploring the types of productive struggles students experienced during the simplification of rational algebraic expressions. While the stages of the lesson study of setting goals and planning are given less prominence in the data analyses, they are nonetheless important because they foreground the activities of the implementation and debriefing stages. Since the students' productive struggles manifest during the implementation stage of the lesson study, the study has prioritized the implementation stage to explore the students' productive struggles. The debriefing stage affords the teacher the opportunity to discuss with the researcher the students' productive struggles as he observed and responded to them in class, and in real time.

Research studies position the lesson study, which originated from East Asia, as a form of practice-based continuous professional development of mathematics teachers, which has since been adopted by many other countries [50]. In each of these countries, the emphasis of the lesson study varies, however, its major role of schoolbased continuous professional development for mathematics teachers remain. For example, in China, the focus is on "developing best teaching strategies for specific subject content for student learning," and in Japan, the focus is on "general and longterm educational goals, such as developing students' mathematical thinking through observing student learning in order to collect evidence to improve it" ([51], p. 271). Regardless of the country, the lesson study has three salient features, it is: a deliberate practice – meaning that the task of a lesson study is goal-oriented aimed at improving teacher performance, and affords opportunities for repetition and refinement; a research methodology – aimed at improving both professional and academic knowledge; and an improvement science – through the use of "plan-do-study-act" ([52], p. 54) innovations. In this study, we chose the lesson study as a research methodology to explore the students' productive struggles when simplifying rational algebraic expressions over the design-based research methodology. The lesson study, as a deliberate practice and research methodology can be used in a similar way as the design-based research to narrow the gap between research and practice during

teaching [51–53]. Proponents of the lesson study argue that "not only is this (lesson study) real research, but the methodology of lesson study has huge benefits as means of developing knowledge that is useful for improving teaching (and learning)" ([54], p. 584). As a research methodology, the lesson study, seeks to address specific research questions using a research lesson – a research lesson is a lesson that is a subject of an investigation by researchers. A case in point here is the simplification of rational algebraic expressions. When using the lesson study as a research methodology, the research lesson is often proceeded by an evaluation of the students' conceptual understandings of concepts taught – this can be done through documentary analysis of students' written work in tests and/or carrying out focus group interviews with students who participated in the research lesson.

algebraic expressions: <sup>2</sup>

Learning episode 1. S: I am stuck.

students are struggling]

<sup>3</sup><sup>x</sup> <sup>þ</sup> <sup>2</sup>

4.2 Carrying out a process

105

<sup>7</sup>x<sup>2</sup> � <sup>3</sup>

yesterday: <sup>2</sup>

<sup>x</sup>2�x�<sup>2</sup> � <sup>6</sup>

Students' Productive Struggles in Mathematics Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90802

T: Sweet, I am on my way. Where are you stuck?

S: I've got to make them [the denominators] the same.

last student]? Alright, we are going to revisit the problem we did

<sup>2</sup>xy2, which we expanded to: <sup>2</sup>

S: I factored it, and this is what I got <sup>2</sup>

T: Alright. What are you going to do?

expressions which required factorization.

x2þ6xþ5

plifying single rational algebraic expressions that require factorization – students were expected to factorize the numerator and denominator, and then perform a cancelation. However, in this episode from the lesson, the simplification of rational algebraic expressions was extended sums and differences of two rational algebraic

ð Þ <sup>x</sup>�<sup>2</sup> ð Þ <sup>x</sup>þ<sup>1</sup> � <sup>6</sup>

<sup>3</sup><sup>x</sup> <sup>þ</sup> <sup>2</sup>

<sup>7</sup>xx � <sup>3</sup> 2xyy

T: Ok what do you have to do to make them the same? [Teacher notices that the

T: What factors are common in denominators of both fractions? [sensing that there might be an overall conceptual problem in the class by listening to students' chit chat]. Hey guys, let us back up. Are sure you know what going on [referring to the

At the beginning of the episode, a student remarked that he/she was stuck – meaning that they could not initiate the simplification the rational algebraic expression. The teacher used probing guidance, by asking questions, such as Where are you stuck? … What are you going to do? This prompted the student to explain his/ her thinking processes to the teacher. While listening to the students chatting, the teacher noticed that they were experiencing challenges of simplifying rational algebraic expressions' particularly the factorization. From an ATD perspective, some students lacked the technique or the tools such as factorizations to simplify the rational algebraic expressions [29, 31]. In responding to this productive struggle, the teacher decided, together with the students, to revisit a much simpler example they had done the previous day. The teacher's action constituted directed guidance by redirecting the students' attention to a much simpler example with the aim of trying to deepen their understanding of the related concepts. In the debriefing interview, the teacher referred to the get started stage as a "freak out" moment, positing, "I definitely think there was a get out there and a freak out moment and they don't understand anything." He continued to say that, whenever his students were stuck, he reminded them to calm down and think about the concepts they had already covered and to try to apply them to the novel problem. Intuitively, the teacher alludes to the notion of delay of structure [7] – this notion is about a teacher delaying, giving a student a support structure, for example, in the form questions, explanations or feedback, immediately when the student experiences an impasse [58, 59].

In another episode during a lesson, the students were tasked with simplifying

question did nearly all the work correctly but failed to factorize the last step – this work was done on the board during the lesson. As the student was busy simplifying the rational algebraic expressions, he/she came to an impasse and failed to reduce the final rational algebraic expression. In this excerpt, S represents a student working the problem on the board, while C1, C2, and C3 are other students in the class. While S was simplifying the rational algebraic fraction on the board, the other students (C1, C2, and C3) were comparing their own solutions to that of S.

<sup>x</sup>2�<sup>36</sup> <sup>þ</sup> <sup>6</sup>x�<sup>19</sup>

<sup>36</sup>�x<sup>2</sup> . The student in

the following two rational algebraic expressions: <sup>x</sup>2�7xþ<sup>23</sup>

ð Þ <sup>x</sup>þ<sup>5</sup> ð Þ <sup>x</sup>þ<sup>1</sup> .

. Prior to this lesson, students had been sim-

Data collection processes were informed by the stages of a lesson study approach [55]. Moreover, all the stages were video-recorded. The lesson study was thus used in this study as the research methodology [51], as this allowed both teacher and researchers to study students' thinking [47, 51]. In the context of this study, the lesson study consisted of four stages. The first involved setting goals by identifying specific students' learning and development goals and achievements, as agreed upon beforehand by the teacher and the researchers, pertaining to the simplification of rational algebraic expressions. The second stage was planning, which meant using the goals identified to plan a "research lesson" that would be used for data collection on the topic. During this stage, discussions took place on how to anticipate students' questions and the teacher's responses. During the third stage, implementing, the teacher taught the class, while the researchers observed and collected the data. Focus group interviews took place with the students, who were given opportunities to explain their understanding of the lesson topic. In the final stage, debriefing, the teacher and the researchers met to discuss and/or reflect on the data collected; samples of students' work that had been collected were also analyzed to validate some of their productive struggles during the lesson [51, 55–57].

#### 3.3 Data analysis

Video-recordings of the classroom interactions during the research lesson and focus group interviews for students were transcribed verbatim. Thereafter, the transcriptions were analyzed using a pre-determined productive struggles framework (see Table 1) thus exploring the types of students' productive struggles encountered and the teachers' responses to these. In addition, documentary analysis was used to analyze students' written work to see how they were simplifying rational algebraic expressions.

#### 4. Findings and discussion

In this section, a pre-determined framework (see Table 1) is used to explore the types of struggles experienced by the high school students, and the ways in which the teacher noticed and responded to these are discussed from examples given within a lesson situation. To be more specific during the implementation stage of the lesson study. For anonymity, the letters T and S represent the teacher and student respectively. The word episode is used to refer to a lesson excerpt.

#### 4.1 Getting started

Below is an excerpt that describes the classroom interactions between the teacher and the students when the students were asked to simplify two rational algebraic expressions: <sup>2</sup> <sup>x</sup>2�x�<sup>2</sup> � <sup>6</sup> x2þ6xþ5 . Prior to this lesson, students had been simplifying single rational algebraic expressions that require factorization – students were expected to factorize the numerator and denominator, and then perform a cancelation. However, in this episode from the lesson, the simplification of rational algebraic expressions was extended sums and differences of two rational algebraic expressions which required factorization.

Learning episode 1.

S: I am stuck.

teaching [51–53]. Proponents of the lesson study argue that "not only is this (lesson study) real research, but the methodology of lesson study has huge benefits as means of developing knowledge that is useful for improving teaching (and learning)" ([54], p. 584). As a research methodology, the lesson study, seeks to address specific research questions using a research lesson – a research lesson is a lesson that is a subject of an investigation by researchers. A case in point here is the simplification of rational algebraic expressions. When using the lesson study as a research methodology, the research lesson is often proceeded by an evaluation of the students' conceptual understandings of concepts taught – this can be done through documentary analysis of students' written work in tests and/or carrying out focus group interviews

Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges

Data collection processes were informed by the stages of a lesson study approach [55]. Moreover, all the stages were video-recorded. The lesson study was thus used in this study as the research methodology [51], as this allowed both teacher and researchers to study students' thinking [47, 51]. In the context of this study, the lesson study consisted of four stages. The first involved setting goals by identifying specific students' learning and development goals and achievements, as agreed upon beforehand by the teacher and the researchers, pertaining to the simplification of rational algebraic expressions. The second stage was planning, which meant using the goals identified to plan a "research lesson" that would be used for data collection on the topic. During this stage, discussions took place on how to anticipate students' questions and the teacher's responses. During the third stage, implementing, the teacher taught the class, while the researchers observed and collected the data. Focus group interviews took place with the students, who were given opportunities to explain their understanding of the lesson topic. In the final stage, debriefing, the teacher and the researchers met to discuss and/or reflect on the data collected; samples of students' work that had been collected were also analyzed to validate

Video-recordings of the classroom interactions during the research lesson and focus group interviews for students were transcribed verbatim. Thereafter, the transcriptions were analyzed using a pre-determined productive struggles framework (see Table 1) thus exploring the types of students' productive struggles encountered and the teachers' responses to these. In addition, documentary analysis was used to analyze students' written work to see how they were simplifying

In this section, a pre-determined framework (see Table 1) is used to explore the types of struggles experienced by the high school students, and the ways in which the teacher noticed and responded to these are discussed from examples given within a lesson situation. To be more specific during the implementation stage of the lesson study. For anonymity, the letters T and S represent the teacher and student respectively. The word episode is used to refer to a lesson excerpt.

Below is an excerpt that describes the classroom interactions between the teacher and the students when the students were asked to simplify two rational

with students who participated in the research lesson.

some of their productive struggles during the lesson [51, 55–57].

3.3 Data analysis

rational algebraic expressions.

4. Findings and discussion

4.1 Getting started

104

T: Sweet, I am on my way. Where are you stuck?

S: I factored it, and this is what I got <sup>2</sup> ð Þ <sup>x</sup>�<sup>2</sup> ð Þ <sup>x</sup>þ<sup>1</sup> � <sup>6</sup> ð Þ <sup>x</sup>þ<sup>5</sup> ð Þ <sup>x</sup>þ<sup>1</sup> .

T: Alright. What are you going to do?

S: I've got to make them [the denominators] the same.

T: Ok what do you have to do to make them the same? [Teacher notices that the students are struggling]

T: What factors are common in denominators of both fractions? [sensing that there might be an overall conceptual problem in the class by listening to students' chit chat]. Hey guys, let us back up. Are sure you know what going on [referring to the last student]? Alright, we are going to revisit the problem we did yesterday: <sup>2</sup> <sup>3</sup><sup>x</sup> <sup>þ</sup> <sup>2</sup> <sup>7</sup>x<sup>2</sup> � <sup>3</sup> <sup>2</sup>xy2, which we expanded to: <sup>2</sup> <sup>3</sup><sup>x</sup> <sup>þ</sup> <sup>2</sup> <sup>7</sup>xx � <sup>3</sup> 2xyy

At the beginning of the episode, a student remarked that he/she was stuck – meaning that they could not initiate the simplification the rational algebraic expression. The teacher used probing guidance, by asking questions, such as Where are you stuck? … What are you going to do? This prompted the student to explain his/ her thinking processes to the teacher. While listening to the students chatting, the teacher noticed that they were experiencing challenges of simplifying rational algebraic expressions' particularly the factorization. From an ATD perspective, some students lacked the technique or the tools such as factorizations to simplify the rational algebraic expressions [29, 31]. In responding to this productive struggle, the teacher decided, together with the students, to revisit a much simpler example they had done the previous day. The teacher's action constituted directed guidance by redirecting the students' attention to a much simpler example with the aim of trying to deepen their understanding of the related concepts. In the debriefing interview, the teacher referred to the get started stage as a "freak out" moment, positing, "I definitely think there was a get out there and a freak out moment and they don't understand anything." He continued to say that, whenever his students were stuck, he reminded them to calm down and think about the concepts they had already covered and to try to apply them to the novel problem. Intuitively, the teacher alludes to the notion of delay of structure [7] – this notion is about a teacher delaying, giving a student a support structure, for example, in the form questions, explanations or feedback, immediately when the student experiences an impasse [58, 59].

#### 4.2 Carrying out a process

In another episode during a lesson, the students were tasked with simplifying the following two rational algebraic expressions: <sup>x</sup>2�7xþ<sup>23</sup> <sup>x</sup>2�<sup>36</sup> <sup>þ</sup> <sup>6</sup>x�<sup>19</sup> <sup>36</sup>�x<sup>2</sup> . The student in question did nearly all the work correctly but failed to factorize the last step – this work was done on the board during the lesson. As the student was busy simplifying the rational algebraic expressions, he/she came to an impasse and failed to reduce the final rational algebraic expression. In this excerpt, S represents a student working the problem on the board, while C1, C2, and C3 are other students in the class. While S was simplifying the rational algebraic fraction on the board, the other students (C1, C2, and C3) were comparing their own solutions to that of S.

Learning episode 2.

S: <sup>x</sup>2�7xþ<sup>23</sup> <sup>x</sup>2�<sup>36</sup> <sup>þ</sup> <sup>6</sup>x�<sup>19</sup> <sup>36</sup>�x<sup>2</sup> <sup>=</sup> <sup>x</sup>2�7xþ<sup>23</sup> <sup>x</sup>2�<sup>36</sup> þ � <sup>6</sup>x�<sup>19</sup> 36�x<sup>2</sup> )

[The student tries to use the notion that x � <sup>y</sup> ¼ � <sup>y</sup> � <sup>x</sup> having noticed that <sup>x</sup>ð Þ <sup>2</sup> � <sup>36</sup> and 36 � x2 ð Þ exhibit a similar trait – the student's work was written on the board].

Learning episode 3.

S: Common factor?

S: Denominator.

S: I will multiply ð Þ <sup>x</sup>þ<sup>4</sup> ð Þ <sup>x</sup>þ<sup>9</sup>

students to more practice questions.

braic expression in learning episode 1.

ical fractions from � <sup>4</sup>

Figure 1.

107

4.4 Expressing misconceptions and errors

<sup>20</sup> to � <sup>1</sup>

An example of a student's conceptual error from learning episode 1.

<sup>5</sup> [58].

ð Þ x þ 9 ð Þ x þ 7

S: I am going to factorize the two denominators (x þ 7Þð Þ x þ 8 and

bottom [denominator]. So, what do you think comes next?

T: Close. We must have a common what?

Students' Productive Struggles in Mathematics Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90802

ð Þ <sup>x</sup>þ<sup>7</sup> ð Þ <sup>x</sup>þ<sup>8</sup> ð Þ <sup>x</sup>þ<sup>9</sup> <sup>þ</sup> <sup>6</sup>ð Þ <sup>x</sup>þ<sup>9</sup>

T: Ok, what are you going to do now? Ok, I understand that you factored the

ð Þ xþ8 ð Þ xþ7 ð Þ xþ9 T: Why did you put ð Þ x þ 9 there? Why did you write ð Þ x þ 9 on the left? [student

In this episode, while the student was using the correct method, there came a point where he/she could not explain and/or verbalize his/her strategy for simplifying the problem. For example, when asked by the teacher why he/she had multiplied both fractions by the factor ð Þ x þ 9 , the student could not answer, but instead shrugged his/her shoulder as a way of saying "I do not know." When the teacher sensed this uncertainty, he responded by asking probing questions to guide the student towards achieving the goal of the question – "why did you put ð Þ x þ 9 there?" The teacher wants to get to a point where the student says that he/she wants to find a common denominator between the two rational algebraic expressions. During the interview with the teacher, he remarked that uncertainty was also expressed through the student's unwillingness to go to the board to work out the problems given to the class. The teacher said, "I really like to see the people that are struggling more at the board," and that he would like to hear more students saying, "I don't know what I am doing, but I am going up there" – the teacher acknowledges that the latter is a challenge which he/she hopes could be resolved by exposing

In this section, we discuss the types of errors that manifested in the students'

Figure 1 reveals that although the student completed the question, he/she committed a conceptual error by making both denominators the same by observing that the first denominator had a "-2" and the second denominator had a "5" – the numbers "2" and "5" are the independent variables of the two denominators of the fractions to be simplified – the student ignored the "minus" sign for "2," opting instead to use a positive "2." In other words, the student seems to have ignored the letters and reduced the rational algebraic expressions into simple numerical fractions [23, 24]. The student, however, succeeded in simplifying his/her own numer-

written work in learning episodes 1, 2, and 3 above. Figure 1 below shows a student's conceptual error that was committed when simplifying the rational alge-

shrugging his shoulders to indicate he does not know why he/she wrote what he wrote] T: [sensing the uncertainty] …What is our goal now? What are we trying to accomplish? Before we add those on top [numerators] what do we need to have?

S: <sup>x</sup>2�7xþ<sup>23</sup> <sup>x</sup>2�<sup>36</sup> <sup>þ</sup> <sup>6</sup>x�<sup>19</sup> <sup>36</sup>�x<sup>2</sup> <sup>=</sup> <sup>x</sup>2�7xþ<sup>23</sup> <sup>x</sup>2�<sup>36</sup> þ � <sup>6</sup>x�<sup>19</sup> 36�x<sup>2</sup> ) = <sup>x</sup>2�7xþ<sup>23</sup> ð Þ <sup>x</sup>þ<sup>6</sup> ð Þ <sup>x</sup>�<sup>6</sup> <sup>þ</sup> �6xþ<sup>19</sup> ð Þ <sup>x</sup>þ<sup>6</sup> ð Þ <sup>x</sup>�<sup>6</sup> <sup>=</sup> <sup>x</sup>2�13xþ<sup>42</sup> ð Þ xþ6 ð Þ x�6

S: I am stuck [the student fails to recognize that the numerator of the last fraction can be factored as xð Þ � <sup>6</sup> ð Þ <sup>x</sup> � <sup>7</sup> and the fraction would consequently reduce to <sup>x</sup>�<sup>7</sup> <sup>x</sup>þ6]

C1: That is not what I got, teacher [C1 seeks to help S].

C2: We did the other side, teacher, we got +13 and � 42. The classmate alludes to the fact that he multiplied <sup>x</sup>2�7xþ<sup>23</sup> <sup>x</sup>2�<sup>36</sup> by negative one to get � <sup>x</sup>ð Þ <sup>2</sup>þ7x�<sup>23</sup> <sup>36</sup>�x<sup>2</sup> ð Þ <sup>¼</sup> �x2þ7x�<sup>23</sup> ð Þ 6þx ð Þ 6�x

$$\frac{-x^2 + 7x - 23}{(6+x)(6-x)} + \frac{6x - 19}{(6+x)(6-x)} = \frac{-x^2 + 13x - 42}{(6+x)(6-x)}$$

C3: Factor out the top [the numerator] and then you can cross [cancel with denominator] out.

S: <sup>x</sup>2�13xþ<sup>42</sup> ð Þ <sup>x</sup>þ<sup>6</sup> ð Þ <sup>x</sup>�<sup>6</sup> <sup>¼</sup> ð Þ <sup>x</sup>�<sup>7</sup> ð Þ <sup>x</sup>�<sup>6</sup> ð Þ <sup>x</sup>þ<sup>6</sup> ð Þ <sup>x</sup>�<sup>6</sup> <sup>=</sup>ð Þ <sup>x</sup>�<sup>7</sup> ð Þ <sup>x</sup>þ<sup>6</sup> .

The classroom interactions in this episode were student–student interactions, where the teacher did not participate in the simplifications of the algebraic rational expression. When the student working at the board encountered an impasse, he/she said, "I am stuck" – thus calling for help. In this episode, the teacher did not comment or respond; instead, one of the students did so, stating, "That is not what I got, teacher." By not responding immediately to the students' classroom interactions, the teacher was using the affordance technique – where students were afforded the space and time to think through and solve the problem with the teachers' encouragement but with minimum help [49]. In this kind of approach, students are encouraged to use other students' thinking processes as resources to simplify rational algebraic expressions; for instance, student (C2) suggested an alternative step of writing the expression �x<sup>2</sup> <sup>þ</sup> <sup>13</sup><sup>x</sup> � 42 instead of <sup>x</sup><sup>2</sup> � <sup>13</sup><sup>x</sup> <sup>þ</sup> 42. Having noticed that the student at the board (S) needed help in simplifying the rational algebraic fraction, a fellow student (C3) told him/her how to proceed: "factor out the top [the numerator] and then you can cross [cancel with denominator] out." Finally, with this assistance, student (S) was able to simplify the algebraic rational expression successfully.

During the debriefing interview, the teacher alluded to the fact that some students failed to carry out a procedure: "the main thing with today's lesson was about finding the common denominator … but I think other than that they got it pretty good." Interestingly, when asked about why he/she did not respond or comment on the students' interactions, the teacher said, "it is one way that I use to create an interactive and engaging learning environment among students during the lesson." In addition, the teacher was concerned that, as the problems would become more complex in subsequent lessons, his students were likely to struggle with identifying common denominators.

#### 4.3 Experiencing uncertainty in explaining and sense-making

In the next episode, the focus is on how a student simplified two rational algebraic expressions:

xþ4 <sup>x</sup>2þ15xþ<sup>56</sup> <sup>þ</sup> <sup>6</sup> <sup>x</sup>2þ16xþ<sup>63</sup> on the board.

Using this example, we illustrate how a student found it difficult to verbalize his/her thinking processes and failed to justify his/her answers even though they were correct.

Students' Productive Struggles in Mathematics Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90802

Learning episode 3.

Learning episode 2.

<sup>x</sup>2�<sup>36</sup> <sup>þ</sup> <sup>6</sup>x�<sup>19</sup>

<sup>x</sup>2�<sup>36</sup> <sup>þ</sup> <sup>6</sup>x�<sup>19</sup>

the fact that he multiplied <sup>x</sup>2�7xþ<sup>23</sup>

ð Þ <sup>x</sup>þ<sup>6</sup> ð Þ <sup>x</sup>�<sup>6</sup> <sup>¼</sup> ð Þ <sup>x</sup>�<sup>7</sup> ð Þ <sup>x</sup>�<sup>6</sup>

rational expression successfully.

common denominators.

algebraic expressions: xþ4 <sup>x</sup>2þ15xþ<sup>56</sup> <sup>þ</sup> <sup>6</sup>

were correct.

106

<sup>36</sup>�x<sup>2</sup> <sup>=</sup> <sup>x</sup>2�7xþ<sup>23</sup>

<sup>36</sup>�x<sup>2</sup> <sup>=</sup> <sup>x</sup>2�7xþ<sup>23</sup>

ð Þ <sup>6</sup>þ<sup>x</sup> ð Þ <sup>6</sup>�<sup>x</sup> <sup>¼</sup> �x2þ13x�<sup>42</sup>

ð Þ <sup>x</sup>þ<sup>6</sup> ð Þ <sup>x</sup>�<sup>6</sup> <sup>=</sup>ð Þ <sup>x</sup>�<sup>7</sup>

<sup>x</sup>2�<sup>36</sup> þ � <sup>6</sup>x�<sup>19</sup>

Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges

<sup>x</sup>2�<sup>36</sup> þ � <sup>6</sup>x�<sup>19</sup>

C1: That is not what I got, teacher [C1 seeks to help S].

ð Þ <sup>6</sup>þ<sup>x</sup> ð Þ <sup>6</sup>�<sup>x</sup> .

ð Þ <sup>x</sup>þ<sup>6</sup> .

36�x<sup>2</sup> )

36�x<sup>2</sup>

be factored as xð Þ � <sup>6</sup> ð Þ <sup>x</sup> � <sup>7</sup> and the fraction would consequently reduce to <sup>x</sup>�<sup>7</sup>

[The student tries to use the notion that x � <sup>y</sup> ¼ � <sup>y</sup> � <sup>x</sup> having noticed that <sup>x</sup>ð Þ <sup>2</sup> � <sup>36</sup> and 36 � x2 ð Þ exhibit a similar trait – the student's work was written on

) = <sup>x</sup>2�7xþ<sup>23</sup>

S: I am stuck [the student fails to recognize that the numerator of the last fraction can

C2: We did the other side, teacher, we got +13 and � 42. The classmate alludes to

C3: Factor out the top [the numerator] and then you can cross [cancel with

said, "I am stuck" – thus calling for help. In this episode, the teacher did not

The classroom interactions in this episode were student–student interactions, where the teacher did not participate in the simplifications of the algebraic rational expression. When the student working at the board encountered an impasse, he/she

comment or respond; instead, one of the students did so, stating, "That is not what I got, teacher." By not responding immediately to the students' classroom interactions, the teacher was using the affordance technique – where students were afforded the space and time to think through and solve the problem with the teachers' encouragement but with minimum help [49]. In this kind of approach, students are encouraged to use other students' thinking processes as resources to simplify rational algebraic expressions; for instance, student (C2) suggested an alternative step of writing the expression �x<sup>2</sup> <sup>þ</sup> <sup>13</sup><sup>x</sup> � 42 instead of <sup>x</sup><sup>2</sup> � <sup>13</sup><sup>x</sup> <sup>þ</sup> 42. Having noticed that the student at the board (S) needed help in simplifying the rational algebraic fraction, a fellow student (C3) told him/her how to proceed: "factor out the top [the numerator] and then you can cross [cancel with denominator] out." Finally, with this assistance, student (S) was able to simplify the algebraic

During the debriefing interview, the teacher alluded to the fact that some students failed to carry out a procedure: "the main thing with today's lesson was about finding the common denominator … but I think other than that they got it pretty good." Interestingly, when asked about why he/she did not respond or comment on the students' interactions, the teacher said, "it is one way that I use to create an interactive and engaging learning environment among students during the lesson." In addition, the teacher was concerned that, as the problems would become more complex in subsequent lessons, his students were likely to struggle with identifying

4.3 Experiencing uncertainty in explaining and sense-making

<sup>x</sup>2þ16xþ<sup>63</sup> on the board.

In the next episode, the focus is on how a student simplified two rational

Using this example, we illustrate how a student found it difficult to verbalize his/her thinking processes and failed to justify his/her answers even though they

<sup>x</sup>2�<sup>36</sup> by negative one to get � <sup>x</sup>ð Þ <sup>2</sup>þ7x�<sup>23</sup>

ð Þ <sup>x</sup>þ<sup>6</sup> ð Þ <sup>x</sup>�<sup>6</sup> <sup>þ</sup> �6xþ<sup>19</sup>

ð Þ <sup>x</sup>þ<sup>6</sup> ð Þ <sup>x</sup>�<sup>6</sup> <sup>=</sup> <sup>x</sup>2�13xþ<sup>42</sup>

<sup>36</sup>�x<sup>2</sup> ð Þ <sup>¼</sup> �x2þ7x�<sup>23</sup>

ð Þ xþ6 ð Þ x�6

ð Þ 6þx ð Þ 6�x

<sup>x</sup>þ6]

S: <sup>x</sup>2�7xþ<sup>23</sup>

the board]. S: <sup>x</sup>2�7xþ<sup>23</sup>

�x2þ7x�<sup>23</sup>

denominator] out. S: <sup>x</sup>2�13xþ<sup>42</sup>

ð Þ <sup>6</sup>þ<sup>x</sup> ð Þ <sup>6</sup>�<sup>x</sup> <sup>þ</sup> <sup>6</sup>x�<sup>19</sup>

S: I am going to factorize the two denominators (x þ 7Þð Þ x þ 8 and ð Þ x þ 9 ð Þ x þ 7

T: Ok, what are you going to do now? Ok, I understand that you factored the bottom [denominator]. So, what do you think comes next?

S: I will multiply ð Þ <sup>x</sup>þ<sup>4</sup> ð Þ <sup>x</sup>þ<sup>9</sup> ð Þ <sup>x</sup>þ<sup>7</sup> ð Þ <sup>x</sup>þ<sup>8</sup> ð Þ <sup>x</sup>þ<sup>9</sup> <sup>þ</sup> <sup>6</sup>ð Þ <sup>x</sup>þ<sup>9</sup>

ð Þ xþ8 ð Þ xþ7 ð Þ xþ9 T: Why did you put ð Þ x þ 9 there? Why did you write ð Þ x þ 9 on the left? [student shrugging his shoulders to indicate he does not know why he/she wrote what he wrote]

T: [sensing the uncertainty] …What is our goal now? What are we trying to accomplish? Before we add those on top [numerators] what do we need to have?

S: Common factor?

T: Close. We must have a common what?

S: Denominator.

In this episode, while the student was using the correct method, there came a point where he/she could not explain and/or verbalize his/her strategy for simplifying the problem. For example, when asked by the teacher why he/she had multiplied both fractions by the factor ð Þ x þ 9 , the student could not answer, but instead shrugged his/her shoulder as a way of saying "I do not know." When the teacher sensed this uncertainty, he responded by asking probing questions to guide the student towards achieving the goal of the question – "why did you put ð Þ x þ 9 there?" The teacher wants to get to a point where the student says that he/she wants to find a common denominator between the two rational algebraic expressions.

During the interview with the teacher, he remarked that uncertainty was also expressed through the student's unwillingness to go to the board to work out the problems given to the class. The teacher said, "I really like to see the people that are struggling more at the board," and that he would like to hear more students saying, "I don't know what I am doing, but I am going up there" – the teacher acknowledges that the latter is a challenge which he/she hopes could be resolved by exposing students to more practice questions.

#### 4.4 Expressing misconceptions and errors

In this section, we discuss the types of errors that manifested in the students' written work in learning episodes 1, 2, and 3 above. Figure 1 below shows a student's conceptual error that was committed when simplifying the rational algebraic expression in learning episode 1.

Figure 1 reveals that although the student completed the question, he/she committed a conceptual error by making both denominators the same by observing that the first denominator had a "-2" and the second denominator had a "5" – the numbers "2" and "5" are the independent variables of the two denominators of the fractions to be simplified – the student ignored the "minus" sign for "2," opting instead to use a positive "2." In other words, the student seems to have ignored the letters and reduced the rational algebraic expressions into simple numerical fractions [23, 24]. The student, however, succeeded in simplifying his/her own numerical fractions from � <sup>4</sup> <sup>20</sup> to � <sup>1</sup> <sup>5</sup> [58].

Figure 1. An example of a student's conceptual error from learning episode 1.

work on students' productive struggles, mathematics teachers noticing and

Given the limitations of the study – the use of a single and small study, we are cautious about drawing generalized instructional implications that can be drawn from this study. Having said that, we believe that the study can highlight issues related to: struggle, support structures, and delay structure. Struggle – often struggle in mathematics is viewed as something negative, however, this study construes struggle as something essential for the student's intellectual growth, and a necessity which used during mathematics lessons. Support structures – during problem solving the role of support structures during learning in the form of feedback, questions, scaffolding questions, among others, is critical for students learning. Delay of structure - an important instructional implication here is that the role of delay of structure when students reach an impasse opens-up opportunity for learning – where there is no impasse, despite rigorous support structure provision, learning is

In this chapter, our aim was to explore students' productive struggles on the simplifications of rational algebraic expressions, and of how teachers notice and respond to these productive struggles. Using the pre-determined productive struggle framework developed by Warshauer [42], we were able to identify and categorize the types of productive struggles that students experienced in the classroom and to look at the different ways in which the teacher addressed these struggles. Throughout the paper, it was not our intention to deal with constructs of noticing and questioning separately, but rather to discuss them within the types of productive struggles. In addition, the types of errors discussed in this paper are not exhaustive [23, 24], since they only pertain to the problems discussed in learning

In conclusion, while this study contributes to the mathematics classroom discourses on the students' productive struggles on the simplification of rational algebraic expressions, using a bigger sample, further research is required on: the roles that mathematical teachers' noticing and questioning can play, and on how teachers respond to and effectively provide support structures to students' productive struggles during the teaching and learning of specific mathematics concepts.

questioning techniques during lessons.

Students' Productive Struggles in Mathematics Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90802

4.6 Instructional implications

not guaranteed [7].

5. Conclusion

episodes 1, 2, and 3.

109

#### Figure 2.

An example of a student's misconception from learning episode 2.

In Figure 2, the student did not realize that <sup>x</sup><sup>2</sup> � <sup>36</sup> ¼ � <sup>36</sup> � <sup>x</sup><sup>2</sup> ð Þ or more generally that (a � bÞ¼�ð Þ b � a , and thus had a misconception that the two denominators from both rational algebraic expressions were the same. This misconception resulted in the student not being able to simplify the resulting rational algebraic expression, because he/she could not factorize its numerator – in fact, the numerator cannot be factorized, hence the cancelation between the numerator and denominator cannot be done.

In Figure 3, the student committed an error by forgetting to follow through the multiplication of the numerator and denominator of the first and second fractions by ð Þ x þ 9 and ð Þ x þ 8 respectively – as a result the student had incorrect numerators and could not simplify the two rational algebraic expression.

#### 4.5 Limitations

This study is based on a very small sample of 28 Grade 11 mathematics students in one school from a county. It is not the intention of the authors to draw upon any generalizations on the students' productive struggles on the simplifications of rational algebraic expressions from the small sample used in the study. Ii is our contention, that some of the observations made on the students' productive struggles are attributed to sample of 28 Grade 11 students who participated, their mathematical skills and abilities on the topic under discussion. As such, this study merely highlights some of the potential productive struggles that students are likely to encounter when solving problems on the simplifications of rational algebraic expressions. In a way the study can be used to give directions on the future research

Figure 3. An example of the student's error from learning episode 3.

work on students' productive struggles, mathematics teachers noticing and questioning techniques during lessons.

#### 4.6 Instructional implications

Given the limitations of the study – the use of a single and small study, we are cautious about drawing generalized instructional implications that can be drawn from this study. Having said that, we believe that the study can highlight issues related to: struggle, support structures, and delay structure. Struggle – often struggle in mathematics is viewed as something negative, however, this study construes struggle as something essential for the student's intellectual growth, and a necessity which used during mathematics lessons. Support structures – during problem solving the role of support structures during learning in the form of feedback, questions, scaffolding questions, among others, is critical for students learning. Delay of structure - an important instructional implication here is that the role of delay of structure when students reach an impasse opens-up opportunity for learning – where there is no impasse, despite rigorous support structure provision, learning is not guaranteed [7].

### 5. Conclusion

In Figure 2, the student did not realize that <sup>x</sup><sup>2</sup> � <sup>36</sup> ¼ � <sup>36</sup> � <sup>x</sup><sup>2</sup> ð Þ or more generally that (a � bÞ¼�ð Þ b � a , and thus had a misconception that the two denominators from both rational algebraic expressions were the same. This misconception resulted in the student not being able to simplify the resulting rational algebraic expression, because he/she could not factorize its numerator – in fact, the numerator cannot be factorized, hence the cancelation between the

Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges

In Figure 3, the student committed an error by forgetting to follow through the multiplication of the numerator and denominator of the first and second fractions by ð Þ x þ 9 and ð Þ x þ 8 respectively – as a result the student had incorrect numera-

This study is based on a very small sample of 28 Grade 11 mathematics students in one school from a county. It is not the intention of the authors to draw upon any generalizations on the students' productive struggles on the simplifications of rational algebraic expressions from the small sample used in the study. Ii is our contention, that some of the observations made on the students' productive struggles are attributed to sample of 28 Grade 11 students who participated, their mathematical skills and abilities on the topic under discussion. As such, this study merely highlights some of the potential productive struggles that students are likely to encounter when solving problems on the simplifications of rational algebraic expressions. In a way the study can be used to give directions on the future research

numerator and denominator cannot be done.

An example of the student's error from learning episode 3.

An example of a student's misconception from learning episode 2.

4.5 Limitations

Figure 3.

108

Figure 2.

tors and could not simplify the two rational algebraic expression.

In this chapter, our aim was to explore students' productive struggles on the simplifications of rational algebraic expressions, and of how teachers notice and respond to these productive struggles. Using the pre-determined productive struggle framework developed by Warshauer [42], we were able to identify and categorize the types of productive struggles that students experienced in the classroom and to look at the different ways in which the teacher addressed these struggles. Throughout the paper, it was not our intention to deal with constructs of noticing and questioning separately, but rather to discuss them within the types of productive struggles. In addition, the types of errors discussed in this paper are not exhaustive [23, 24], since they only pertain to the problems discussed in learning episodes 1, 2, and 3.

In conclusion, while this study contributes to the mathematics classroom discourses on the students' productive struggles on the simplification of rational algebraic expressions, using a bigger sample, further research is required on: the roles that mathematical teachers' noticing and questioning can play, and on how teachers respond to and effectively provide support structures to students' productive struggles during the teaching and learning of specific mathematics concepts.

Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges

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3-14

Higher Ed; 2012

Indonesia; 2016

2016;2(2):396-415

523-550

64(3):202-211

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Students' Productive Struggles in Mathematics Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90802

instruction does not work: An analysis

discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational

of the failure of constructivist,

Psychologist. 2006;41(2):75-86

13(3):273-304

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[10] Reiser BJ. Scaffolding complex learning: The mechanisms of structuring and problematizing student work. The Journal of the Learning Sciences. 2004;

[11] Kapur M. Examining productive

unproductive failure, and unproductive

failure, productive success,

success in learning. Educational Psychologist. 2016;51(2):289-299

[12] Hmelo-Silver CE, Duncan RG, Chinn CA. Scaffolding and achievement in problem-based and inquiry learning: A response to Kirschner, Sweller, and. Educational Psychologist. 2007;42(2):

[13] Sweller J. What human cognitive

constructivism. In: Constructivist Instruction. New York: Routledge; 2009.

[14] Granberg C. Discovering and addressing errors during mathematics problem-solving—A productive struggle? The Journal of Mathematical

[15] Star JR. When Not to Persevere: Nuances Related to Perseverance in Mathematical Problem Solving. The Collected Papers. Chicago, IL: Spencer Foundation; 2015. Available from: http://www.spencer.org/collected-

[16] Warshauer HK. Productive struggle in teaching and learning middle school mathematics. Journal of Mathematics

architecture tells us about

Behavior. 2016;42:33-48

papers-april-2015

Education. 2014;17(4):3-28

[17] Livy S, Muir T, Sullivan P. Challenging tasks lead to productive

[2] Hiebert J, Wearne D. Developing understanding through problem solving.

[3] Sherman HJ, Richardson LI, Yard GJ. Teaching Learners Who Struggle with Mathematics: Systematic Intervention and Remediation. New Jersey: Pearson

productive struggle to enhance learning mathematics with understanding. In: Proceeding of 3rd International Conference on Research,

Teaching Mathematics Through Problem Solving: Grades. 2003;6(12):

[4] Permatasari D. The role of

Implementation and Education of Mathematics and Science: Yogyakarta,

[5] Zeybek Z. Productive struggle in a geometry class. International Journal of Research in Education and Science.

[6] Warshauer HK. Productive struggle

in middle school mathematics classrooms. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education. 2015;18(4):375-400

[7] Kapur M. Productive failure in mathematical problem solving. Instructional Science. 2010;38(6):

[8] Marrongelle K, Sztajn P, Smith M. Scaling up professional development in an era of common state standards. Journal of Teacher Education. 2013;

[9] Kirschner PA, Sweller J, Clark RE. Why minimal guidance during

#### Author details

Anthony Sayster and Duncan Mhakure\* Centre for Higher Education Development, University of Cape Town, South Africa

\*Address all correspondence to: duncan.mhakure@uct.ac.za

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Students' Productive Struggles in Mathematics Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90802

#### References

[1] Hiebert J, Grouws DA. The effects of classroom mathematics teaching on students' learning. In: Second Handbook of Research on Mathematics Teaching and Learning. Vol. 1. Greenwich, CT: Information Age; 2007. pp. 371-404

[2] Hiebert J, Wearne D. Developing understanding through problem solving. Teaching Mathematics Through Problem Solving: Grades. 2003;6(12): 3-14

[3] Sherman HJ, Richardson LI, Yard GJ. Teaching Learners Who Struggle with Mathematics: Systematic Intervention and Remediation. New Jersey: Pearson Higher Ed; 2012

[4] Permatasari D. The role of productive struggle to enhance learning mathematics with understanding. In: Proceeding of 3rd International Conference on Research, Implementation and Education of Mathematics and Science: Yogyakarta, Indonesia; 2016

[5] Zeybek Z. Productive struggle in a geometry class. International Journal of Research in Education and Science. 2016;2(2):396-415

[6] Warshauer HK. Productive struggle in middle school mathematics classrooms. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education. 2015;18(4):375-400

[7] Kapur M. Productive failure in mathematical problem solving. Instructional Science. 2010;38(6): 523-550

[8] Marrongelle K, Sztajn P, Smith M. Scaling up professional development in an era of common state standards. Journal of Teacher Education. 2013; 64(3):202-211

[9] Kirschner PA, Sweller J, Clark RE. Why minimal guidance during

instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist. 2006;41(2):75-86

[10] Reiser BJ. Scaffolding complex learning: The mechanisms of structuring and problematizing student work. The Journal of the Learning Sciences. 2004; 13(3):273-304

[11] Kapur M. Examining productive failure, productive success, unproductive failure, and unproductive success in learning. Educational Psychologist. 2016;51(2):289-299

[12] Hmelo-Silver CE, Duncan RG, Chinn CA. Scaffolding and achievement in problem-based and inquiry learning: A response to Kirschner, Sweller, and. Educational Psychologist. 2007;42(2): 99-107

[13] Sweller J. What human cognitive architecture tells us about constructivism. In: Constructivist Instruction. New York: Routledge; 2009. pp. 139-155

[14] Granberg C. Discovering and addressing errors during mathematics problem-solving—A productive struggle? The Journal of Mathematical Behavior. 2016;42:33-48

[15] Star JR. When Not to Persevere: Nuances Related to Perseverance in Mathematical Problem Solving. The Collected Papers. Chicago, IL: Spencer Foundation; 2015. Available from: http://www.spencer.org/collectedpapers-april-2015

[16] Warshauer HK. Productive struggle in teaching and learning middle school mathematics. Journal of Mathematics Education. 2014;17(4):3-28

[17] Livy S, Muir T, Sullivan P. Challenging tasks lead to productive

Author details

110

Anthony Sayster and Duncan Mhakure\*

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*Address all correspondence to: duncan.mhakure@uct.ac.za

Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges

Centre for Higher Education Development, University of Cape Town, South Africa

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

struggle! Australian Primary Mathematics Classroom. 2018;23(1):19-24

[18] Boaler J. Mathematical Mindsets: Unleashing students' Potential through Creative Math, Inspiring Messages and Innovative Teaching. San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons; 2015

[19] Cheeseman J, Clarke D, Roche A, Walker N. Introducing challenging tasks: Inviting and clarifying without explaining and demonstrating. Australian Primary Mathematics Classroom. 2016;21(3):3-7

[20] Roche A, Clarke D. Teachers holding back from telling: A key to student persistence on challenging tasks. Australian Primary Mathematics Classroom. 2014;19(4):3-8

[21] Russo J. Teaching mathematics in primary schools with challenging tasks: The big (not so) friendly Giant. Australian Primary Mathematics Classroom. 2016;21(3):8

[22] Figuaeras H, Males H, Otten S. Algebra students'simplification of rational expressions. Retrieved. 2008;3(3):2015

[23] Makonye JP, Khanyile DW. Probing grade 10 students about their mathematical errors on simplifying algebraic fractions. Research in Education. 2015;94(1):55-70

[24] Mhakure D, Jacobs M, Julie C. Grade 10 students' facility with rational algebraic fractions in high stakes examination: Observations and interpretations. Journal of the Association for Mathematics Education in South Africa. 2014;10:1-13

[25] Arcavi A. Symbol sense: Informal sense-making in formal mathematics. For the Learning of Mathematics. 1994; 14(3):24-35

[26] Ball L, Pierce R, Stacey K. Recognising equivalent algebraic expressions: An important component of algebraic expectation for working with CAS. International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education. 2003;4:15-22

traditions. In: Teaching as a Reflective Practice. New York: The German Didaktik Tradition. Mahwah; 2000

Students' Productive Struggles in Mathematics Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90802

> Seeing Through Teachers' Eyes. New York, London: Routledge; 2011

[44] Stockero SL. Transitions in prospective mathematics teacher noticing. In: Research trends in

Routledge; 2011. pp. 109-124

productive struggle with

2005;36:101-136

State University; 2015

2017;6(4):270-282

[50] Wei G. How could culturalhistorical activity theory inspire lesson study? In: Theory and Practice of Lesson Study in Mathematics. Switzerland: Springer, Champions; 2019. pp. 39-58

[51] Huang R, Fang Y, Chen X. Chinese lesson study: A deliberate practice, a research methodology, and an improvement science. International Journal for Lesson and Learning Studies.

Teacher. 2017;111(3):176-181

[48] Lobato J, Clarke D, Ellis AB. Initiating and eliciting in teaching: A reformulation of telling. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education.

mathematics teacher education. London: Springer, Champions; 2014. pp. 239-259

[45] Sherin MG, Russ RS, Colestock AA. Accessing mathematics teachers' in-themoment noticing. In: Mathematics teacher noticing. New York, London:

[46] Huang R, Li Y. What matters most: A comparison of expert and novice teachers' noticing of mathematics classroom events. School Science and Mathematics. 2012;112(7):420-432

[47] Arbaugh F, Freeburn B. Supporting

communication moves. Mathematics

[49] Freeburn BL. Preservice secondary mathematics teachers' learning of purposeful questioning and judicious telling for promoting students' mathematical thinking [Unpublished dissertation]. Pennsylvania, United States of America: The Pennsylvania

[34] Asikainen MA, Hirvonen PE. Finnish cooperating physics teachers' conceptions of physics teachers' teacher knowledge. Journal of Science Teacher

Education. 2010;21(4):431-450

41(5):538-559

215-250

670-684

74(8):85-86

Austin; 2011

113

[35] Deng Z. Revisiting curriculum potential. Curriculum Inquiry. 2011;

[36] Deng Z. On developing Chinese didactics: A perspective from the German Didaktik tradition. Frontiers of Education in China. 2013;8(4):559-575

[37] Deng Z. Content, Joseph Schwab and German Didaktik. Journal of Curriculum Studies. 2015;47(6):773-786

'elemental'and 'fundamental'in didactic

[39] Michael Connelly F. Joseph Schwab, curriculum, curriculum studies and educational reform. Journal of

Curriculum Studies. 2013;45(5):622-639

[40] Ruzgar ME. On matters that matter in the curriculum studies: An interview

[41] Fisher D, Frey N. The importance of struggle. Educational Leadership. 2017;

with Ian Westbury. Journal of Curriculum Studies. 2018;50(6):

[42] Warshauer HK. The Role of Productive Struggle in Teaching and Learning Middle School Mathematics. Texas: The University of Texas at

[43] Sherin M, Jacobs V, Philipp R, editors. Mathematics Teacher Noticing:

[38] Krüger RA, Yonge GD. The significance of the concepts

theory and practice. Journal of Curriculum Studies. 2008;40(2):

[27] Goldenberg EP. Algebra and computer algebra. In: J. T. Fey et al. (Eds.), Computer Algebra Systems in Secondary School Mathematics Education. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics; 2003. pp. 9-30

[28] Nicaud JF, Bouhineau D, Chaachoua H. Mixing microworld and CAS features in building computer systems that help students learn algebra. International Journal of Computers for Mathematical Learning. 2004;9(2): 169-211

[29] Chevallard Y. Fundamental concepts in didactics: Perspectives provided by an anthropological approach. Research in Didactique of Mathematics: Selected Papers. 1992: 131-168

[30] Putra ZH. Evaluation of elementary teachers' knowledge on fraction multiplication using anthropological theory of the didactic. In: 13th International Congress on Mathematical Education. 2016

[31] Chevallard Y, Bosch M, Kim S. What is a theory according to the anthropological theory of the didactic? In: Krainer K, Vondrova N, editors. CERME 9 – Ninth Congress of the European Society for Research in Mathematics Education. Prague, Czech Republic; 2015. pp. 2614-2620

[32] Hopmann S. Restrained teaching: The common core of Didaktik. European Educational Research Journal. 2007;6(2):109-124

[33] Hopmann S, Riquarts K. Starting a dialogue: A beginning conversation between Didaktik and the curriculum

Students' Productive Struggles in Mathematics Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90802

traditions. In: Teaching as a Reflective Practice. New York: The German Didaktik Tradition. Mahwah; 2000

struggle! Australian Primary Mathematics

Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges

expressions: An important component of algebraic expectation for working with CAS. International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education.

[27] Goldenberg EP. Algebra and computer algebra. In: J. T. Fey et al. (Eds.), Computer Algebra Systems in Secondary School Mathematics Education. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics;

[28] Nicaud JF, Bouhineau D,

[29] Chevallard Y. Fundamental concepts in didactics: Perspectives provided by an anthropological approach. Research in Didactique of Mathematics: Selected Papers. 1992:

[30] Putra ZH. Evaluation of elementary

International Congress on Mathematical

[31] Chevallard Y, Bosch M, Kim S. What is a theory according to the anthropological theory of the didactic? In: Krainer K, Vondrova N, editors. CERME 9 – Ninth Congress of the European Society for Research in Mathematics Education. Prague, Czech

Republic; 2015. pp. 2614-2620

2007;6(2):109-124

[32] Hopmann S. Restrained teaching: The common core of Didaktik.

European Educational Research Journal.

[33] Hopmann S, Riquarts K. Starting a dialogue: A beginning conversation between Didaktik and the curriculum

teachers' knowledge on fraction multiplication using anthropological theory of the didactic. In: 13th

Chaachoua H. Mixing microworld and CAS features in building computer systems that help students learn algebra. International Journal of Computers for Mathematical Learning. 2004;9(2):

2003;4:15-22

2003. pp. 9-30

169-211

131-168

Education. 2016

[18] Boaler J. Mathematical Mindsets: Unleashing students' Potential through Creative Math, Inspiring Messages and Innovative Teaching. San Francisco:

[19] Cheeseman J, Clarke D, Roche A, Walker N. Introducing challenging tasks: Inviting and clarifying without explaining and demonstrating. Australian Primary Mathematics Classroom. 2016;21(3):3-7

[20] Roche A, Clarke D. Teachers holding back from telling: A key to student persistence on challenging tasks.

Australian Primary Mathematics Classroom. 2014;19(4):3-8

The big (not so) friendly Giant. Australian Primary Mathematics

[22] Figuaeras H, Males H, Otten S. Algebra students'simplification of rational expressions. Retrieved. 2008;3(3):2015

grade 10 students about their mathematical errors on simplifying algebraic fractions. Research in Education. 2015;94(1):55-70

[24] Mhakure D, Jacobs M, Julie C. Grade 10 students' facility with rational algebraic fractions in high stakes examination: Observations and interpretations. Journal of the

Association for Mathematics Education

[25] Arcavi A. Symbol sense: Informal sense-making in formal mathematics. For the Learning of Mathematics. 1994;

in South Africa. 2014;10:1-13

[26] Ball L, Pierce R, Stacey K. Recognising equivalent algebraic

14(3):24-35

112

[23] Makonye JP, Khanyile DW. Probing

Classroom. 2016;21(3):8

[21] Russo J. Teaching mathematics in primary schools with challenging tasks:

Classroom. 2018;23(1):19-24

John Wiley & Sons; 2015

[34] Asikainen MA, Hirvonen PE. Finnish cooperating physics teachers' conceptions of physics teachers' teacher knowledge. Journal of Science Teacher Education. 2010;21(4):431-450

[35] Deng Z. Revisiting curriculum potential. Curriculum Inquiry. 2011; 41(5):538-559

[36] Deng Z. On developing Chinese didactics: A perspective from the German Didaktik tradition. Frontiers of Education in China. 2013;8(4):559-575

[37] Deng Z. Content, Joseph Schwab and German Didaktik. Journal of Curriculum Studies. 2015;47(6):773-786

[38] Krüger RA, Yonge GD. The significance of the concepts 'elemental'and 'fundamental'in didactic theory and practice. Journal of Curriculum Studies. 2008;40(2): 215-250

[39] Michael Connelly F. Joseph Schwab, curriculum, curriculum studies and educational reform. Journal of Curriculum Studies. 2013;45(5):622-639

[40] Ruzgar ME. On matters that matter in the curriculum studies: An interview with Ian Westbury. Journal of Curriculum Studies. 2018;50(6): 670-684

[41] Fisher D, Frey N. The importance of struggle. Educational Leadership. 2017; 74(8):85-86

[42] Warshauer HK. The Role of Productive Struggle in Teaching and Learning Middle School Mathematics. Texas: The University of Texas at Austin; 2011

[43] Sherin M, Jacobs V, Philipp R, editors. Mathematics Teacher Noticing: Seeing Through Teachers' Eyes. New York, London: Routledge; 2011

[44] Stockero SL. Transitions in prospective mathematics teacher noticing. In: Research trends in mathematics teacher education. London: Springer, Champions; 2014. pp. 239-259

[45] Sherin MG, Russ RS, Colestock AA. Accessing mathematics teachers' in-themoment noticing. In: Mathematics teacher noticing. New York, London: Routledge; 2011. pp. 109-124

[46] Huang R, Li Y. What matters most: A comparison of expert and novice teachers' noticing of mathematics classroom events. School Science and Mathematics. 2012;112(7):420-432

[47] Arbaugh F, Freeburn B. Supporting productive struggle with communication moves. Mathematics Teacher. 2017;111(3):176-181

[48] Lobato J, Clarke D, Ellis AB. Initiating and eliciting in teaching: A reformulation of telling. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education. 2005;36:101-136

[49] Freeburn BL. Preservice secondary mathematics teachers' learning of purposeful questioning and judicious telling for promoting students' mathematical thinking [Unpublished dissertation]. Pennsylvania, United States of America: The Pennsylvania State University; 2015

[50] Wei G. How could culturalhistorical activity theory inspire lesson study? In: Theory and Practice of Lesson Study in Mathematics. Switzerland: Springer, Champions; 2019. pp. 39-58

[51] Huang R, Fang Y, Chen X. Chinese lesson study: A deliberate practice, a research methodology, and an improvement science. International Journal for Lesson and Learning Studies. 2017;6(4):270-282

[52] Lewis C. What is improvement science? Do we need it in education? Educational Researcher. 2015;44(1): 54-61

[53] Design-Based Research Collective. Design-based research: An emerging paradigm for educational inquiry. Educational Researcher. 2003;32(1):5-8

[54] Stigler JW, Hiebert J. Lesson study, improvement, and the importing of cultural routines. ZDM. 2016;48(4): 581-587

[55] Hart LC, Alston AS, Murata A. Lesson Study Research and Practice in Mathematics Education. Netherlands: Springer; 2011

[56] Lewis CC, Perry RR, Hurd J. Improving mathematics instruction through lesson study: A theoretical model and north American case. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education. 2009;12(4):285-304

[57] Yarema CH. Mathematics teachers' views of accountability testing revealed through lesson study. Mathematics Teacher Education and Development. 2010;12(1):3-18

[58] Solares A, Kieran C. Articulating syntactic and numeric perspectives on equivalence: The case of rational expressions. Educational Studies in Mathematics. 2013;84(1):115-148

[59] VanLehn K, Siler S, Murray C, Yamauchi T, Baggett WB. Why do only some events cause learning during human tutoring? Cognition and Instruction. 2003;21(3):209-249

**115**

**1. Introduction**

**Chapter 8**

**Abstract**

Learning

*and Alejandro Diaz-Mujica*

Perception of Student-Teachers

Regarding Self-Regulated

*Pedro Salcedo-Lagos, Felipe Albarran-Torres* 

*Carolina Zambrano-Matamala, Darío Rojas-Diaz,* 

In this chapter of the book we have described and analyzed what student-teachers

understand by self-regulated learning, what they do when applying the different phases of this process and what are the difficulties, they have to regulate their learning. Student-teachers participating in the study are pre-service teachers who are trained to work in the school system as secondary school teachers. The sample consisted of 60 student-teachers from a university in southern Chile. The main findings show that students relate the concept of self-regulated learning mainly with the general organization prior to the study and with the regulation of their emotions. Regarding the process of self-regulated learning, it is suggested that the planning and execution phase are incipient because there is: (i) lack of strategic planning in the planning phase, (ii) lack of motivational self-control processes, which influences the lack of regulation as: disorganization and uncontrolled emotions, (iii) absence of self-records that allow them to compare and monitor the execution of the study. Additionally, it is proposed conceptual model includes components that represent: (i) the understanding of the concept of self-regulation of learning, (ii) development of the process of self-regulation of learning, (iii) lack of regulation and (iv) external agent's antiregulation of learning.

**Keywords:** self-regulated learning, student-teachers, lack of regulation, study planning, learning process, agents antiregulation of learning

The Chilean educational system has undergone a process of expansion and transformation of higher education, which has generated a massive entry of students that produces, among other consequences, student desertion, mainly due to the fact that these students fail to adapt to the demands of university life. In this sense, authors such as [9] have studied the evolution of the educational system in Chile through the processes changes of supply and demand, whose results reflect how this phenomenon has led to the need to generate strategies oriented to the retention of students in the different universities. In addition, another factor that has influenced the higher education system corresponds to the growing positioning of the competency-based approach that has been promoted by international entities, such as the World Bank,

#### **Chapter 8**

[52] Lewis C. What is improvement science? Do we need it in education? Educational Researcher. 2015;44(1):

Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges

[53] Design-Based Research Collective. Design-based research: An emerging paradigm for educational inquiry. Educational Researcher. 2003;32(1):5-8

[54] Stigler JW, Hiebert J. Lesson study, improvement, and the importing of cultural routines. ZDM. 2016;48(4):

[55] Hart LC, Alston AS, Murata A. Lesson Study Research and Practice in Mathematics Education. Netherlands:

[56] Lewis CC, Perry RR, Hurd J. Improving mathematics instruction through lesson study: A theoretical model and north American case. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education.

[57] Yarema CH. Mathematics teachers' views of accountability testing revealed through lesson study. Mathematics Teacher Education and Development.

[58] Solares A, Kieran C. Articulating syntactic and numeric perspectives on equivalence: The case of rational expressions. Educational Studies in Mathematics. 2013;84(1):115-148

[59] VanLehn K, Siler S, Murray C, Yamauchi T, Baggett WB. Why do only some events cause learning during human tutoring? Cognition and Instruction. 2003;21(3):209-249

54-61

581-587

Springer; 2011

2009;12(4):285-304

2010;12(1):3-18

114

## Perception of Student-Teachers Regarding Self-Regulated Learning

*Carolina Zambrano-Matamala, Darío Rojas-Diaz, Pedro Salcedo-Lagos, Felipe Albarran-Torres and Alejandro Diaz-Mujica*

### **Abstract**

In this chapter of the book we have described and analyzed what student-teachers understand by self-regulated learning, what they do when applying the different phases of this process and what are the difficulties, they have to regulate their learning. Student-teachers participating in the study are pre-service teachers who are trained to work in the school system as secondary school teachers. The sample consisted of 60 student-teachers from a university in southern Chile. The main findings show that students relate the concept of self-regulated learning mainly with the general organization prior to the study and with the regulation of their emotions. Regarding the process of self-regulated learning, it is suggested that the planning and execution phase are incipient because there is: (i) lack of strategic planning in the planning phase, (ii) lack of motivational self-control processes, which influences the lack of regulation as: disorganization and uncontrolled emotions, (iii) absence of self-records that allow them to compare and monitor the execution of the study. Additionally, it is proposed conceptual model includes components that represent: (i) the understanding of the concept of self-regulation of learning, (ii) development of the process of self-regulation of learning, (iii) lack of regulation and (iv) external agent's antiregulation of learning.

**Keywords:** self-regulated learning, student-teachers, lack of regulation, study planning, learning process, agents antiregulation of learning

#### **1. Introduction**

The Chilean educational system has undergone a process of expansion and transformation of higher education, which has generated a massive entry of students that produces, among other consequences, student desertion, mainly due to the fact that these students fail to adapt to the demands of university life. In this sense, authors such as [9] have studied the evolution of the educational system in Chile through the processes changes of supply and demand, whose results reflect how this phenomenon has led to the need to generate strategies oriented to the retention of students in the different universities. In addition, another factor that has influenced the higher education system corresponds to the growing positioning of the competency-based approach that has been promoted by international entities, such as the World Bank,

the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the Ibero-American Bank, and the European influence of the Bologna Process [10]. Thus, in this scenario of massive student access to higher education and the focus on skills in university curricula is that autonomy capacity is required in university students, which consequently leads to the need to understand and evaluate how students selfregulate their learning [7, 8, 27]. From the previous background, the following question is relevant: why is self-regulated learning important? Because it is a psychological construct that has been studied in various researches, proving that it is a predictor of academic achievement [3, 31]. Therefore, it is a factor that allows institutions to develop curricular policies and accommodations that decrease student desertion.

In the case of student teacher, self-regulative learning skills are extremely important contributors because student teacher double role in his training: (i) "the teacher as a subject who learns" and (ii) " the teacher in the function of teaching to learn" [6]. Likewise, it is important to point out that from the perspective of the twenty-first century skills [32] the possibility of knowing student-teachers understand the concept of self-regulated learning and how they describe applying the process of self-regulated learning. Studying the ability to learn to learn [32] from the self-regulated learning is based on the fact that future teachers will be the ones who can promote this type of learning in the classroom to their students to foster in them the necessary skills in the society where they will develop. Student-teachers participating in the study are pre-service teachers who are trained to work in the school system as secondary school teachers.

Another motivation to carry out the research is related to the incipient amount of research on the subject in student-teachers in Latin America. A situation that is evidenced in the systematic review conducted by Hernandez and Camargo [19] who report that between 2005 and 2015 only 7 articles were published in Latin America where the participants are student-teachers. In this sense, we find three investigations in Latin America that focus on student-teachers using the qualitative approach to describe through case studies the process of self-regulation of learning [13, 26, 29]. However, none of the previous studies has been done with student-teachers in Chile. On the other hand, in the European context, in Finland, we find the following studies related to self-regulative learning skills in student-teachers [38–40].

Additionally, it is important to indicate that student-teachers need selfregulation skills in their training as teachers and in their role as students in order to learn to reflect on their own learning process. In this way, it is essential for studentteachers to understand the concept of self-regulation of learning and the stages of the process of self-regulation of learning so that when performing their work in the classroom they can design interventions that promote self-regulation of learning in their students [38]. In this sense, it has been suggested that for a teacher to be strategic in encouraging self-regulated learning in the classroom, he must first have been a self-regulated student during his training as a teacher [6].

This chapter gives an account of the results of a preliminary investigation, of a descriptive type, that addresses the perception that a group of student-teachers has of the concept of self-regulation of learning and the process of self-regulation of learning. In effect, the research aims to analyze and describe what student-teachers understand by the concept of self-regulation of learning, what they do when applying the different phases of this process and describe what are the difficulties, they have in carrying out this process. A conceptual model that represents the understanding of student-teachers regarding the self-regulation of learning is also presented. In this sense, it is important to point out that the pedagogy students' understanding of self-regulation of learning, incorporates different perspectives from four dimensions: (i) the understanding of the concept of self-regulation of learning, (ii) development of the process of self-regulation of learning, (iii)

**117**

*Perception of Student-Teachers Regarding Self-Regulated Learning*

difficulties to regulate their learning named lack of regulation and (iv) anti-regula-

Next, two sections are presented, one to explain self-regulation of learning and the cyclic process of self-regulation and then a section of self-regulated learning in

In general terms, the self-regulation of learning is defined as: the control that the subject carries out over his thoughts, actions, emotions and motivation using strategies that allow him to reach the objectives that he has established [24]. In the field of research on self-regulated learning, several models are distinguished. Six were analyzed in [23] and are the models of [2, 11, 17, 25, 31, 35]. In this research uses the Zimmerman model in its latest version [37] because this model has been the most widespread in the scientific literature in the field of educational psychology [24] and to include a process of cyclical self-regulation that explains in detail in the 2009 version. In this version, it is detailed the three phases of self-regulated learning that can be considered as an "ideal process" with which to contrast the perceptions of teachers-students regarding this process. The three phases of the

Planning Phase: it is the initial phase that is made up of the process of "Analysis of the task and the self-motivating Beliefs". For example, when a student faces a task for the first time, he/she should carry out two processes: (1) to establish the objectives to be achieved and (2) to perform strategic planning. These two processes allow carrying out the analysis of the task. In the case of self-motivating beliefs, it is established that five types of variables influence: (1) self-efficacy, (2) result expectations, (3) task value, (4) interest and (5) goal orientation. These variables

are personal and allow generating the motivation to carry out the activity. Execution phase: it consists of two processes: (1) self-control and (2) selfobservation. The first is defined as the process to maintain concentration and interest through metacognitive or motivational type strategies. On the one hand, metacognitive self-control is established by choosing a specific strategy, for example, when making a summary. On the other hand, motivational self-control refers to encouraging interest, for example, by using reminder messages about the goal. The second process is defined as the comparison between what is being done with respect to an ideal execution model. Self-reflection phase: this phase is composed of the self-judgment process and the self-reaction process, which interact with each other. On one hand, self-judgment is the process that allows the student to judge his execution. In this way, the student can perform a self-assessment that allows them to assess his/her work, based on the quality criteria that should have been clearly established at the beginning of the activity by the teacher. Also, the student will perform causal attributions that imply how self-explains success or failure in the activity. On the other hand, the process of self-reaction refers to the student's reactions to their self-judgments. Thus, their self-reaction can be of satisfaction, affection, adaptation or a defensive reaction.

Teacher training has focused on teaching specific disciplinary content to some area [6, 14]. In addition, teaching in the classroom has been based on the role of the teacher as an exhibitor, who in this context usually applies expository, masterly or theoretical classes to convey the disciplinary content that he acquired in his training as a teacher [6]. Therefore, research evidence in the field of self-regulation of learning in pre-service teacher training is low in Latin America [19] and especially in Chile.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88728*

tion agents of learning.

**1.1 Self-regulated learning**

model proposed in [37] are explained:

**1.2 Self-regulated learning in teacher training**

teacher training.

difficulties to regulate their learning named lack of regulation and (iv) anti-regulation agents of learning.

Next, two sections are presented, one to explain self-regulation of learning and the cyclic process of self-regulation and then a section of self-regulated learning in teacher training.

#### **1.1 Self-regulated learning**

*Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges*

school system as secondary school teachers.

the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the Ibero-American Bank, and the European influence of the Bologna Process [10]. Thus, in this scenario of massive student access to higher education and the focus on skills in university curricula is that autonomy capacity is required in university students, which consequently leads to the need to understand and evaluate how students selfregulate their learning [7, 8, 27]. From the previous background, the following question is relevant: why is self-regulated learning important? Because it is a psychological construct that has been studied in various researches, proving that it is a predictor of academic achievement [3, 31]. Therefore, it is a factor that allows institutions to develop curricular policies and accommodations that decrease student desertion. In the case of student teacher, self-regulative learning skills are extremely important contributors because student teacher double role in his training: (i) "the teacher as a subject who learns" and (ii) " the teacher in the function of teaching to learn" [6]. Likewise, it is important to point out that from the perspective of the twenty-first century skills [32] the possibility of knowing student-teachers understand the concept of self-regulated learning and how they describe applying the process of self-regulated learning. Studying the ability to learn to learn [32] from the self-regulated learning is based on the fact that future teachers will be the ones who can promote this type of learning in the classroom to their students to foster in them the necessary skills in the society where they will develop. Student-teachers participating in the study are pre-service teachers who are trained to work in the

Another motivation to carry out the research is related to the incipient amount of research on the subject in student-teachers in Latin America. A situation that is evidenced in the systematic review conducted by Hernandez and Camargo [19] who report that between 2005 and 2015 only 7 articles were published in Latin America where the participants are student-teachers. In this sense, we find three investigations in Latin America that focus on student-teachers using the qualitative approach to describe through case studies the process of self-regulation of learning [13, 26, 29]. However, none of the previous studies has been done with student-teachers in Chile. On the other hand, in the European context, in Finland, we find the following studies related to self-regulative learning skills in student-teachers [38–40]. Additionally, it is important to indicate that student-teachers need selfregulation skills in their training as teachers and in their role as students in order to learn to reflect on their own learning process. In this way, it is essential for studentteachers to understand the concept of self-regulation of learning and the stages of the process of self-regulation of learning so that when performing their work in the classroom they can design interventions that promote self-regulation of learning in their students [38]. In this sense, it has been suggested that for a teacher to be strategic in encouraging self-regulated learning in the classroom, he must first have

This chapter gives an account of the results of a preliminary investigation, of a descriptive type, that addresses the perception that a group of student-teachers has of the concept of self-regulation of learning and the process of self-regulation of learning. In effect, the research aims to analyze and describe what student-teachers understand by the concept of self-regulation of learning, what they do when applying the different phases of this process and describe what are the difficulties, they have in carrying out this process. A conceptual model that represents the understanding of student-teachers regarding the self-regulation of learning is also presented. In this sense, it is important to point out that the pedagogy students' understanding of self-regulation of learning, incorporates different perspectives from four dimensions: (i) the understanding of the concept of self-regulation of learning, (ii) development of the process of self-regulation of learning, (iii)

been a self-regulated student during his training as a teacher [6].

**116**

In general terms, the self-regulation of learning is defined as: the control that the subject carries out over his thoughts, actions, emotions and motivation using strategies that allow him to reach the objectives that he has established [24].

In the field of research on self-regulated learning, several models are distinguished. Six were analyzed in [23] and are the models of [2, 11, 17, 25, 31, 35]. In this research uses the Zimmerman model in its latest version [37] because this model has been the most widespread in the scientific literature in the field of educational psychology [24] and to include a process of cyclical self-regulation that explains in detail in the 2009 version. In this version, it is detailed the three phases of self-regulated learning that can be considered as an "ideal process" with which to contrast the perceptions of teachers-students regarding this process. The three phases of the model proposed in [37] are explained:

Planning Phase: it is the initial phase that is made up of the process of "Analysis of the task and the self-motivating Beliefs". For example, when a student faces a task for the first time, he/she should carry out two processes: (1) to establish the objectives to be achieved and (2) to perform strategic planning. These two processes allow carrying out the analysis of the task. In the case of self-motivating beliefs, it is established that five types of variables influence: (1) self-efficacy, (2) result expectations, (3) task value, (4) interest and (5) goal orientation. These variables are personal and allow generating the motivation to carry out the activity.

Execution phase: it consists of two processes: (1) self-control and (2) selfobservation. The first is defined as the process to maintain concentration and interest through metacognitive or motivational type strategies. On the one hand, metacognitive self-control is established by choosing a specific strategy, for example, when making a summary. On the other hand, motivational self-control refers to encouraging interest, for example, by using reminder messages about the goal. The second process is defined as the comparison between what is being done with respect to an ideal execution model.

Self-reflection phase: this phase is composed of the self-judgment process and the self-reaction process, which interact with each other. On one hand, self-judgment is the process that allows the student to judge his execution. In this way, the student can perform a self-assessment that allows them to assess his/her work, based on the quality criteria that should have been clearly established at the beginning of the activity by the teacher. Also, the student will perform causal attributions that imply how self-explains success or failure in the activity. On the other hand, the process of self-reaction refers to the student's reactions to their self-judgments. Thus, their self-reaction can be of satisfaction, affection, adaptation or a defensive reaction.

#### **1.2 Self-regulated learning in teacher training**

Teacher training has focused on teaching specific disciplinary content to some area [6, 14]. In addition, teaching in the classroom has been based on the role of the teacher as an exhibitor, who in this context usually applies expository, masterly or theoretical classes to convey the disciplinary content that he acquired in his training as a teacher [6]. Therefore, research evidence in the field of self-regulation of learning in pre-service teacher training is low in Latin America [19] and especially in Chile.

In this context, we agree with [5] who point out that one of the reasons is the lack of dissemination of theories and/or models of self-regulated learning in teacher training.

Likewise, research findings in Finland show that self-regulative learning skills are extremely important contributors in student teacher learning [38–40]. Another aspect that has been studied and that may be related to the self-regulation of learning and the training of student-teachers is the importance of thinking about their double role, is to say "the teacher as a subject who learns" and " the teacher in the function of teaching to learn" [6]. Therefore, student-teachers require to know and understand the concept, theories and models of self-regulation of learning. Also, they need experiential knowledge about promoting self-regulation of learning.

The theoretical knowledge about the theories and/or models of self-regulation of learning is important for the students of pedagogy because it allows them to know and understand the concept of self-regulation of learning from different perspectives. With this theoretical knowledge the students of pedagogy may have "awareness of the importance of self-regulation of learning" to later perform actions that allow them to adjust their thoughts and/or actions and/or emotions and/or motivation to self-regulate their learning. In addition, they will be able to understand why they have difficulties or deficiencies to self-regulate their learning [6, 39].

The experiential knowledge about self-regulation of learning would help to train the teacher as a subject who teaches how to learn. Because he could apply systematic interventions or case studies in the classroom that include one or some aspects of self-regulation of learning [33].

From the previous background, this chapter analyzes and describes what student-teachers understand by self-regulation of learning, what they do when applying the different phases of this process and what difficulties they have in carrying out this process.

#### **2. Method**

To carry out this research and understand the perceptions of a group of studentteachers regarding the concept of self-regulated learning, the process of self-regulated learning and it difficult to regulate their learning. The qualitative research approach was used according to [18] through a case study. Student-teachers participating in the study are pre-service teachers who are trained to work in the school system as secondary school teachers. Our interest is student teachers' understanding of self-regulated learning, and how they themselves regulate their own learning. We opted for the interview method because it is a technique that allows a conversation on topics that are complex. In addition, the characteristic of the group interview is that as a group instrument it is more than the sum of its parts according to [28]. This allows participating subjects to reinforce ideas that are complex to transmit in individual interviews.

#### **2.1 Research design**

The design is non-experimental descriptive cross type, that is, it aims to categorize and provide a view of the phenomenon under study.

#### **2.2 Research questions**

The questions formulated to guide the investigation were:

1.What do (student-teachers) understand about the concept of self-regulated learning?

**119**

*Perception of Student-Teachers Regarding Self-Regulated Learning*

a.being in second, third or fourth year of pedagogy and

2.What do (student-teachers) describe about the different phases of the process of self-regulated learning from the perspective of the Zimmerman model?

3.What are (student-teachers) the difficulties in regulating their learning?

For the selection of the sample, the non-probabilistic sampling technique was considered, given that the participants were selected intentionally. The criteria for

Six group interviews were conducted with pedagogy students. Each group was composed of 10 subjects. Thus, the sample was constituted by 63% of people of female students and 37% of male students. The subjects' age ranges between 19 and 27 years with an average of 20.3 years and standard deviation of 2.5 years. The total sample was 60 subjects. It should be noted that participating students have not had a degree of prior contact with respect to the concept of self-regulated learning.

The procedure consisted of applying the group interviews in groups of 10 students in a classroom. Before starting the group interview, the students were told that there would be no debate or interaction between them, but only the response of each one was expected independently. In this way, the question was asked, and each student responded in turn to the question. Each group interview was recorded and

To collect the information, a set of questions was generated and applied in each of the group interviews according to the procedure described above. The questions

1.What do (student-teachers) you understand by self-regulation of learning?

4.How do (student-teachers) you verify if they are doing well and/or properly

6.If you have obtained poor results, what actions do (student-teachers) you take

7.What difficulties do (student-teachers) you have when you are ready to study

5.How do (student-teachers) identify or specify what they should learn?

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88728*

b.voluntarily participate in the study.

**2.5 Instruments and procedure of data analysis**

applied to the students in the group interviews are:

3.How do (student-teachers) you study?

2.How do (student-teachers) you plan your study?

**2.3 Participants**

the selection were:

**2.4 Process**

then transcribed.

their learning?

to study better?

and during your study?


#### **2.3 Participants**

*Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges*

In this context, we agree with [5] who point out that one of the reasons is the lack of dissemination of theories and/or models of self-regulated learning in teacher training. Likewise, research findings in Finland show that self-regulative learning skills are extremely important contributors in student teacher learning [38–40]. Another aspect that has been studied and that may be related to the self-regulation of learning and the training of student-teachers is the importance of thinking about their double role, is to say "the teacher as a subject who learns" and " the teacher in the function of teaching to learn" [6]. Therefore, student-teachers require to know and understand the concept, theories and models of self-regulation of learning. Also, they need experiential knowledge about promoting self-regulation of learning.

The theoretical knowledge about the theories and/or models of self-regulation of learning is important for the students of pedagogy because it allows them to know and understand the concept of self-regulation of learning from different perspectives. With this theoretical knowledge the students of pedagogy may have "awareness of the importance of self-regulation of learning" to later perform actions that allow them to adjust their thoughts and/or actions and/or emotions and/or motivation to self-regulate their learning. In addition, they will be able to understand why

The experiential knowledge about self-regulation of learning would help to train the teacher as a subject who teaches how to learn. Because he could apply systematic interventions or case studies in the classroom that include one or some aspects of

they have difficulties or deficiencies to self-regulate their learning [6, 39].

From the previous background, this chapter analyzes and describes what student-teachers understand by self-regulation of learning, what they do when applying the different phases of this process and what difficulties they have in car-

To carry out this research and understand the perceptions of a group of studentteachers regarding the concept of self-regulated learning, the process of self-regulated learning and it difficult to regulate their learning. The qualitative research approach was used according to [18] through a case study. Student-teachers participating in the study are pre-service teachers who are trained to work in the school system as secondary school teachers. Our interest is student teachers' understanding of self-regulated learning, and how they themselves regulate their own learning. We opted for the interview method because it is a technique that allows a conversation on topics that are complex. In addition, the characteristic of the group interview is that as a group instrument it is more than the sum of its parts according to [28]. This allows participating subjects to reinforce ideas that are complex to transmit in individual interviews.

The design is non-experimental descriptive cross type, that is, it aims to catego-

1.What do (student-teachers) understand about the concept of self-regulated

rize and provide a view of the phenomenon under study.

The questions formulated to guide the investigation were:

self-regulation of learning [33].

rying out this process.

**2.1 Research design**

**2.2 Research questions**

learning?

**2. Method**

**118**

For the selection of the sample, the non-probabilistic sampling technique was considered, given that the participants were selected intentionally. The criteria for the selection were:

a.being in second, third or fourth year of pedagogy and

b.voluntarily participate in the study.

Six group interviews were conducted with pedagogy students. Each group was composed of 10 subjects. Thus, the sample was constituted by 63% of people of female students and 37% of male students. The subjects' age ranges between 19 and 27 years with an average of 20.3 years and standard deviation of 2.5 years. The total sample was 60 subjects. It should be noted that participating students have not had a degree of prior contact with respect to the concept of self-regulated learning.

#### **2.4 Process**

The procedure consisted of applying the group interviews in groups of 10 students in a classroom. Before starting the group interview, the students were told that there would be no debate or interaction between them, but only the response of each one was expected independently. In this way, the question was asked, and each student responded in turn to the question. Each group interview was recorded and then transcribed.

#### **2.5 Instruments and procedure of data analysis**

To collect the information, a set of questions was generated and applied in each of the group interviews according to the procedure described above. The questions applied to the students in the group interviews are:


Six group interviews were conducted where participants answered the questions without interacting with each other, nor generated debate. The questions that were applied in the group interviews focused on the following dimensions: (1) concept of self-regulated learning, (2) phases of the process of self-regulated learning according to the Zimmerman model and (3) difficulties in the self-regulation process. The information collected was transcribed and processed using the QDA Miner software in its free version v1.4.5. The software was used in stages of content analysis [1].

For the content analysis, the model for the development of inductive and deductive categories was applied according to [22]. The model of inductive categories consists in determining the categories from the text obtained in the research process, that is, from the answers to the questions. In this case, it was applied to the category of self-regulated learning and to the category lack of regulation. In this way, the concept category of self-regulated learning was specified from the data, giving rise to the following subcategories: regular emotions, general organization prior to the study, metacognition. Likewise, for the category lack of regulation, the following subcategories were specified from the data: disorganization and distractors, uncontrolled emotions, demotivation.

In the case of the phases of the self-regulated learning process, the subcategories were determined using the deductive model. For this, the Zimmerman model was used, from which the following subcategories are used: planning phase, execution phase, and self-reflection phase.

#### **3. Results and discussion**

The research was developed under an interpretative paradigm in the modality of descriptive investigation. The data analysis is elaborated in two phases; the first phase is qualitative for the definition of categories and subcategories of analysis. The second phase sample the result of the frequency count for each subcategory is shown in the graph of **Figure 1** at the end of the description of each of the categories and subcategories. Finally, **Figure 2** represents a proposal of a conceptual map showing the relationships between categories. It should be noted that the categorization of student responses allowed the possibility that a student, with the same

**121**

**Figure 2.**

**Table 1.**

Self-regulated learning

*Perception of Student-Teachers Regarding Self-Regulated Learning*

*Proposal of a conceptual model showing the relationships between study categories.*

**Dimension Categories Subcategories**

Phases of self-regulation process

of learning

*Dimension self-regulation of learning, categories and subcategories.*

question, include information to be collected in two different subcategories. This is the case, for example, for the answers to the question, what do you understand by self-regulated learning?, because students pointed out as a response the general organization prior to the study what can be labeled as self-regulated learning

Concept of self-regulated learning General organization prior to the study

Lack of regulation Disorganization and distractors

Anti-regulation agents of learning External agents antiregulation of learning

Emotional regulation Metacognition

metacognitive base Self-reflection phase

Uncontrolled emotions Demotivation

Planning phase—basic initial organization

Execution phase—auto control

The dimension self-regulated learning allows to describe the perceptions of the participants in relation to four categories that are: concept of self-regulated learning, phases of the self-regulation process of learning, lack of regulation, and anti-regulation agents of learning. It should be noted that the lack of regulation and anti-regulation agents of learning is categories that emerged spontaneously in the discourse of the participants, even before consulting about the difficulties.

concept and as part of the planning phase.

**3.1 Self-regulated learning dimension**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88728*

**Figure 1.** *Graph of total frequencies by subcategory.*

#### *Perception of Student-Teachers Regarding Self-Regulated Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88728*

**Figure 2.**

*Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges*

tors, uncontrolled emotions, demotivation.

phase, and self-reflection phase.

**3. Results and discussion**

Six group interviews were conducted where participants answered the questions without interacting with each other, nor generated debate. The questions that were applied in the group interviews focused on the following dimensions: (1) concept of self-regulated learning, (2) phases of the process of self-regulated learning according to the Zimmerman model and (3) difficulties in the self-regulation process. The information collected was transcribed and processed using the QDA Miner software in its free version v1.4.5. The software was used in stages of content analysis [1]. For the content analysis, the model for the development of inductive and deductive categories was applied according to [22]. The model of inductive categories consists in determining the categories from the text obtained in the research process, that is, from the answers to the questions. In this case, it was applied to the category of self-regulated learning and to the category lack of regulation. In this way, the concept category of self-regulated learning was specified from the data, giving rise to the following subcategories: regular emotions, general organization prior to the study, metacognition. Likewise, for the category lack of regulation, the following subcategories were specified from the data: disorganization and distrac-

In the case of the phases of the self-regulated learning process, the subcategories were determined using the deductive model. For this, the Zimmerman model was used, from which the following subcategories are used: planning phase, execution

The research was developed under an interpretative paradigm in the modality of descriptive investigation. The data analysis is elaborated in two phases; the first phase is qualitative for the definition of categories and subcategories of analysis. The second phase sample the result of the frequency count for each subcategory is shown in the graph of **Figure 1** at the end of the description of each of the categories and subcategories. Finally, **Figure 2** represents a proposal of a conceptual map showing the relationships between categories. It should be noted that the categorization of student responses allowed the possibility that a student, with the same

**120**

**Figure 1.**

*Graph of total frequencies by subcategory.*

*Proposal of a conceptual model showing the relationships between study categories.*


#### **Table 1.**

*Dimension self-regulation of learning, categories and subcategories.*

question, include information to be collected in two different subcategories. This is the case, for example, for the answers to the question, what do you understand by self-regulated learning?, because students pointed out as a response the general organization prior to the study what can be labeled as self-regulated learning concept and as part of the planning phase.

#### **3.1 Self-regulated learning dimension**

The dimension self-regulated learning allows to describe the perceptions of the participants in relation to four categories that are: concept of self-regulated learning, phases of the self-regulation process of learning, lack of regulation, and anti-regulation agents of learning. It should be noted that the lack of regulation and anti-regulation agents of learning is categories that emerged spontaneously in the discourse of the participants, even before consulting about the difficulties.

**Table 1** shows the self-regulated Learning dimension, its categories and subcategories.

#### *3.1.1 Category concept of self-regulated learning*

The self-regulated learning concept category answer the following research question ¿what do (student-teachers) understand about the concept of self-regulated learning? In this context, this category refers to the perception of the studentteachers regarding the concept of self-regulated learning through the elaboration of a self-definition that explains the concept. In this sense, the concept of selfregulated learning has been associated with the following concepts that define three subcategories: emotional regulation, general organization prior to the Study and metacognition. **Tables 2–4** present some fragments of answers related to these three subcategories.

#### *3.1.1.1 Subcategory emotional regulation*

This subcategory indicates that student-teachers can define self-regulated learning through the regulation of emotions. Some fragments of answers are presented in **Table 2**. It is important to note that this definition obtained the second place of frequency in the concept category of self-regulation. In this sense, it is relevant that the students are aware of the importance of controlling emotions as pointed out by [4, 20, 21, 40] among others, since as future teachers they will have to intervene in classroom situations of deregulation of emotions of their students.

This result contributes to the literature on pre-service teachers' emotions by demonstrating their importance and the key role of controlling emotions to maintain self-motivation in a task during the execution of it and thus maintain interest and concentration [40, 42, 43].

#### *3.1.1.2 Subcategory general organization prior to the study*

The general organization subcategory prior to the study indicates that the student-teachers can define self-regulated learning through the conception of


#### **Table 2.**

*Fragments of responses from participants related to the emotional regulation subcategory.*


#### **Table 3.**

*Fragments of responses from participants related to the subcategory general organization prior to the study.*

**123**

**Table 4.**

*Perception of Student-Teachers Regarding Self-Regulated Learning*

In **Table 3** some representative fragments are shown.

definition of self-regulated learning to metacognition.

training of thematic teachers related to metacognition.

*3.1.2 Category phases of the self-regulation process of learning*

the general organization that they perform prior to the study. For this reason, it is noticed that it is not a specific, strategic planning for the development of an aca-

This result is related to the control of the action, that is why the strategic planning in the planning phase is key because it is an action that allows to effectively control the progress of the objectives related to what is required to learn [4, 39]. This subcategory obtained the first place of frequency in the concept category of self-regulated learning, which suggests that the participants understand, for the most part, that this type of general organization could define the self-regulation of learning. However, it is suggested to work for an effective control of the action

This subcategory indicates the possibility of defining self-regulated learning using the concept of metacognition that refers to the process of self-reflection that subjects perform when judging their actions and reacting to their own selfjudgment [37]. In this research only two student-teachers indicated as a possible

Metacognition is related to the control of thoughts that has been based on the strategic control of cognitive processes, this ability is important for student-teachers [11, 37]. Therefore, it is suggested that it is very important to incorporate in the

**Table 4** presents fragments of responses from participants related to this

The category phases of the self-regulation process of learning answer the following research question ¿what do (student-teachers) they describe about the different phases of the process of self-regulated learning from the perspective of the Zimmerman model? Therefore, it presents itself the perception of the studentteachers regarding the process of self-regulated learning. To carry out the analysis, reference will be made to the cyclic model of self-regulation phases of learning by [37]. These authors conceive self-regulated learning as a cyclic process of three phases: planning phase, execution phase and self-reflection phase. **Tables 5–7** present some fragments of responses related to each phase of the self-regulation process.

The processes of the planning phase are task analysis and self-motivating beliefs. In relation to the first process it is shown that the students declare to make a planning oriented to the goal of obtaining a grade to pass a course. This coincides with

6 "... Self-regulation of learning is for me the self-evaluation and reflection that I do of my

wrong and to be aware of that, in order to improve ..."

*Fragments of responses from participants related to the subcategory metacognition.*

academic results once I have the grades and at the end of the semester to think about what is

demic activity. Thus, they define a general way of ordering themselves.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88728*

through strategic planning [4, 39].

*3.1.1.3 Subcategory metacognition*

*3.1.2.1 Subcategory planning phase*

**Frequency Metacognition**

subcategory.

#### *Perception of Student-Teachers Regarding Self-Regulated Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88728*

the general organization that they perform prior to the study. For this reason, it is noticed that it is not a specific, strategic planning for the development of an academic activity. Thus, they define a general way of ordering themselves.

This result is related to the control of the action, that is why the strategic planning in the planning phase is key because it is an action that allows to effectively control the progress of the objectives related to what is required to learn [4, 39].

This subcategory obtained the first place of frequency in the concept category of self-regulated learning, which suggests that the participants understand, for the most part, that this type of general organization could define the self-regulation of learning. However, it is suggested to work for an effective control of the action through strategic planning [4, 39].

In **Table 3** some representative fragments are shown.

#### *3.1.1.3 Subcategory metacognition*

*Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges*

*3.1.1 Category concept of self-regulated learning*

*3.1.1.1 Subcategory emotional regulation*

subcategories.

subcategories.

their students.

and concentration [40, 42, 43].

**Frequency Emotional regulation**

..."

know how ..."

**Frequency General organization prior to the study**

of self-regulating learning ... "

*3.1.1.2 Subcategory general organization prior to the study*

condition for me to regulate my learning ..."

*Fragments of responses from participants related to the emotional regulation subcategory.*

**Table 1** shows the self-regulated Learning dimension, its categories and

The self-regulated learning concept category answer the following research question ¿what do (student-teachers) understand about the concept of self-regulated

This subcategory indicates that student-teachers can define self-regulated learning through the regulation of emotions. Some fragments of answers are presented in **Table 2**. It is important to note that this definition obtained the second place of frequency in the concept category of self-regulation. In this sense, it is relevant that the students are aware of the importance of controlling emotions as pointed out by [4, 20, 21, 40] among others, since as future teachers they will have to intervene in classroom situations of deregulation of emotions of

This result contributes to the literature on pre-service teachers' emotions by demonstrating their importance and the key role of controlling emotions to maintain self-motivation in a task during the execution of it and thus maintain interest

The general organization subcategory prior to the study indicates that the student-teachers can define self-regulated learning through the conception of

26 "... to regulate emotions, to regulate my emotions is for me to self-regulate my learning is as a

28 "... self-regulation of learning is how I organize myself. I make a list of the things that I have

*Fragments of responses from participants related to the subcategory general organization prior to the study.*

"... self-regulating my learning is to regulate my uncontrolled emotions and thus self-regulate

"... and I must regulate my emotions to self-regulate my learning, the problem is that I do not

to do daily. If I have to study ... how much I dedicate to this or something else, that is my way

learning? In this context, this category refers to the perception of the studentteachers regarding the concept of self-regulated learning through the elaboration of a self-definition that explains the concept. In this sense, the concept of selfregulated learning has been associated with the following concepts that define three subcategories: emotional regulation, general organization prior to the Study and metacognition. **Tables 2–4** present some fragments of answers related to these three

**122**

**Table 3.**

**Table 2.**

This subcategory indicates the possibility of defining self-regulated learning using the concept of metacognition that refers to the process of self-reflection that subjects perform when judging their actions and reacting to their own selfjudgment [37]. In this research only two student-teachers indicated as a possible definition of self-regulated learning to metacognition.

Metacognition is related to the control of thoughts that has been based on the strategic control of cognitive processes, this ability is important for student-teachers [11, 37]. Therefore, it is suggested that it is very important to incorporate in the training of thematic teachers related to metacognition.

**Table 4** presents fragments of responses from participants related to this subcategory.

#### *3.1.2 Category phases of the self-regulation process of learning*

The category phases of the self-regulation process of learning answer the following research question ¿what do (student-teachers) they describe about the different phases of the process of self-regulated learning from the perspective of the Zimmerman model? Therefore, it presents itself the perception of the studentteachers regarding the process of self-regulated learning. To carry out the analysis, reference will be made to the cyclic model of self-regulation phases of learning by [37]. These authors conceive self-regulated learning as a cyclic process of three phases: planning phase, execution phase and self-reflection phase. **Tables 5–7** present some fragments of responses related to each phase of the self-regulation process.

#### *3.1.2.1 Subcategory planning phase*

The processes of the planning phase are task analysis and self-motivating beliefs. In relation to the first process it is shown that the students declare to make a planning oriented to the goal of obtaining a grade to pass a course. This coincides with


**Table 4.**

*Fragments of responses from participants related to the subcategory metacognition.*


#### **Table 5.**

*Fragments of responses from participants related to the subcategory planning phase.*


#### **Table 6.**

*Fragments of responses from participants related to the subcategory execution phase.*


#### **Table 7.**

*Fragments of responses from participants related to the subcategory self reflection phase.*

what was proposed by Panadero and Alonso-Tapia [24] who point out that at this stage the student "analyzes the task, values their ability to carry it out successfully, establishes their goals and plans" (p. 451). However, it is noted that students do not plan strategically thinking about their learning, but they do it in a general way and thinking about obtaining a grade that allows them to pass their subjects, this result is similar to [33].

The foregoing is shown in **Table 5**, which presents representative fragments of participants' responses in relation to the planning phase.

It should be noted that planning is a predictor of the success that will be achieved in the task, so the longer the planning time the better results will be obtained [31]. Indeed, several studies point out that the biggest difference between expert and novice apprentices is due to the time they devote to planning [12, 34]. In the case of students participating in this research, there is no awareness that good strategic planning, both short-term and long-term, that is geared to learning, can benefit them in the context of twenty-first century skills specifically in the ability of learning to learn [36]. In short, it is noted that there is no strategic planning, but a basic organization prior to the study.

**125**

*Perception of Student-Teachers Regarding Self-Regulated Learning*

lesser degree for a grade and focus mostly on their learning process.

because it allows them to memorize what is most important for a test.

According to the model of Zimmerman and Moylan [37], the self-reflection phase consists of the process of self-judgment and self-reaction. In this sense, the results related to this phase show that the students reflect on their learning process by making self-judgments at the end of the process when they already have the grade and can review the test. Self-judgments are the processes by which the student judges their execution and which influence their self-reaction [24]. **Table 7** shows fragments of representative responses related to the self-reflection phase.

The category lack of regulation answer the following research question, ¿what are (student-teachers) the difficulties in regulating their learning? In this sense, this category refers to the perception of the student-teachers regarding the difficulties they have to regulate their learning that has been called the lack of regulation has been associated with the following subcategories: disorganization and distractors, uncontrolled emotions and demotivation. This category was created due to the

From the perspective of self-motivating beliefs, students are not aware of the importance of the variables that generate and sustain their motivation to carry out an activity, such as self-efficacy and expectations, among others. This is because the statement or description of self-motivation for learning is absent in their answers. However, their motivation is extrinsic and oriented to the goal that is manifested by declaring that they develop their academic activities to obtain a grade that allows them to pass their subjects. It is important to indicate that there is empirical evidence that students with learning goals choose and use strategies that direct them to deep learning, have reflection processes, recover before academic failures and their motivation is intrinsic [15, 17]. It is therefore important that students work in a

Two processes are distinguished in the execution phase: self-observation and self-control, as pointed out by [37]. In this sense, students declare to use metacognitive self-control processes when they indicate that they use specific strategies such as underlining a text or making a summary when studying. However, they do not declare to carry out effectively the process of motivational self-control. For this reason, responses that have to do with obstacles to self-regulated learning that are related to disorganization, distractors, lack of control of emotions and demotivation appear recurrently. Nor do they declare that they carry out the self-observation process that implies a comparison between what is being developed and the ideal execution model. In this sense, it is frequent that the student does not perform the process of selfobservation during the execution of an activity which could be due to the following reasons: (i) in many cases the student does not have or does not know how to choose a model to follow to compare its development, (ii) the student is not aware of the importance of reviewing their learning process, (iii) the evaluation made by the teacher is the final product, in this way, the process is left behind or forgotten. In sum, the students participating in the study do not perform a monitoring process during the execution of their study. **Table 6** shows representative fragments of participants' responses related to the execution phase associated with metacognitive self-control processes, in which the summary appears as the study technique

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88728*

*3.1.2.2 Subcategory execution phase*

*3.1.2.3 Subcategory self reflection phase*

*3.1.3 Category lack of regulation*

#### *Perception of Student-Teachers Regarding Self-Regulated Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88728*

From the perspective of self-motivating beliefs, students are not aware of the importance of the variables that generate and sustain their motivation to carry out an activity, such as self-efficacy and expectations, among others. This is because the statement or description of self-motivation for learning is absent in their answers. However, their motivation is extrinsic and oriented to the goal that is manifested by declaring that they develop their academic activities to obtain a grade that allows them to pass their subjects. It is important to indicate that there is empirical evidence that students with learning goals choose and use strategies that direct them to deep learning, have reflection processes, recover before academic failures and their motivation is intrinsic [15, 17]. It is therefore important that students work in a lesser degree for a grade and focus mostly on their learning process.

#### *3.1.2.2 Subcategory execution phase*

*Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges*

scholarships that I have, and I need them ..."

*Fragments of responses from participants related to the subcategory planning phase.*

I never knew if I learned with those courses ... "

indicate that I occupy is the summary when I study ..."

a lot, it's the synthesis of what I have to memorize ..."

*Fragments of responses from participants related to the subcategory execution phase.*

that I memorized the most for the test ... "

*Fragments of responses from participants related to the subcategory self reflection phase.*

**Frequency Execution phase—auto control metacognitive base**

39 "... I agree I plan and establish my goal associated with the note because I have to approve my

22 "... But with the courses in which I do well is pure memorization and what I have to apply is

17 "... The way I measure whether I'm learning or not, is like putting myself to the test if after a

"... For me what works are the summaries as I had said before ..."

"... the planning I do is designed to achieve the grade I need to pass and obtain the benefits of

just that. For the same theme of the strategy that I execute that is to repeat and memorize, but

"... My friends lend me their summaries ... or we do them together in the central library ... but like the rest I must admit that I do not know my study technique" "... The one that could

"... We always worry about the final result, about the qualification and so the summaries help

while I remember what I was learning, it's funny because it happens in many courses where I'm relatively better student, but it's not the one that I have learned the most, is only the one

"... Analyze the results, the factors. If you do not study or study late there is nothing to analyze. Take advantage of the hours given by the teacher to review the answers and ask

"... See what is wrong, review the evaluation, rewrite down what is wrong and revise everything, to understand it again and things like that, study more for the next evaluation ..."

**Frequency Planning phase**

**Table 5.**

**Table 6.**

**Table 7.**

courses..."

**Frequency Self reflection phase**

what was proposed by Panadero and Alonso-Tapia [24] who point out that at this stage the student "analyzes the task, values their ability to carry it out successfully, establishes their goals and plans" (p. 451). However, it is noted that students do not plan strategically thinking about their learning, but they do it in a general way and thinking about obtaining a grade that allows them to pass their subjects, this result

directly what went wrong and thus correct the mistakes ... "

The foregoing is shown in **Table 5**, which presents representative fragments of

It should be noted that planning is a predictor of the success that will be achieved in the task, so the longer the planning time the better results will be obtained [31]. Indeed, several studies point out that the biggest difference between expert and novice apprentices is due to the time they devote to planning [12, 34]. In the case of students participating in this research, there is no awareness that good strategic planning, both short-term and long-term, that is geared to learning, can benefit them in the context of twenty-first century skills specifically in the ability of learning to learn [36]. In short, it is noted that there is no strategic planning, but a

participants' responses in relation to the planning phase.

basic organization prior to the study.

**124**

is similar to [33].

Two processes are distinguished in the execution phase: self-observation and self-control, as pointed out by [37]. In this sense, students declare to use metacognitive self-control processes when they indicate that they use specific strategies such as underlining a text or making a summary when studying. However, they do not declare to carry out effectively the process of motivational self-control. For this reason, responses that have to do with obstacles to self-regulated learning that are related to disorganization, distractors, lack of control of emotions and demotivation appear recurrently. Nor do they declare that they carry out the self-observation process that implies a comparison between what is being developed and the ideal execution model.

In this sense, it is frequent that the student does not perform the process of selfobservation during the execution of an activity which could be due to the following reasons: (i) in many cases the student does not have or does not know how to choose a model to follow to compare its development, (ii) the student is not aware of the importance of reviewing their learning process, (iii) the evaluation made by the teacher is the final product, in this way, the process is left behind or forgotten. In sum, the students participating in the study do not perform a monitoring process during the execution of their study. **Table 6** shows representative fragments of participants' responses related to the execution phase associated with metacognitive self-control processes, in which the summary appears as the study technique because it allows them to memorize what is most important for a test.

#### *3.1.2.3 Subcategory self reflection phase*

According to the model of Zimmerman and Moylan [37], the self-reflection phase consists of the process of self-judgment and self-reaction. In this sense, the results related to this phase show that the students reflect on their learning process by making self-judgments at the end of the process when they already have the grade and can review the test. Self-judgments are the processes by which the student judges their execution and which influence their self-reaction [24]. **Table 7** shows fragments of representative responses related to the self-reflection phase.

#### *3.1.3 Category lack of regulation*

The category lack of regulation answer the following research question, ¿what are (student-teachers) the difficulties in regulating their learning? In this sense, this category refers to the perception of the student-teachers regarding the difficulties they have to regulate their learning that has been called the lack of regulation has been associated with the following subcategories: disorganization and distractors, uncontrolled emotions and demotivation. This category was created due to the

recurring description by students of this type of difficulty to regulate their learning. The foregoing is in accordance with what was stated in the execution phase category, where a lack of the motivational self-control process was evidenced.

The lack of regulation could be due to a lack of volition activation, especially in the case of disorganization and distractors and demotivation. In this sense, volition is the strategic control necessary to carry out the process of executing a task and can be learned to control strategically [41, 42].

An alternative to help reduces the lack of regulation is co-regulation because it encourages self-regulation of learning. In this sense, Hadwin et al. [16] have suggested that a strategy to develop self-regulated learning of students is through interaction that plays a central role. The interaction allows the co-regulation of learning that refers to the "temporal coordination of self-regulation among others" [16] (p. 68) and therefore implies planning, monitoring and evaluation of learning in collaboration with others [16, 44].

#### *3.1.3.1 Subcategory disorganization and distractors*

The results associated with this subcategory are related to the difficulties that student-teachers have in relation to their own organization and that have a negative influence on the regulation of their learning. **Table 8** shows representative fragments of participants' responses related to disorganization and distractions; the results coincide with those presented in [33].

#### *3.1.3.2 Subcategory uncontrolled emotions*

In this subcategory the answers referred to the difficulty to control emotions are associated. The control of emotions is fundamental for the regulation of learning because in cases where they are not controlled there will be interference with learning, as pointed out by [4]. **Table 9** shows representative fragments of the responses of the participants related to the lack of control of emotions.

#### *3.1.3.3 Subcategory demotivation*

This subcategory represents the results associated with the demotivation problems described by the study participants. Motivation plays an important role in the self-regulated learning because it represents the motor that mobilizes the student to take actions and make decisions that allow him/her to achieve his/her goals or objectives. In this sense, the control of motivation has been studied by [20, 21] who emphasizes the role of emotions and how these can hinder the start of tasks or activities that the student must perform. **Table 10** shows representative fragments of the responses related to demotivation and that coincide with what was stated by [21].

#### *3.1.4 Category anti-regulation agents of learning*

The category anti-regulation agents of learning answer the following research question, ¿what are (student-teachers) the difficulties in regulating their learning? This category refers to the perception of the student-teachers regarding antiregulation agents of learning that are unforeseen and/or factors outside of them as students and that affect them in some way in their regulation of learning. Students describe being aware of these external factors and that they cannot control. This category has a single subcategory that is external agents antiregulation of learning. **Table 11** shows representative fragments of the responses related to external agents antiregulation of learning.

**127**

*Perception of Student-Teachers Regarding Self-Regulated Learning*

19 "... When I study at home ... I lose a lot of time, I want to do anything, so I'm studying the last

23 "... Many times, I love the course, I understand everything, but the evaluations arrive and I'm

doing very badly. I think I do not control the anxiety. I forget everything. But then I realize that I know everything, and I do not understand why it did not go so well and maybe it's because sometimes more things affect the results in the evaluations such as concentration and

utility, which is what gives meaning to a subject, when it is established so that it serves you

"... When you do not know what is useful for you, you may lose interest in the class and that

want to stop being stressed, but an external situation arrives that alters all that rhythm ..." "... It's an external factor that I cannot control, for example: room changes at the last minute, teachers who do not upload the material on time and that... force me to permanently change

pressure is so much. But the quality of life is the one that goes down ..."

Observation: "centralazo" refers to the central library

*Fragments of responses from participants related to the subcategory uncontrolled emotions.*

something and why it is in your formation..."

*Fragments of responses from participants related to the subcategory demotivation.*

28 "... I am discouraged because many courses are demotivating. They have no sense of

"... Listening to the professor without doing anything else is demotivating ..."

37 "... I want to add something that are unexpected events, for example, I regulate myself, I

*Fragments of responses from participants related to the subcategory disorganization and distractors.*

"... I want to comment on what happens for the evaluations ... we dedicate the previous night, "centralazo" with coffee all night, as much quantity and quality is not usually so bad when the

**Table 12** shows the summary of subcategories and frequencies where it is observed that the frequencies are low in relation to the total of participants that are 60 subjects. Then, **Figure 1** presents a graph of total frequencies for each subcategory in order to summarize the qualitative analysis described above. Thus, in **Figure 2** the subcategory metacognition has the lowest frequency and that the subcategory general organization prior to the study has the highest frequency. Both subcategories belong to the category self-regulated learning concept and the results obtained indicate that the student-teachers understand, in the first instance mostly, that the general organization they perform represents the concept of self-regulated learning. However, it should be noted that the three subcategories of the selfregulated learning concept are part of the self-regulated learning, but the students

*Fragments of responses from participants related to the subcategory external agents antiregulation of learning.*

did not indicate the three together as a concept, but they did it separately.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88728*

**Frequency Disorganization and distractors**

day ... I'm a mess ..."

**Frequency Uncontrolled emotions**

emotions ... "

will distract you ... "

**Frequency External agents antiregulation of learning**

my planning …"

**Frequency Demotivation**

**Table 8.**

**Table 9.**

**Table 10.**

**Table 11.**


#### **Table 8.**

*Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges*

be learned to control strategically [41, 42].

in collaboration with others [16, 44].

*3.1.3.1 Subcategory disorganization and distractors*

results coincide with those presented in [33].

*3.1.4 Category anti-regulation agents of learning*

of the participants related to the lack of control of emotions.

*3.1.3.2 Subcategory uncontrolled emotions*

*3.1.3.3 Subcategory demotivation*

recurring description by students of this type of difficulty to regulate their learning. The foregoing is in accordance with what was stated in the execution phase category, where a lack of the motivational self-control process was evidenced.

The lack of regulation could be due to a lack of volition activation, especially in the case of disorganization and distractors and demotivation. In this sense, volition is the strategic control necessary to carry out the process of executing a task and can

An alternative to help reduces the lack of regulation is co-regulation because it encourages self-regulation of learning. In this sense, Hadwin et al. [16] have suggested that a strategy to develop self-regulated learning of students is through interaction that plays a central role. The interaction allows the co-regulation of learning that refers to the "temporal coordination of self-regulation among others" [16] (p. 68) and therefore implies planning, monitoring and evaluation of learning

The results associated with this subcategory are related to the difficulties that student-teachers have in relation to their own organization and that have a negative influence on the regulation of their learning. **Table 8** shows representative fragments of participants' responses related to disorganization and distractions; the

In this subcategory the answers referred to the difficulty to control emotions are associated. The control of emotions is fundamental for the regulation of learning because in cases where they are not controlled there will be interference with learning, as pointed out by [4]. **Table 9** shows representative fragments of the responses

This subcategory represents the results associated with the demotivation problems described by the study participants. Motivation plays an important role in the self-regulated learning because it represents the motor that mobilizes the student to take actions and make decisions that allow him/her to achieve his/her goals or objectives. In this sense, the control of motivation has been studied by [20, 21] who emphasizes the role of emotions and how these can hinder the start of tasks or activities that the student must perform. **Table 10** shows representative fragments of the responses related to demotivation and that coincide with what was stated by [21].

The category anti-regulation agents of learning answer the following research question, ¿what are (student-teachers) the difficulties in regulating their learning? This category refers to the perception of the student-teachers regarding antiregulation agents of learning that are unforeseen and/or factors outside of them as students and that affect them in some way in their regulation of learning. Students describe being aware of these external factors and that they cannot control. This category has a single subcategory that is external agents antiregulation of learning. **Table 11** shows representative fragments of the responses related to external agents

**126**

antiregulation of learning.

*Fragments of responses from participants related to the subcategory disorganization and distractors.*


#### **Table 9.**

*Fragments of responses from participants related to the subcategory uncontrolled emotions.*


#### **Table 10.**

*Fragments of responses from participants related to the subcategory demotivation.*


#### **Table 11.**

*Fragments of responses from participants related to the subcategory external agents antiregulation of learning.*

**Table 12** shows the summary of subcategories and frequencies where it is observed that the frequencies are low in relation to the total of participants that are 60 subjects. Then, **Figure 1** presents a graph of total frequencies for each subcategory in order to summarize the qualitative analysis described above. Thus, in **Figure 2** the subcategory metacognition has the lowest frequency and that the subcategory general organization prior to the study has the highest frequency. Both subcategories belong to the category self-regulated learning concept and the results obtained indicate that the student-teachers understand, in the first instance mostly, that the general organization they perform represents the concept of self-regulated learning. However, it should be noted that the three subcategories of the selfregulated learning concept are part of the self-regulated learning, but the students did not indicate the three together as a concept, but they did it separately.


#### **Table 12.**

*Summary of subcategories and frequencies.*

Regarding the phases of self-regulated learning process, in **Figure 2** it is observed that both the planning phase and the execution phase have the highest frequencies. This happens because the student-teachers indicated in their majority to execute a general planning and to use techniques like underlining and summaries during the execution of an academic activity. However, in both phases the development that they declare is incipient in relation to: (1) lack of strategic planning in the planning phase, (2) lack of processes of motivational self-control which influences the appearance in their discourse of difficulties to regulate their learning such as: disorganization and distractors, uncontrolled emotions and demotivation, (3) absence of self-records that allow them to compare and monitor the execution of their learning.

In sum, the major lack of learning are the lack of control of emotions and disorganization, followed by demotivation, which coincides with the approach of Kuhl [20, 21]. Kuhl points out that students who do not regulate their emotions can be oriented to the state and not to the action. In this way, they remain in states of worry or other emotional states that do not allow them to initiate, advance or execute their academic activities. It is important to note that defining the concept of self-regulated learning is complex because of the multidimensional nature of its construct, and although there are several models that help to understand the concept of self-regulated learning, none of them fully explains it [24]. Therefore, this research has used two models, Zimmerman and Kuhl to support the understanding of the phenomenon under study.

**Figure 2** presents a proposal of a conceptual model that shows the relationships between the categories generated in the study. It is observed that the category anti-regulation of learning agents is related to the category phases of the process of self-regulation of learning through the relationship of hindrance. In addition, the self-regulated learning concept category is related to the category phases of the process of self-regulated learning by means of compression, this means that it is not possible to apply the phases of the self-regulated process adequately, but rather, there is awareness and understanding of the concept self-regulated learning.

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*Perception of Student-Teachers Regarding Self-Regulated Learning*

rest of their lives in the current context of society [30].

Therefore, it is necessary to teach students how to learn through the knowledge of the models that explain how self-regulated learning should be done in such a way that they are aware of what it means to learn, what faults they have and how they could improve. In this way, this skill is encouraged since they will require it for the

It should be noted that in **Figure 2** the category self-regulated learning concept shows three subcategories that are: (1) regulate emotions, (2) general organization prior to the study and (3) meta-cognition. However, despite the fact that the relationship that links them to the concept is called "it is part of" no student indicated a description using the three components to refer to the concept of self-regulated learning. Then, the relationship between the concept of self-regulated learning and the phases of the self-regulated learning process is "it is required to understand" what it implies, as mentioned above, that in order to go deep into the detail of each of the phases of the self-regulation process, first It is necessary to have a clear notion

In the case of the phases of the self-regulated process of learning, in **Figure 2**, it is observed that it is composed of: (1) planning phase with basic initial organization, (2) execution phase with metacognitive base self-control and (3) self-reflection phase with self-judgment. In this sense, it is important to note that there is a difference with the Zimmerman model because students do not declare or describe processes such as the motivational self-control of the execution phase and the metacognitive self-control, they name is elementary. For that reason, it was denominated

Then, the anti-regulation agents of learning category is related to the lack of regulation through the relationship "increase" because are external agents antiregulation of learning that can increase lack of regulation and in consequence obstruct

In short, it should be noted that it is necessary for students to understand the concept of self-regulated of learning so that they can, through the approaches proposed by the models, be aware of the processes and strategies they can carry out to improve their own learning. In this way, in addition to improving the effectiveness of the study, the efficient use of time could also be improved, provided that the metacognitive process of self-regulation is significant for students, avoiding the practices and study strategies that lead to considering the learning as the result of the reproductive action of the knowledge and content of the subjects, fostering, through awareness, a reflective process about what is learned and how it is learned. Regarding the conceptual model presented in **Figure 2**, its contribution is that it represents three components of self-regulated learning that are at the same level and that are related to each other. The first component is the concept of self-regulated learning that is related to the phases of self-regulated learning through the understanding of the concept. Then, lack of regulation influence the phases of the process of self-regulated learning, hindering one or more of the phases of the process of self-regulated learning. In this way, the model includes the understanding of the concept, development of the process, lack of regulation and external agents that hinder the development of the process. Other models studied are focused on the cognitive-motivational process [2, 11, 16, 25, 31, 35] and do not include components such as the understanding of the self-regulated learning concept, lack of regulation

the learning process of the student at any stage of the process.

and external agents that hinder the development of the process.

In this sense, we agree with Hernández and Camargo [19] who point out: "the task of characterizing the Ibero-American university students is essential in order to identify their dimensions as self-regulating subjects of their learning process. This information is of central importance when designing and implementing plans, programs and actions in the training scenarios that contribute to the advancement

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88728*

of what the concept means.

"base metacognitive self-control".

*Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges*

*Subcategories of concept self-regulation of learning*

Subcategories of self-regulation process of learning

*Subcategories of anti-regulation agents of learning*

*Subcategories of lack of regulation*

*Summary of subcategories and frequencies.*

**Subcategories Frequency**

Emotional regulation 26 Metacognition 6 General organization prior to the study 28

Planning phase—basic initial organization 39 Execution phase—auto control metacognitive base 22 Self reflection phase 17

Disorganization and distractors 19 Uncontrolled emotions 23 Demotivation 28

External agents antiregulation of learning 37

Regarding the phases of self-regulated learning process, in **Figure 2** it is observed that both the planning phase and the execution phase have the highest frequencies. This happens because the student-teachers indicated in their majority to execute a general planning and to use techniques like underlining and summaries during the execution of an academic activity. However, in both phases the development that they declare is incipient in relation to: (1) lack of strategic planning in the planning phase, (2) lack of processes of motivational self-control which influences the appearance in their discourse of difficulties to regulate their learning such as: disorganization and distractors, uncontrolled emotions and demotivation, (3) absence of self-records that allow them to compare and monitor the execution of

In sum, the major lack of learning are the lack of control of emotions and disorganization, followed by demotivation, which coincides with the approach of Kuhl [20, 21]. Kuhl points out that students who do not regulate their emotions can be oriented to the state and not to the action. In this way, they remain in states of worry or other emotional states that do not allow them to initiate, advance or execute their academic activities. It is important to note that defining the concept of self-regulated learning is complex because of the multidimensional nature of its construct, and although there are several models that help to understand the concept of self-regulated learning, none of them fully explains it [24]. Therefore, this research has used two models, Zimmerman and Kuhl to support the understanding

**Figure 2** presents a proposal of a conceptual model that shows the relationships between the categories generated in the study. It is observed that the category anti-regulation of learning agents is related to the category phases of the process of self-regulation of learning through the relationship of hindrance. In addition, the self-regulated learning concept category is related to the category phases of the process of self-regulated learning by means of compression, this means that it is not possible to apply the phases of the self-regulated process adequately, but rather, there is awareness and understanding of the concept self-regulated learning.

**128**

their learning.

**Table 12.**

of the phenomenon under study.

Therefore, it is necessary to teach students how to learn through the knowledge of the models that explain how self-regulated learning should be done in such a way that they are aware of what it means to learn, what faults they have and how they could improve. In this way, this skill is encouraged since they will require it for the rest of their lives in the current context of society [30].

It should be noted that in **Figure 2** the category self-regulated learning concept shows three subcategories that are: (1) regulate emotions, (2) general organization prior to the study and (3) meta-cognition. However, despite the fact that the relationship that links them to the concept is called "it is part of" no student indicated a description using the three components to refer to the concept of self-regulated learning. Then, the relationship between the concept of self-regulated learning and the phases of the self-regulated learning process is "it is required to understand" what it implies, as mentioned above, that in order to go deep into the detail of each of the phases of the self-regulation process, first It is necessary to have a clear notion of what the concept means.

In the case of the phases of the self-regulated process of learning, in **Figure 2**, it is observed that it is composed of: (1) planning phase with basic initial organization, (2) execution phase with metacognitive base self-control and (3) self-reflection phase with self-judgment. In this sense, it is important to note that there is a difference with the Zimmerman model because students do not declare or describe processes such as the motivational self-control of the execution phase and the metacognitive self-control, they name is elementary. For that reason, it was denominated "base metacognitive self-control".

Then, the anti-regulation agents of learning category is related to the lack of regulation through the relationship "increase" because are external agents antiregulation of learning that can increase lack of regulation and in consequence obstruct the learning process of the student at any stage of the process.

In short, it should be noted that it is necessary for students to understand the concept of self-regulated of learning so that they can, through the approaches proposed by the models, be aware of the processes and strategies they can carry out to improve their own learning. In this way, in addition to improving the effectiveness of the study, the efficient use of time could also be improved, provided that the metacognitive process of self-regulation is significant for students, avoiding the practices and study strategies that lead to considering the learning as the result of the reproductive action of the knowledge and content of the subjects, fostering, through awareness, a reflective process about what is learned and how it is learned.

Regarding the conceptual model presented in **Figure 2**, its contribution is that it represents three components of self-regulated learning that are at the same level and that are related to each other. The first component is the concept of self-regulated learning that is related to the phases of self-regulated learning through the understanding of the concept. Then, lack of regulation influence the phases of the process of self-regulated learning, hindering one or more of the phases of the process of self-regulated learning. In this way, the model includes the understanding of the concept, development of the process, lack of regulation and external agents that hinder the development of the process. Other models studied are focused on the cognitive-motivational process [2, 11, 16, 25, 31, 35] and do not include components such as the understanding of the self-regulated learning concept, lack of regulation and external agents that hinder the development of the process.

In this sense, we agree with Hernández and Camargo [19] who point out: "the task of characterizing the Ibero-American university students is essential in order to identify their dimensions as self-regulating subjects of their learning process. This information is of central importance when designing and implementing plans, programs and actions in the training scenarios that contribute to the advancement

of students in their academic studies, as well as the promotion of guidelines for the generation of student autonomy understood as self-regulated learning" (p. 156).

Additionally, we agree with Saariaho et al. [40] that: "clear and personally valuable goals for learning, a sense of control over one's own learning activities, as well as an ability to reflect individually and with others are the key elements in active, intentional, and engaging teacher learning." (p. 552). Therefore, including activities that encourage co-regulation is key in teacher training because they enhance learning and positive emotions [40].

Finally, it should be mentioned that the study has limitations such as the size of the sample that considered 60 subjects and the fact that the study was conducted only under the qualitative paradigm. However, these limitations can be remedied in future investigations that are carried out using self-report instruments with samples of more than 300 students and qualitative studies with samples of students from other areas. This is because the same guideline of questions in this study can be used, which has had the purpose of being applied as a pilot to direct the following investigations that will allow the diagnostic processes in freshmen students. Also, it is interesting to mention that there are researches in university students in the engineering area that have shown equivalent results [33] in relation to the lack of planning and monitoring of their learning process but they do not describe lack of regulation and external agents that hinder the development of the process.

#### **4. Conclusions and recommendations**

The conclusions of this chapter are:

	- i.In relation to the understanding that participating students have about the concept of self-regulated learning, it is noted that they refer mainly to the general organization prior to the study and the regulation of emotions. In this sense, it should be noted that the organization they carry out is not aimed at the purpose of their learning but is aimed at obtaining a grade.
	- ii.The understanding of the concept of self-regulation of learning by teachers allows us to analyze what their weaknesses are with respect to

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*Perception of Student-Teachers Regarding Self-Regulated Learning*

actions with the new execution.

understanding to work on a process of continuous improvement of your

5.For the research question, what do (student-teachers) describe about the different phases of the process of self-regulated learning from the perspective of

i.It is concluded that the students do not carry out a strategic planning and that, when executing an academic activity, they mostly use the summaries. However, it is suggested that they have not developed each of the phases exhaustively, since, for example, the planning phase is not strategic. Additionally, in the execution phase it is not common for them to carry out self-registrations that allow them to compare the previous

ii.In summary, the planning and execution phase are incipient in relation to: (i) lack of strategic planning in the planning phase, (ii) lack of motivational self-control processes, which influences the appearance in their discourse of descriptions of lack of regulation such as: disorganization and lack of control of emotions, (iii) absence of self-records that allow them to compare and monitor the execution of their learning. Therefore, the participating students do not describe a monitoring process during the execution of their study.

6.For the research question, ¿what are (student-teachers) the difficulties in

ii.The lack of regulation is the difficulties to regulate their learning. In this sence, it was obtained that uncontrolled emotions, disorganization, constitute impediments that hinder learning. However, it should be noted

iii.In relation to the understanding have about the other difficulties to regulate their learning, the student-teachers when studying pedagogy understand and have "conscience" of the characteristics of the educational system. In this way, they perceive and describe the subcategory

7.Finally, it is important to conclude that for student-teachers it is essential to understand the concept of self-regulation of learning and the stages of the

i.Apply self-regulation of learning to be self-regulated student-teachers.

ii.When they perform their work as teachers in the classroom, they promote

b.external agents antiregulation of learning

external agents antiregulation of learning.

self-regulation of learning in their students through:

a.Teaching strategies that promote metacognition.

process of self-regulation of learning so that:

that students are aware and reflect on these obstacles.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88728*

abilities.

the Zimmerman model?

regulating their learning?

i.Two are proposed, which are:

a.lack of regulation

*Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges*

ing and positive emotions [40].

**4. Conclusions and recommendations**

The conclusions of this chapter are:

concept of self-regulated learning?

process.

learning.

of students in their academic studies, as well as the promotion of guidelines for the generation of student autonomy understood as self-regulated learning" (p. 156). Additionally, we agree with Saariaho et al. [40] that: "clear and personally valuable goals for learning, a sense of control over one's own learning activities, as well as an ability to reflect individually and with others are the key elements in active, intentional, and engaging teacher learning." (p. 552). Therefore, including activities that encourage co-regulation is key in teacher training because they enhance learn-

Finally, it should be mentioned that the study has limitations such as the size of the sample that considered 60 subjects and the fact that the study was conducted only under the qualitative paradigm. However, these limitations can be remedied in future investigations that are carried out using self-report instruments with samples of more than 300 students and qualitative studies with samples of students from other areas. This is because the same guideline of questions in this study can be used, which has had the purpose of being applied as a pilot to direct the following investigations that will allow the diagnostic processes in freshmen students. Also, it is interesting to mention that there are researches in university students in the engineering area that have shown equivalent results [33] in relation to the lack of planning and monitoring of their learning process but they do not describe lack of regulation and external agents that hinder the development of the

1.It is proposed conceptual model includes components that represent: (i) the understanding of the concept of self-regulation of learning, (ii) development of the process of self-regulation of learning, (iii) difficulties to regulate their learning named lack of regulation and (iv) external agents antiregulation of

2.The proposed conceptual model can be further improved so that it serves as a basic guide in the training of independent professors of the level. That is, in the

3.The improvements of the conceptual model can be oriented to collect more data through group and/or individual interviews to raise more categories and empirical subcategories. Then, methodological and/or strategic recommenda-

4.For the research question, what do (student-teachers) understand about the

ii.The understanding of the concept of self-regulation of learning by teachers allows us to analyze what their weaknesses are with respect to

i.In relation to the understanding that participating students have about the concept of self-regulated learning, it is noted that they refer mainly to the general organization prior to the study and the regulation of emotions. In this sense, it should be noted that the organization they carry out is not aimed at the purpose of their learning but is aimed at obtaining a grade.

training of secondary school teachers or higher education teachers.

tions for the promotion of self-regulation could be suggested.

**130**

understanding to work on a process of continuous improvement of your abilities.

	- i.It is concluded that the students do not carry out a strategic planning and that, when executing an academic activity, they mostly use the summaries. However, it is suggested that they have not developed each of the phases exhaustively, since, for example, the planning phase is not strategic. Additionally, in the execution phase it is not common for them to carry out self-registrations that allow them to compare the previous actions with the new execution.
	- ii.In summary, the planning and execution phase are incipient in relation to: (i) lack of strategic planning in the planning phase, (ii) lack of motivational self-control processes, which influences the appearance in their discourse of descriptions of lack of regulation such as: disorganization and lack of control of emotions, (iii) absence of self-records that allow them to compare and monitor the execution of their learning. Therefore, the participating students do not describe a monitoring process during the execution of their study.
	- i.Two are proposed, which are:

a.lack of regulation

b.external agents antiregulation of learning

	- i.Apply self-regulation of learning to be self-regulated student-teachers.
	- ii.When they perform their work as teachers in the classroom, they promote self-regulation of learning in their students through:
		- a.Teaching strategies that promote metacognition.

#### **Acknowledgements**

This research is part of the doctoral thesis of Carolina Zambrano Matamala to obtain the phd in Education from the University of Concepción, Chile. I thank the dean of the Faculty of Education Dr. Oscar Nail and the director of the Doctorate in Education program Dr. Carlos Muñoz for the scholarship of postgraduate studies to study the Doctorate in Education. I thank the students who have participated voluntarily in the development of my thesis "Learning Patterns and Lexical Availability in Student-teachers". I thank my supervising teacher Dr. Pedro Salcedo. I thank Dra. Kirsi Tirri for his valuable comments and suggestions during the development of this book chapter. Your comments and suggestions are a source of knowledge in the development of my thesis.

Thanks are given to the CONICYT / FONDECYT 1161502 project entitled "Affective and cognitive variables involved in the structural prediction of university drop-out".

### **Author details**

Carolina Zambrano-Matamala1 \*, Darío Rojas-Diaz1 , Pedro Salcedo-Lagos1 , Felipe Albarran-Torres2 and Alejandro Diaz-Mujica<sup>3</sup>

1 Department of Research Methodology and Educational Informatics, Faculty of Education, University of Concepción, Concepción, Chile

2 Department of Basic Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Catholic University of the Most Holy Conception, Concepción, Chile

3 Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Concepción, Concepción, Chile

\*Address all correspondence to: carolinazambrano@gmail.com

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**133**

2015;**17**(3):13-27

*Perception of Student-Teachers Regarding Self-Regulated Learning*

[9] Donoso S, Donoso G, Arias O. Iniciativas de retención de estudiantes de educación superior. Revista Calidad en la Educación. 2010;**33**(2):15-61

[10] Cuba-Esquivel A. Constructo competencia: Síntesis históricoepistemológica. Educación. 2016;**25**(48):7-27. DOI: 10.18800/

[11] Efklides A. Interactions of metacognition with motivation and affectin self-regulated learning: The MASRL model. Educational Psychologist. 2011;**46**:6-25. DOI: 10.1080/00461520.2011.538645

[12] Ericsson K, Charness N, Feltovich PJ, Hoffman R. The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance. 2nd ed. Londres, Inglaterra: Cambridge

educacion.201601.001

University Press; 2006

2013;**15**(2):131-147

Alínea; 2000. pp. 69-96

10.1037/0022-3514.85.3.541

Routledge; 2011

[13] Garello MV, Rinaudo MC. Autorregulación del aprendizaje, feedback y transferencia de

[14] Guerra CT. Conhecimento

conocimiento: Investigación de diseño con estudiantes universitarios. Revista Electrónica de Investigación Educativa.

psicológico e formação de professores. In: Azzi RG, Batista SHS da S, Sadalla AMF de A, editors. Formação de professores: Discutindo o ensino de psicología. Campinas, SP: Editora

[15] Grant H, Dweck CS. Clarifying achievement goals and their impact. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2003;**85**(3):541-553. DOI:

[16] Hadwin AF, Järvelä S, Miller M. Selfregulated, co-regulated and socially shared regulation of learning. In: Handbook of Self-Regulation of Learning and Performance. NY:

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88728*

[1] Andréu J. Las técnicas de análisis de contenido: Una revisión actualizada. Documento de trabajo, S2001/03. Centro de Estudios Andaluces; 2001

[2] Boekaerts M. Motivated learning: Studying student situation transactional units. European Journal of Psychology of Education. 1999;**14**(1):41-55. DOI:

[3] Boekaerts M, Pintrich P, Zeidner M. Handbook of Self-Regulation. 2nd ed. Academic Press, Elsevier; 2005

[4] Boekaerts M, Corno L. Selfregulation in the classroom: A perspective on assessment and intervention. Applied Psychology.

2005;**54**(2):199-231. DOI: 10.1111/j.1464-0597.2005.00205.x

[5] Boruchovitch E, Costa ER, Neves ERC. Estratégias de

aprendizagem: Contribuições para a formação de professores nos cursos superiores. In: Joly MC, Santos AAA, Sisto FF, editors. Questões do Cotidiano Universitário. São Paulo: Casa do Psicólogo; 2005. pp. 239-260

[6] Boruchovitch E. Autorregulação da aprendizagem: Contribuições da psicologia educacional para a formação de professores. Psicologia Escolar e Educacional. 2014;**18**(3):401-409

[7] Díaz A, Pérez M, Valenzuela M, Muñoz P, Rivas S, Salas C. Procesos de autorregulación del aprendizaje en estudiantes universitarios de primer año. Internacional Journal of Developmental an Educational Psychology. 2010;**4**(1):789-800

[8] Daura F. Aprendizaje autorregulado

Electrónica de Investigación Educativa.

y rendimiento académico en estudiantes del ciclo clínico de la carrera de Medicina. Revista

10.1007/bf03173110

**References**

*Perception of Student-Teachers Regarding Self-Regulated Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88728*

#### **References**

*Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges*

study to become aware of their learning process.

the execution of their learning, among others.

**Acknowledgements**

development of my thesis.

drop-out".

**Author details**

Carolina Zambrano-Matamala1

Felipe Albarran-Torres2

Concepción, Chile

b.Using strategies that allow them to learn to strategically plan their

d.Applying strategies that encourage the co-regulation of learning.

This research is part of the doctoral thesis of Carolina Zambrano Matamala to obtain the phd in Education from the University of Concepción, Chile. I thank the dean of the Faculty of Education Dr. Oscar Nail and the director of the Doctorate in Education program Dr. Carlos Muñoz for the scholarship of postgraduate studies to study the Doctorate in Education. I thank the students who have participated voluntarily in the development of my thesis "Learning Patterns and Lexical Availability in Student-teachers". I thank my supervising teacher Dr. Pedro Salcedo. I thank Dra. Kirsi Tirri for his valuable comments and suggestions during the development of this book chapter. Your comments and suggestions are a source of knowledge in the

Thanks are given to the CONICYT / FONDECYT 1161502 project entitled "Affective and cognitive variables involved in the structural prediction of university

\*, Darío Rojas-Diaz1

1 Department of Research Methodology and Educational Informatics, Faculty of

2 Department of Basic Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Catholic University of the

3 Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Concepción,

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

and Alejandro Diaz-Mujica<sup>3</sup>

Education, University of Concepción, Concepción, Chile

\*Address all correspondence to: carolinazambrano@gmail.com

Most Holy Conception, Concepción, Chile

provided the original work is properly cited.

, Pedro Salcedo-Lagos1

,

c.Using instruments that allow self-registration to compare and monitor

**132**

[1] Andréu J. Las técnicas de análisis de contenido: Una revisión actualizada. Documento de trabajo, S2001/03. Centro de Estudios Andaluces; 2001

[2] Boekaerts M. Motivated learning: Studying student situation transactional units. European Journal of Psychology of Education. 1999;**14**(1):41-55. DOI: 10.1007/bf03173110

[3] Boekaerts M, Pintrich P, Zeidner M. Handbook of Self-Regulation. 2nd ed. Academic Press, Elsevier; 2005

[4] Boekaerts M, Corno L. Selfregulation in the classroom: A perspective on assessment and intervention. Applied Psychology. 2005;**54**(2):199-231. DOI: 10.1111/j.1464-0597.2005.00205.x

[5] Boruchovitch E, Costa ER, Neves ERC. Estratégias de aprendizagem: Contribuições para a formação de professores nos cursos superiores. In: Joly MC, Santos AAA, Sisto FF, editors. Questões do Cotidiano Universitário. São Paulo: Casa do Psicólogo; 2005. pp. 239-260

[6] Boruchovitch E. Autorregulação da aprendizagem: Contribuições da psicologia educacional para a formação de professores. Psicologia Escolar e Educacional. 2014;**18**(3):401-409

[7] Díaz A, Pérez M, Valenzuela M, Muñoz P, Rivas S, Salas C. Procesos de autorregulación del aprendizaje en estudiantes universitarios de primer año. Internacional Journal of Developmental an Educational Psychology. 2010;**4**(1):789-800

[8] Daura F. Aprendizaje autorregulado y rendimiento académico en estudiantes del ciclo clínico de la carrera de Medicina. Revista Electrónica de Investigación Educativa. 2015;**17**(3):13-27

[9] Donoso S, Donoso G, Arias O. Iniciativas de retención de estudiantes de educación superior. Revista Calidad en la Educación. 2010;**33**(2):15-61

[10] Cuba-Esquivel A. Constructo competencia: Síntesis históricoepistemológica. Educación. 2016;**25**(48):7-27. DOI: 10.18800/ educacion.201601.001

[11] Efklides A. Interactions of metacognition with motivation and affectin self-regulated learning: The MASRL model. Educational Psychologist. 2011;**46**:6-25. DOI: 10.1080/00461520.2011.538645

[12] Ericsson K, Charness N, Feltovich PJ, Hoffman R. The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance. 2nd ed. Londres, Inglaterra: Cambridge University Press; 2006

[13] Garello MV, Rinaudo MC. Autorregulación del aprendizaje, feedback y transferencia de conocimiento: Investigación de diseño con estudiantes universitarios. Revista Electrónica de Investigación Educativa. 2013;**15**(2):131-147

[14] Guerra CT. Conhecimento psicológico e formação de professores. In: Azzi RG, Batista SHS da S, Sadalla AMF de A, editors. Formação de professores: Discutindo o ensino de psicología. Campinas, SP: Editora Alínea; 2000. pp. 69-96

[15] Grant H, Dweck CS. Clarifying achievement goals and their impact. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2003;**85**(3):541-553. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.85.3.541

[16] Hadwin AF, Järvelä S, Miller M. Selfregulated, co-regulated and socially shared regulation of learning. In: Handbook of Self-Regulation of Learning and Performance. NY: Routledge; 2011

[17] Harackiewicz JM, Barron KE, Elliot AJ. Rethinking achievement goals: When are they adaptive for college students and why? Educational Psychologist. 1998;**33**(1):1-21. DOI: 10.1207/s15326985ep3301\_1

[18] Hernández R, Fernández C, Baptista P. Metodología de la Investigación. 5th ed. México: McGraw-Hill; 2010

[19] Hernández A, Camargo Á. Autorregulación del aprendizaje en la educación superior en Iberoamérica: Una revisión sistemática. Revista Latinoamericana de Psicología. 2017;**49**(2):146-160. DOI: 10.1016/j. rlp.2017.01.001

[20] Kuhl J. Volition and Personality: Action Versus State Orientation. 1st ed. Hogrefe y Huber; Seattle; 1994

[21] Kuhl J. Handbook of Self-Regulation. 1st ed. San Diego: Academic Press; 2000

[22] Mayring P. Qualitative content analysis. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung/Forum: Qualitative Social Research. 2000;**1**(2). DOI: 10.17169/fqs-1.2.1089

[23] Panadero E. A review of selfregulated learning: Six models and four directions for research. Frontiers in Psychology. 2017;**8**:422. DOI: 10.3389/ fpsyg.2017.00422

[24] Panadero E, Alonso-Tapia J. ¿Cómo autorregulan nuestros estudiantes? Revisión del modelo cíclico de Zimmerman sobre autorregulación del aprendizaje. Anales de Psicología. 2014;**30**(2). DOI: 10.6018/ analesps.30.2.167221

[25] Pintrich P. Handbook of Self-Regulation. 1st ed. San Diego: Academic Press; 2000

[26] Pranke A, Bragagnolo Frison LM. Potencialização da Aprendizagem Autorregulada de Bolsistas do PIBID/UFP el do curso de Licenciatura em Matemática através de Oficinas Pedagógicas. Boletim de Educação Matemática. 2015;**29**(51). DOI: 10.1590/1980-4415v29n51a12

[27] Rosário P, Pereira A, Hõgemann J, Nunes AR, Figueiredo M, Núñez JC, et al. Autorregulación del aprendizaje: Una revisión sistemática en revistas de la base SciELO. Universitas Psychologica. 2014;**13**(2):781-797. DOI: 10.11144/ Javeriana.UPSY13-2.aars

[28] Rodríguez JM. Métodos de investigación cualitativa qualitative research methods. In: Revista de la Corporación Internacional para el Desarrollo Educativo Bogotá–Colombia. SILOGISMO; 2011. p. 8

[29] Simão AMV, Flores MA. Studentcentred methods in higher education: Implications for student learning and professional development. The International Journal of Learning. 2010;**17**(2):207-218

[30] Trilling B, Fadel C. 21st Century Skills—Learning for Life in our Times. 1st ed. San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons; 2009

[31] Winne PH. A metacognitive view of individual differences in self-regulated learning. Learning and Individual Differences. 1996;**8**(4):327-353. DOI: 10.1016/S1041-6080(96)90022-9

[32] Winne PH. Experimenting to bootstrap self-regulated learning. Journal of Educational Psychology. 1997;**89**(3):397-410. DOI: 10.1037/0022-0663.89.3.397

[33] Zambrano C. Autoeficacia, Prácticas de Aprendizaje Autorregulado y Docencia para fomentar el Aprendizaje Autorregulado en un Curso de Ingeniería de

**135**

*Perception of Student-Teachers Regarding Self-Regulated Learning*

Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 2008.

Psychologist. 2003;**38**(4):189-205. DOI:

[43] Uitto M, Jokikokko K, Estola E. Virtual special issue on teachers and emotions in teaching and teacher education (TATE) in 1985-2014. Teaching and Teacher Education. 2015;**50**:124-135. DOI: 10.1016/j.

[44] Hadwin A, Oshige M. Selfregulation, coregulation and socially

shared regulation: Exploring

perspectives of social in self-regulated learning theory. Teachers College Record. 2011;**113**(2):240-264

[42] Wolters CA. Regulation of motivation: Evaluating an underemphasized aspect of selfregulated learning. Educational

10.1207/S15326985EP3804\_1

tate.2015.05.008

p. 222

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88728*

Software. Formación Universitaria. 2016;**9**(3):51-60. DOI: 10.4067/ S0718-50062016000300007

[34] Zimmerman B, Kitsantas A. Handbook of Competence and

Press; 2005

Press; 2000

2003

2009

Motivation. 1st ed. New York: Guilford

[35] Zimmerman B. Handbook of Self-Regulation. 1st ed. San Diego: Academic

[36] Zimmerman B, Campillo M. The Psychology of Problem Solving. 1st ed. New York: Cambridge University Press;

[37] Zimmerman B, Moylan AR. Handbook of Metacognition in

Education. 1st ed. New York: Routledge;

[38] Heikonen L, Toom A, Pyhältö K, Pietarinen J, Soini T. Student-teacher's strategies in classroom interaction in the context of the teaching practicum. Journal of Education for Teaching. 2017;**20**:1-16. DOI: 10.1080/02607476.2017.1355080

Toom A, Pietarinen J, Soini T. Student teachers' self- and co-regulation of learning during teacher

education. Learning: Research and Practice. 2016;**2**(1):44-63. DOI: 10.1080/23735082.2015.1081395

[40] Saariaho E, Anttila H, Toom A, Soini T, Pietarinen J, Pyhältö K. Student teachers' emotional landscapes in selfand co-regulated learning. Teachers and Teaching. 2018;**24**(5):538-558. DOI:

10.1080/13540602.2018.1430565

[41] Corno L. Work habits and selfregulated learning: Helping students to find a "Will" from a "Way". In: Schunk DH, Zimmerman BJ, editors. Motivation and Self-Regulated Learning. Theory, Research and Applications. Vol. 197. New York:

[39] Saariaho E, Pyhältö K,

*Perception of Student-Teachers Regarding Self-Regulated Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88728*

Software. Formación Universitaria. 2016;**9**(3):51-60. DOI: 10.4067/ S0718-50062016000300007

*Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges*

[26] Pranke A, Bragagnolo Frison LM. Potencialização da Aprendizagem Autorregulada de Bolsistas do PIBID/UFP el do curso de Licenciatura em Matemática através de Oficinas Pedagógicas. Boletim de Educação Matemática. 2015;**29**(51). DOI: 10.1590/1980-4415v29n51a12

Javeriana.UPSY13-2.aars

SILOGISMO; 2011. p. 8

2010;**17**(2):207-218

Sons; 2009

[28] Rodríguez JM. Métodos de investigación cualitativa qualitative research methods. In: Revista de la Corporación Internacional para el Desarrollo Educativo Bogotá–Colombia.

[29] Simão AMV, Flores MA. Studentcentred methods in higher education: Implications for student learning and professional development. The International Journal of Learning.

[30] Trilling B, Fadel C. 21st Century Skills—Learning for Life in our Times. 1st ed. San Francisco: John Wiley &

[31] Winne PH. A metacognitive view of individual differences in self-regulated learning. Learning and Individual Differences. 1996;**8**(4):327-353. DOI: 10.1016/S1041-6080(96)90022-9

[32] Winne PH. Experimenting to bootstrap self-regulated learning. Journal of Educational Psychology.

[33] Zambrano C. Autoeficacia, Prácticas de Aprendizaje Autorregulado y Docencia para

en un Curso de Ingeniería de

fomentar el Aprendizaje Autorregulado

1997;**89**(3):397-410. DOI: 10.1037/0022-0663.89.3.397

[27] Rosário P, Pereira A, Hõgemann J, Nunes AR, Figueiredo M, Núñez JC, et al. Autorregulación del aprendizaje: Una revisión sistemática en revistas de la base SciELO. Universitas Psychologica. 2014;**13**(2):781-797. DOI: 10.11144/

[17] Harackiewicz JM, Barron KE, Elliot AJ. Rethinking achievement goals: When are they adaptive for college students and why? Educational Psychologist. 1998;**33**(1):1-21. DOI:

10.1207/s15326985ep3301\_1

Hill; 2010

rlp.2017.01.001

Press; 2000

10.17169/fqs-1.2.1089

fpsyg.2017.00422

2014;**30**(2). DOI: 10.6018/ analesps.30.2.167221

[25] Pintrich P. Handbook of Self-Regulation. 1st ed. San Diego: Academic

[18] Hernández R, Fernández C, Baptista P. Metodología de la

[19] Hernández A, Camargo Á. Autorregulación del aprendizaje en la educación superior en Iberoamérica: Una revisión sistemática. Revista Latinoamericana de Psicología. 2017;**49**(2):146-160. DOI: 10.1016/j.

[20] Kuhl J. Volition and Personality: Action Versus State Orientation. 1st ed.

Regulation. 1st ed. San Diego: Academic

[22] Mayring P. Qualitative content analysis. Forum Qualitative

Sozialforschung/Forum: Qualitative Social Research. 2000;**1**(2). DOI:

[23] Panadero E. A review of selfregulated learning: Six models and four directions for research. Frontiers in Psychology. 2017;**8**:422. DOI: 10.3389/

[24] Panadero E, Alonso-Tapia J. ¿Cómo autorregulan nuestros estudiantes? Revisión del modelo cíclico de Zimmerman sobre autorregulación del aprendizaje. Anales de Psicología.

Hogrefe y Huber; Seattle; 1994

[21] Kuhl J. Handbook of Self-

Investigación. 5th ed. México: McGraw-

**134**

Press; 2000

[34] Zimmerman B, Kitsantas A. Handbook of Competence and Motivation. 1st ed. New York: Guilford Press; 2005

[35] Zimmerman B. Handbook of Self-Regulation. 1st ed. San Diego: Academic Press; 2000

[36] Zimmerman B, Campillo M. The Psychology of Problem Solving. 1st ed. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2003

[37] Zimmerman B, Moylan AR. Handbook of Metacognition in Education. 1st ed. New York: Routledge; 2009

[38] Heikonen L, Toom A, Pyhältö K, Pietarinen J, Soini T. Student-teacher's strategies in classroom interaction in the context of the teaching practicum. Journal of Education for Teaching. 2017;**20**:1-16. DOI: 10.1080/02607476.2017.1355080

[39] Saariaho E, Pyhältö K, Toom A, Pietarinen J, Soini T. Student teachers' self- and co-regulation of learning during teacher education. Learning: Research and Practice. 2016;**2**(1):44-63. DOI: 10.1080/23735082.2015.1081395

[40] Saariaho E, Anttila H, Toom A, Soini T, Pietarinen J, Pyhältö K. Student teachers' emotional landscapes in selfand co-regulated learning. Teachers and Teaching. 2018;**24**(5):538-558. DOI: 10.1080/13540602.2018.1430565

[41] Corno L. Work habits and selfregulated learning: Helping students to find a "Will" from a "Way". In: Schunk DH, Zimmerman BJ, editors. Motivation and Self-Regulated Learning. Theory, Research and Applications. Vol. 197. New York:

Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 2008. p. 222

[42] Wolters CA. Regulation of motivation: Evaluating an underemphasized aspect of selfregulated learning. Educational Psychologist. 2003;**38**(4):189-205. DOI: 10.1207/S15326985EP3804\_1

[43] Uitto M, Jokikokko K, Estola E. Virtual special issue on teachers and emotions in teaching and teacher education (TATE) in 1985-2014. Teaching and Teacher Education. 2015;**50**:124-135. DOI: 10.1016/j. tate.2015.05.008

[44] Hadwin A, Oshige M. Selfregulation, coregulation and socially shared regulation: Exploring perspectives of social in self-regulated learning theory. Teachers College Record. 2011;**113**(2):240-264

Chapter 9

Abstract

1. Introduction

137

Teaching, Reflecting and Learning:

An essential goal of teacher education is to reveal cultural blindness, bias that may be hidden from preservice teachers' awareness. This may include unintentional biases, misunderstandings, and stereotypes, which can affect what happens in the classroom. Transformational learning through cultural immersion experiences can reveal what is hidden, allowing students to critically reflect and revise assumptions and perspectives leading to cultural competence and culturally relevant pedagogy. Teacher education study abroad experiences can transform preservice teachers' ethnocentric worldviews and lead them to adopt more culturally competent mindsets. Reflection is key to participants understanding the impacts from a study abroad experience, and several years may pass before participants realize how much impact their experiences abroad had upon them. We used case study methodology to examine the meanings four teachers make of the long-term effect of a study abroad experience on their cultural awareness and pedagogical decisions. This use of retrospective methods may help to understand that the impacts of teacher education study abroad are difficult to articulate and assess directly after the program, and thus encourage program designers and researchers to provide participants opportunities to venture out of their cultural comfort zones and reflect upon their

Keywords: study abroad, teacher education, preservice teachers, transformational learning, cultural awareness, cultural competence, culturally relevant pedagogy

In recent years, teacher education has included cultural awareness and compe-

tence as skills preservice teachers needed to develop in order to engage more culturally relevant pedagogy [1–2]. The optimum is to engage preservice teachers in cultural activities that reveal cultural assumptions and biases (cultural awareness) and celebrate students' varied lived experiences with the goal that these experiences will increase preservice teachers' understanding of different cultures and how

Exploring Teacher Education

Study Abroad Programs as

Transformational Learning

Allison Freed, Aerin Benavides and Lacey Huffling

experiences a year or more after the study abroad program.

Opportunities

#### Chapter 9

## Teaching, Reflecting and Learning: Exploring Teacher Education Study Abroad Programs as Transformational Learning Opportunities

Allison Freed, Aerin Benavides and Lacey Huffling

### Abstract

An essential goal of teacher education is to reveal cultural blindness, bias that may be hidden from preservice teachers' awareness. This may include unintentional biases, misunderstandings, and stereotypes, which can affect what happens in the classroom. Transformational learning through cultural immersion experiences can reveal what is hidden, allowing students to critically reflect and revise assumptions and perspectives leading to cultural competence and culturally relevant pedagogy. Teacher education study abroad experiences can transform preservice teachers' ethnocentric worldviews and lead them to adopt more culturally competent mindsets. Reflection is key to participants understanding the impacts from a study abroad experience, and several years may pass before participants realize how much impact their experiences abroad had upon them. We used case study methodology to examine the meanings four teachers make of the long-term effect of a study abroad experience on their cultural awareness and pedagogical decisions. This use of retrospective methods may help to understand that the impacts of teacher education study abroad are difficult to articulate and assess directly after the program, and thus encourage program designers and researchers to provide participants opportunities to venture out of their cultural comfort zones and reflect upon their experiences a year or more after the study abroad program.

Keywords: study abroad, teacher education, preservice teachers, transformational learning, cultural awareness, cultural competence, culturally relevant pedagogy

#### 1. Introduction

In recent years, teacher education has included cultural awareness and competence as skills preservice teachers needed to develop in order to engage more culturally relevant pedagogy [1–2]. The optimum is to engage preservice teachers in cultural activities that reveal cultural assumptions and biases (cultural awareness) and celebrate students' varied lived experiences with the goal that these experiences will increase preservice teachers' understanding of different cultures and how

culture impacts communication and social interactions (cultural competence) thus increasing their use of culturally responsive pedagogy [2, 3]. As Cushner argued, "Teacher educators should provide significant intercultural encounters for preservice teachers who typically are not experienced in cross cultural matters."

2. Theoretical framework

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88578

point and future plans.

reference and action-oriented behaviors.

139

Our theoretical framework is transformational learning theory given we hypothesize teacher education study abroad experiences can have a transformational effect on participants' long-term cultural awareness, competence, and culturally responsive pedagogies [1]. For the purpose of our study, we define

Teaching, Reflecting and Learning: Exploring Teacher Education Study Abroad Programs…

transformational learning as deep change that stems from experiences of disorientation that make one feel like he or she has a new perspective or understanding. We focus on the three-stage model of transformational learning [1, 17]: 1. Disequilibrium triggering experiences; 2. Critical to frame of reference; 3. Changes in view-

We define a disequilibrium or triggering experience as any experience that elicits a sense of disorientation or dissonance [4, 10]. A disorienting experience elicits a sense of a discrepancy between what one thinks is true and what is real. This idea stems from Piaget's theory of cognitive constructivism. Piaget postulated that learning occurs when individuals pass through a time of discomfort or disequilibrium to resolve the discrepancy between their existing schemas and the new information being processed [18]. We define critical viewpoint as a stage of reflection and growing awareness. During this stage, ones' frame of reference becomes apparent and subsequently assumptions are critically questioned through deep reflection and discussion [1, 10]. Transformational learning is defined as a deliberate change in actions that were elicited by deliberate reflection, questioning, and discussion about one's frame of reference [10]. Change that is elicited through transformational learning can include exploration of new roles, actions and relationships, planning for future action, revising existing ideas using the new information acquired, and realizing the need for more information and skills [1, 4]. Thus, inherent in transformational study abroad programs are experiences that lead to dissonance, guided reflection and discussion that lead to changed frames of

We, as researchers and teacher educators, see study abroad experiences as a way to expand the horizons of preservice teachers in order to assist them in serving all students in their classrooms [19]. We postulate that transformative study abroad experiences have the capacity to increase the likelihood of preservice teachers to use culturally relevant teaching practices. These teaching practices are outlined by Ladson-Billings to include having high expectations for academic achievement for all students, being culturally competent and developing their students' cultural competence, and being critically conscious and developing the sociopolitical viewpoints of their students [3]. Teachers who are considered culturally responsive feel that one of their major responsibilities is to help their students become academically successful. A tenet of cultural competence is allowing students to maintain their cultural characteristics while completing academic tasks. In essence, finding value in multiple ways of knowing and experiencing the world. Study abroad experiences with embedded reflection can also encourage preservice teachers to recognize social inequities and be aware of their own biases. In turn, helping their students to recognize social injustices, motivating them to take action to change the status quo. Given transformational learning takes time [9, 11], we conducted a longitudinal study with a focus on the transformation of preservice teachers that occurs years after a study abroad cultural experience. This aligns with the continuity of experience [17] based on the view that experiences have a lasting impact on each subse-

quent experience. All new experiences are somehow influenced by the

transformational experiences that happened before. The study abroad experiences promoted an imbalance between what preservice teachers understood and what they encountered while abroad, which through reflection changed their frame of

[4], p. 37.

One way to accomplish this goal is through cultural immersion experiences, which can reveal what is hidden, allowing students to critically reflect and eventually revise assumptions and perspectives to become more culturally aware, which leads to cultural competence and culturally relevant pedagogy [2–6]. Teacher education study abroad programs can provide cultural immersion, allowing preservice teachers to critically assess what is normally hidden within their own culture and/or the dominant culture of their home country. As Cushner noted, "Teacher education faculty represent a critical link in structuring educational experiences that assist their students to reach out to the international community, both at home and abroad, with the aim of forging relationships based on deep and meaningful understandings of peoples'similarities as well as differences." [4], p. 37.

However, cultural awareness does not occur instantly [7, 8]. Guided reflection after thoughtful, dissonance inducing experiences is key to aiding participants in understanding the personal impacts of study abroad experiences and how these experiences have increased their cultural awareness. Students must move mindfully through the process of cultural learning, in order to successfully change their worldview [10]. Given this, transformational learning theory is one framework educators could use to design study abroad programs to help develop preservice teachers' cultural competence through meaningful reflection activities, leading to changed worldview and behavior [4, 10]. Transformational learning can be defined as the "process of effecting change in a frame of reference" [10], p. 5 and facilitates autonomous thinking that can result in action-oriented behaviors [11]. In order to experience transformational learning, cognitive dissonance is necessary so that participants reflect on their experiences and decide to change perspectives either through behavior change or worldview change [1, 6, 7, 10].

Transformational learning theory also changes the nature of study abroad research. If participants must think long term and longitudinally about their experiences abroad, the time after studying abroad may not be sufficient for getting at the true cultural learning that happened during the experience abroad [12–14]. According to Wong's evaluation of study abroad assessment, "Dewey's [1938] perspective suggests that a fruitful place to look for the effect of study abroad experiences is in the experiences that students have after the program" [15], p. 124. Thus, to properly assess the impact of study abroad (i.e. in what context participants teach, participants' pedagogical practices, and cultural worldviews), researchers must consider a number of strategies, ones that span an extended period of time and include a variety of end goals. This longitudinal perspective allows more time for transformative learning and for participants to deeply reflect on the impacts their study abroad experience truly had on their lives [4, 10, 15, 16, 20].

Given this, we postulate that the impact of study abroad needs to be explored retrospectively as it is difficult to articulate and assess participants' transformational learning directly after the program [15]. To further explore this possibility, we developed four descriptive case studies of participants from two different study abroad programs. The research questions that guide our chapter are:

What meanings do teachers make retrospectively on the long-term impacts of teacher education study abroad programs in regard to transformational learning?

How do these meanings impact the teachers' cultural awareness, cultural competence, and pedagogical practices?

Teaching, Reflecting and Learning: Exploring Teacher Education Study Abroad Programs… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88578

#### 2. Theoretical framework

culture impacts communication and social interactions (cultural competence) thus increasing their use of culturally responsive pedagogy [2, 3]. As Cushner argued, "Teacher educators should provide significant intercultural encounters for preservice teachers who typically are not experienced in cross cultural matters."

Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges

One way to accomplish this goal is through cultural immersion experiences, which can reveal what is hidden, allowing students to critically reflect and eventually revise assumptions and perspectives to become more culturally aware, which leads to cultural competence and culturally relevant pedagogy [2–6]. Teacher education study abroad programs can provide cultural immersion, allowing preservice teachers to critically assess what is normally hidden within their own culture and/or the dominant culture of their home country. As Cushner noted, "Teacher education faculty represent a critical link in structuring educational experiences that assist their students to reach out to the international community, both at home and abroad, with the aim of forging relationships based on deep and meaningful under-

However, cultural awareness does not occur instantly [7, 8]. Guided reflection after thoughtful, dissonance inducing experiences is key to aiding participants in understanding the personal impacts of study abroad experiences and how these experiences have increased their cultural awareness. Students must move mindfully through the process of cultural learning, in order to successfully change their worldview [10]. Given this, transformational learning theory is one framework educators could use to design study abroad programs to help develop preservice teachers' cultural competence through meaningful reflection activities, leading to changed worldview and behavior [4, 10]. Transformational learning can be defined as the "process of effecting change in a frame of reference" [10], p. 5 and facilitates autonomous thinking that can result in action-oriented behaviors [11]. In order to experience transformational learning, cognitive dissonance is necessary so that participants reflect on their experiences and decide to change perspectives either

Transformational learning theory also changes the nature of study abroad research. If participants must think long term and longitudinally about their experiences abroad, the time after studying abroad may not be sufficient for getting at the true cultural learning that happened during the experience abroad [12–14]. According to Wong's evaluation of study abroad assessment, "Dewey's [1938] perspective suggests that a fruitful place to look for the effect of study abroad experiences is in the experiences that students have after the program" [15], p. 124. Thus, to properly assess the impact of study abroad (i.e. in what context participants teach, participants' pedagogical practices, and cultural worldviews),

researchers must consider a number of strategies, ones that span an extended period of time and include a variety of end goals. This longitudinal perspective allows more time for transformative learning and for participants to deeply reflect on the impacts their study abroad experience truly had on their lives [4, 10, 15, 16, 20]. Given this, we postulate that the impact of study abroad needs to be explored retrospectively as it is difficult to articulate and assess participants' transformational learning directly after the program [15]. To further explore this possibility, we developed four descriptive case studies of participants from two different study

What meanings do teachers make retrospectively on the long-term impacts of teacher education study abroad programs in regard to transformational learning? How do these meanings impact the teachers' cultural awareness, cultural

abroad programs. The research questions that guide our chapter are:

competence, and pedagogical practices?

138

standings of peoples'similarities as well as differences." [4], p. 37.

through behavior change or worldview change [1, 6, 7, 10].

[4], p. 37.

Our theoretical framework is transformational learning theory given we hypothesize teacher education study abroad experiences can have a transformational effect on participants' long-term cultural awareness, competence, and culturally responsive pedagogies [1]. For the purpose of our study, we define transformational learning as deep change that stems from experiences of disorientation that make one feel like he or she has a new perspective or understanding. We focus on the three-stage model of transformational learning [1, 17]: 1. Disequilibrium triggering experiences; 2. Critical to frame of reference; 3. Changes in viewpoint and future plans.

We define a disequilibrium or triggering experience as any experience that elicits a sense of disorientation or dissonance [4, 10]. A disorienting experience elicits a sense of a discrepancy between what one thinks is true and what is real. This idea stems from Piaget's theory of cognitive constructivism. Piaget postulated that learning occurs when individuals pass through a time of discomfort or disequilibrium to resolve the discrepancy between their existing schemas and the new information being processed [18]. We define critical viewpoint as a stage of reflection and growing awareness. During this stage, ones' frame of reference becomes apparent and subsequently assumptions are critically questioned through deep reflection and discussion [1, 10]. Transformational learning is defined as a deliberate change in actions that were elicited by deliberate reflection, questioning, and discussion about one's frame of reference [10]. Change that is elicited through transformational learning can include exploration of new roles, actions and relationships, planning for future action, revising existing ideas using the new information acquired, and realizing the need for more information and skills [1, 4]. Thus, inherent in transformational study abroad programs are experiences that lead to dissonance, guided reflection and discussion that lead to changed frames of reference and action-oriented behaviors.

We, as researchers and teacher educators, see study abroad experiences as a way to expand the horizons of preservice teachers in order to assist them in serving all students in their classrooms [19]. We postulate that transformative study abroad experiences have the capacity to increase the likelihood of preservice teachers to use culturally relevant teaching practices. These teaching practices are outlined by Ladson-Billings to include having high expectations for academic achievement for all students, being culturally competent and developing their students' cultural competence, and being critically conscious and developing the sociopolitical viewpoints of their students [3]. Teachers who are considered culturally responsive feel that one of their major responsibilities is to help their students become academically successful. A tenet of cultural competence is allowing students to maintain their cultural characteristics while completing academic tasks. In essence, finding value in multiple ways of knowing and experiencing the world. Study abroad experiences with embedded reflection can also encourage preservice teachers to recognize social inequities and be aware of their own biases. In turn, helping their students to recognize social injustices, motivating them to take action to change the status quo.

Given transformational learning takes time [9, 11], we conducted a longitudinal study with a focus on the transformation of preservice teachers that occurs years after a study abroad cultural experience. This aligns with the continuity of experience [17] based on the view that experiences have a lasting impact on each subsequent experience. All new experiences are somehow influenced by the transformational experiences that happened before. The study abroad experiences promoted an imbalance between what preservice teachers understood and what they encountered while abroad, which through reflection changed their frame of

#### Figure 1.

Sequential transformational theoretical framework in three phases based upon study abroad design [1, 10, 17].

reference and led to transformative learning that led to a change in their teaching performance. In addition, Ladson Billings also outlined three propositions which can be used to improve and evaluate culturally relevant teaching. These propositions are 1. The conceptions of self and others; 2. The manner in which social relations are structured; 3. The conceptions of knowledge [3]. These propositions help us organize the transformation we found in our participants' frame of reference and how this translated into their classroom practice (see Figure 1).

#### 3. Study design

Our study presents four case studies developed from two different study abroad programs: Maastricht and Manú (see Table 1). The Maastricht trip was developed over many years by two universities, and the Manú trip was a first-time endeavor for a third university. These programs were studied because of their similar structure both of which are short term faculty led teacher education programs. In addition, we chose these programs as a way to improve our practice as study abroad curriculum developers, teacher educators, and scholars of teaching and learning. The four focal case study teachers have 2–8 years of experiences since completing the study abroad programs, which enabled our participants to retrospectively reflect on their time abroad and how their worldview, career choices, pedagogical decisions, and their thoughts on bias and privilege were impacted [15, 16]. Our current study was exempted from IRB oversight; previous data were collected under IRB approved projects. Participant consent was obtained prior to data collection.

was taken for elective education course credit. The program consisted of visits to the Netherlands, Belgium, France, and Germany. While abroad, students were accompanied by at least one European guide, a faculty member and a program assistant during all aspects of the trip, and they lived together and attended schools

Program Program goals Pre-departure preparation Assignments abroad

Teaching, Reflecting and Learning: Exploring Teacher Education Study Abroad Programs…

culture

information • Former participants as guest speakers • Lesson planning • Creating and building Facebook page for program communication • Transferable goals discussion & selection

video log

packing

fair

5 two-hour whole group meetings (2 hour) to discuss: • Briefing by Office of International Travel • Program overview and

• Peruvian culture with guest speaker • Three Basic Spanish sessions

• Student presentations of required readings • Intro to art craft • Designing lesson for all day English and ecology

4–5 one to three-hour whole group meetings to discuss: • Dutch & German education system • American and European

3-hour alone experiences with video-log reflection (Disequilibrium triggering

One synthesis video/digital story as a culmination of the experience (Transformative change, plans, actions) Post assignments to program Facebook page (Transformative change, plans, actions)

Implementation of lessons developed for all-day Environmental Education "Feria" (fair) in English at a free access non-profit school near Lima for K-11 students (Disequilibrium triggering

Participation in lectures, group tours, & group jungle hikes (Disequilibrium triggering

12 daily reflective journals on cultural, wildlife, and environmental experiences (Critical to frame of reference) 'Unpacking' in whole and small discussion groups (Critical to frame of reference) Short essay as a culmination of the experience collected into online book (Transformative change, plans, actions)

experiences) 5 inquiry assignments composed of a question about culture or education to be answered through the inquiry process (Critical to frame of

reference)

experiences)

experiences)

• Packing and general travel

Maastricht Compare the American and European educational

Manu Compare the American and Peruvian educational systems and ecosystems Develop appreciation for Peruvian culture Move from cultural comfort zones Develop cultural competency

> Gain transferable skills and knowledge while learning from international scientific endeavors

> Move from cultural comfort zones Develop cultural competence Use technology for educational purposes Gain transferable skills and knowledge while learning about the option for teaching internationally

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88578

systems

Students visited and examined a number of schools that included International Schools, Dutch and German public and community schools, a Refugee School, and an after school learning/enrichment program. The schools differed in a number of ways. They differed in the demographics of students, the cost for admission, and in the teaching strategies administered. The International Schools were mostly feebased schools serving some Dutch and German students, but mostly expatriates from other countries around the world. These schools were vastly different from the Refugee School This school was created by the Dutch government as a way to assimilate young refugee students (ages 10–17) into the Dutch society. This

together.

141

Table 1.

Study abroad programs.

#### 3.1 Settings

#### 3.1.1 Maastricht

The Maastricht program was 3 weeks (20–22 days) long with a focus on the cultural aspects of education and the education system in an international context. Two universities participated in this trip from 2011 to 2015 and 2017, with a total of 79 students. Most students who participated in this program were education majors. Over the course of the years, the group size varied from 9 to 14 students. The course


Teaching, Reflecting and Learning: Exploring Teacher Education Study Abroad Programs… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88578

#### Table 1. Study abroad programs.

reference and led to transformative learning that led to a change in their teaching performance. In addition, Ladson Billings also outlined three propositions which can be used to improve and evaluate culturally relevant teaching. These propositions are 1. The conceptions of self and others; 2. The manner in which social relations are structured; 3. The conceptions of knowledge [3]. These propositions help us organize the transformation we found in our participants' frame of refer-

Sequential transformational theoretical framework in three phases based upon study abroad design [1, 10, 17].

Our study presents four case studies developed from two different study abroad programs: Maastricht and Manú (see Table 1). The Maastricht trip was developed over many years by two universities, and the Manú trip was a first-time endeavor for a third university. These programs were studied because of their similar structure both of which are short term faculty led teacher education programs. In addition, we chose these programs as a way to improve our practice as study abroad curriculum developers, teacher educators, and scholars of teaching and learning. The four focal case study teachers have 2–8 years of experiences since completing the study abroad programs, which enabled our participants to retrospectively reflect on their time abroad and how their worldview, career choices, pedagogical decisions, and their thoughts on bias and privilege were impacted [15, 16]. Our current study was exempted from IRB oversight; previous data were collected under IRB approved projects. Participant consent was obtained prior to data

The Maastricht program was 3 weeks (20–22 days) long with a focus on the cultural aspects of education and the education system in an international context. Two universities participated in this trip from 2011 to 2015 and 2017, with a total of 79 students. Most students who participated in this program were education majors. Over the course of the years, the group size varied from 9 to 14 students. The course

ence and how this translated into their classroom practice (see Figure 1).

Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges

3. Study design

Figure 1.

collection.

3.1 Settings

140

3.1.1 Maastricht

was taken for elective education course credit. The program consisted of visits to the Netherlands, Belgium, France, and Germany. While abroad, students were accompanied by at least one European guide, a faculty member and a program assistant during all aspects of the trip, and they lived together and attended schools together.

Students visited and examined a number of schools that included International Schools, Dutch and German public and community schools, a Refugee School, and an after school learning/enrichment program. The schools differed in a number of ways. They differed in the demographics of students, the cost for admission, and in the teaching strategies administered. The International Schools were mostly feebased schools serving some Dutch and German students, but mostly expatriates from other countries around the world. These schools were vastly different from the Refugee School This school was created by the Dutch government as a way to assimilate young refugee students (ages 10–17) into the Dutch society. This

included Dutch language, math, and some English classes. Students who attended this school were new arrivals into the country from nations such as Afghanistan, Iraq, Iran, Syria, Somalia, and Eritrea. Study abroad students had a chance to teach at least one lesson while at the Refugee School. They created a lesson about American culture and a lesson to teach a short performance (e.g. dance or skit) to a small group of refugee students to perform for the entire school at the end of the two-day visit. The study abroad students observed classroom meetings, talked with the students, taught students the culture lesson and other performance. The other school visits were much shorter and included classroom observations and discussions with teachers and principals.

trip to the rainforest, when we returned to Lima, students had a day off to explore

Teaching, Reflecting and Learning: Exploring Teacher Education Study Abroad Programs…

The Maastricht program had a total of 79 student participants, who were eligible to be part of our study as they completed their study abroad experience prior to 2018. Ten participants volunteered and were interviewed. The Manú program had a total of 21 students, with 16 being eligible for this study as they were education

From the 14 interviews, we selected 4 participants to focus on as case studies. Selection consisted of certain requirements: marginalized racial and ethnic groups, a participant from each of the three universities, two participants from each study abroad program, a variety of grade levels taught, and inclusion of at least one male

For this study, we used a descriptive case approach [21]. We selected this approach as we are interested in understanding our participants' perceptions of their time abroad through multiple sources of data [22]. Our bounded unit was two study abroad programs which focused on providing preservice teachers cultural experiences abroad and comparing/contrasting these with the students' culture. The descriptions of our participants' lived experiences and reflections during and after a teacher education study abroad programs helped to define the theoretical constructs under which study abroad programs can be used as transformative learning experi-

Data sources for the Maastricht program included participant video logs, researcher field notes, researcher prior knowledge of participants as students when applicable, and semi-structured post interviews. Data sources for the Manú program included reflective essays written immediately after travel, researcher field notes, prior knowledge of researcher of participants as students, and semi-structured post interviews. All post interviews were video and/or audio recorded using the same semi-structured interview protocol (Appendix A). Two co-researchers, one from each

Participant Program Ethnicity Gender Age Current school/grade Years

Male 27 Urban high school in

Female 22 International school in

Female 26 Urban elementary school

Male 28 Urban middle school in

Southeast U.S./9th grade

Honduras/Kindergarten

in Southeast U.S./4th grade

Southeast U.S./6th grade

taught

3 8

1 2

5 5

5 5

Years since program

majors. Four participants volunteered and were interviewed.

the city on their own.

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88578

and one female (see Table 2).

ences for preservice teachers.

Devon Maastricht Mixed race

Andrea Maastricht Hispanic

Tanyia Manu African

Lucia Manu Hispanic

Table 2.

143

Case study descriptions.

American

American

American

American

3.4 Data collection

3.3 Methodology

3.2 Participants

In addition to school visits, students interacted with their peers, Dutch preservice teachers. These teachers in training were working on a degree for teaching English as a second language in the Netherlands. During the day-long interaction, Dutch and American students discussed topics of culture and education. These topics included the cost of an undergraduate education, the structure of after school activities, youth culture, and teacher training.

#### 3.1.2 Manú

The Manú program was 12 days long with a focus on Environmental Education (EE) and educational exchange in cultural immersion with Peruvian scientists, wildlife guides, educators, and a school (K-11). A large public state university in the Southeast instituted this trip. Most participants in this program were elementary education (K-6) majors who had been in either a two-year science or social studies focused cohort. The trip was structured to be part of an existing student teaching seminar class for seniors; therefore, all education students had completed their final student teaching internships prior to commencing the trip. The program's cost was minimal to participants as it was sponsored by a non-profit organization. Despite this, only 11 out of 23 science cohort students and 4 out of 24 social studies cohort students went on the trip. This allowed for five additional undergraduate students from an honors course to participate: four Biology majors and one Music major. Nine faculty and staff also went on the trip (2 Science Education professors, 2 Science Education doctoral students, 2 Biology professors, 1 Biology graduate student, and the Assistant Dean of the School of Education) for a total of 29 people.

The trip to Peru included 4 full days in and around Lima. During this time, participants engaged in: attending a bio-ecology conference at a university in Lima with presentations by local scientists, teaching English ecology-focused lessons at a low-income area philanthropically endowed low-cost private school in Chorrillos, visiting pre-Colombian and Inca ruins, and spending the day at a farm in Pachacamac. For the next week, participants traveled by air, land, and water to explore the southeastern Peruvian rainforest, which included visits to biological study stations and an extended stay at a remote birdwatcher lodge near the Manú Rainforest preserve.

During the Lima and traveling portion of our trip, we sought to help blend the two preservice cohorts and the honors course students into one cohesive group through rooming arrangements and assigned travel groups. We only had two male students, who always roomed together, but we intentionally had all female undergraduate student participants room with different people every day as we traveled to and from the jungle.

The guides knew both the paths and the wildlife well and had us up at prearranged hours to leave as a whole group early each morning for our hike. There were few moments for 'down time', but we made sure to preserve the required reflective journal writing and group discussion time each evening and had one evening to watch a documentary about local tribal displacements. At the end of the Teaching, Reflecting and Learning: Exploring Teacher Education Study Abroad Programs… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88578

trip to the rainforest, when we returned to Lima, students had a day off to explore the city on their own.

#### 3.2 Participants

included Dutch language, math, and some English classes. Students who attended this school were new arrivals into the country from nations such as Afghanistan, Iraq, Iran, Syria, Somalia, and Eritrea. Study abroad students had a chance to teach at least one lesson while at the Refugee School. They created a lesson about American culture and a lesson to teach a short performance (e.g. dance or skit) to a small group of refugee students to perform for the entire school at the end of the two-day visit. The study abroad students observed classroom meetings, talked with the students, taught students the culture lesson and other performance. The other

Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges

school visits were much shorter and included classroom observations and

In addition to school visits, students interacted with their peers, Dutch preservice teachers. These teachers in training were working on a degree for teaching English as a second language in the Netherlands. During the day-long interaction, Dutch and American students discussed topics of culture and education. These topics included the cost of an undergraduate education, the structure of after school

The Manú program was 12 days long with a focus on Environmental Education (EE) and educational exchange in cultural immersion with Peruvian scientists, wildlife guides, educators, and a school (K-11). A large public state university in the Southeast instituted this trip. Most participants in this program were elementary education (K-6) majors who had been in either a two-year science or social studies focused cohort. The trip was structured to be part of an existing student teaching seminar class for seniors; therefore, all education students had completed their final student teaching internships prior to commencing the trip. The program's cost was minimal to participants as it was sponsored by a non-profit organization. Despite this, only 11 out of 23 science cohort students and 4 out of 24 social studies cohort students went on the trip. This allowed for five additional undergraduate students from an honors course to participate: four Biology majors and one Music major. Nine faculty and staff also went on the trip (2 Science Education professors, 2 Science Education doctoral students, 2 Biology professors, 1 Biology graduate student, and the Assistant Dean of the School of Education) for a total of 29 people. The trip to Peru included 4 full days in and around Lima. During this time, participants engaged in: attending a bio-ecology conference at a university in Lima with presentations by local scientists, teaching English ecology-focused lessons at a low-income area philanthropically endowed low-cost private school in Chorrillos, visiting pre-Colombian and Inca ruins, and spending the day at a farm in Pachacamac. For the next week, participants traveled by air, land, and water to explore the southeastern Peruvian rainforest, which included visits to biological study stations and an extended stay at a remote birdwatcher lodge near the Manú Rainforest preserve. During the Lima and traveling portion of our trip, we sought to help blend the two preservice cohorts and the honors course students into one cohesive group through rooming arrangements and assigned travel groups. We only had two male students, who always roomed together, but we intentionally had all female undergraduate student participants room with different people every day as we traveled

The guides knew both the paths and the wildlife well and had us up at prearranged hours to leave as a whole group early each morning for our hike. There were few moments for 'down time', but we made sure to preserve the required reflective journal writing and group discussion time each evening and had one evening to watch a documentary about local tribal displacements. At the end of the

discussions with teachers and principals.

activities, youth culture, and teacher training.

3.1.2 Manú

to and from the jungle.

142

The Maastricht program had a total of 79 student participants, who were eligible to be part of our study as they completed their study abroad experience prior to 2018. Ten participants volunteered and were interviewed. The Manú program had a total of 21 students, with 16 being eligible for this study as they were education majors. Four participants volunteered and were interviewed.

From the 14 interviews, we selected 4 participants to focus on as case studies. Selection consisted of certain requirements: marginalized racial and ethnic groups, a participant from each of the three universities, two participants from each study abroad program, a variety of grade levels taught, and inclusion of at least one male and one female (see Table 2).

#### 3.3 Methodology

For this study, we used a descriptive case approach [21]. We selected this approach as we are interested in understanding our participants' perceptions of their time abroad through multiple sources of data [22]. Our bounded unit was two study abroad programs which focused on providing preservice teachers cultural experiences abroad and comparing/contrasting these with the students' culture. The descriptions of our participants' lived experiences and reflections during and after a teacher education study abroad programs helped to define the theoretical constructs under which study abroad programs can be used as transformative learning experiences for preservice teachers.

#### 3.4 Data collection

Data sources for the Maastricht program included participant video logs, researcher field notes, researcher prior knowledge of participants as students when applicable, and semi-structured post interviews. Data sources for the Manú program included reflective essays written immediately after travel, researcher field notes, prior knowledge of researcher of participants as students, and semi-structured post interviews. All post interviews were video and/or audio recorded using the same semi-structured interview protocol (Appendix A). Two co-researchers, one from each


Table 2. Case study descriptions. program (Maastricht and Manú) conducted the post interviews of participants from their respective program.

In the interviews, we asked questions to help us capture our participants' cultural awareness and developed cultural competencies as evidenced in their descriptions of their pedagogies. Interview questions were structured in such a way as to elicit participants' perceptions and reflections on their lived experiences while abroad, how those experiences may have affected their intercultural sensitivity development [16], how their lived experiences afforded cultural awareness and added knowledge and skills, and how this has influenced the current pedagogies they employ.

#### 3.5 Data analysis

Data analysis was theory-guided [23]. Ten a priori codes were determined that aligned with our theoretical framework of transformational learning theory ([4, 10], see Table 3). Dedoose software was used to analyze our data sources for each round of our coding process. Two of us performed the majority of the data analysis so that the third author could provide member checking in how coding was implemented.

In our first round of coding, we independently coded each focal case study using the 10 a priori codes. Then, we met together to compare our first round of coding to come to agreement on how we were defining the 10 parent codes. Next, we individually analyzed each of the 10 parent codes for emerging patterns and themes and then met together to decide on the final blended coding, which lead to five subcodes (see Table 3). We then compared our coding across our participants. Through this process, we fine-tuned our common definitions of terms and codes, as well as the range and limits of each code for this study.

Once the essays, video transcriptions, and interview transcripts were coded, data were analyzed with Dedoose software features that allowed us to spotlight high frequency codes on an x-y axis graph for two codes and sized 'bubbles' for a third code. Using graphic visualizations of the code frequencies in data codes helped us as researchers to systematically compare and contrast codes for the four focal case studies. Once we felt we had captured all the salient codes, we compiled our four descriptive case studies' 10 parent codes and the five subcodes into three emerging themes. These three emerging themes were: History/Context; Study/Reflect/Learn; and Perform/ Pedagogy. These three themes became the case study framework for reporting our findings with regard to transformational learning and culturally relevant pedagogy (see Table 3).

overview of the participant's personal 'history and context', what they learned, noting evidence of transformational learning and subsequent development of

10. Reflection Study/reflect/learn Phase 2: Critical frame to reference

"The biggest thing in my point of view that this study abroad has done for me is opened my eyes to other ways of life and education besides the American way. After this study abroad, I can honestly say I have improved as a person and a teacher. I've grown simply because of the fact that I have learned new things from every teacher I

Devon was a 27-year-old, male teacher. He self-identified as mixed race. He taught for 3 years. Devon always knew he wanted to be a teacher in an urban setting. His passion for urban education grew from his own experience at a Title I midwestern urban school. This passion led him to study in the urban education cohort at a large Midwestern public university. The cohort provided Devon the

have talked to over here." Vlog Synthesis while abroad [2011].

A priori parent codes Case study themes Discussion themes

Teaching, Reflecting and Learning: Exploring Teacher Education Study Abroad Programs…

Perform/pedagogy Phase 2: Critical frame to reference

Perform/pedagogy Phase 2: Critical frame to reference

Study/reflect/learn Phase 2: Critical frame to reference

History/context Phase 2: Critical frame to reference

5. Taking cultural action Perform/pedagogy Phase 3: Changes in viewpoint and future plans

7. Connection to place History/context Phase 1: Disequilibrium triggering experience

pedagogical practices

Study/reflect/learn Phase 3: Changes in viewpoint and future plans

History/context Phase 3: Changes in viewpoint and future plans

pedagogical practices

pedagogical practices

pedagogical practices

History/context Phase 3: Changes in viewpoint and future plans

pedagogical practices

Phase 2: Critical frame to reference

Phase 3: Changes in viewpoint and future plans Cultural awareness, competence, and relevant

Phase 3: Changes in viewpoint and future plans Cultural awareness, competence, and relevant

Cultural awareness, competence, and relevant

Phase 3: Changes in viewpoint and future plans Cultural awareness, competence, and relevant

Phase 3: Changes in viewpoint and future plans

Phase 3: Changes in viewpoint and future plans

Cultural awareness, competence, and relevant

1. Increased cultural awareness

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88578

2. Knowledge and skills i. Cultural ii. Pedagogical iii. Higher tier

3. Identity transition and

4. Seeking out cultural experiences

6. Challenging own culture

8. Culture of origin iv. Subculture USA

9. Recognized by others v. Culturally

skills

pedagogical knowledge and skills.

4.1.1 History and context

4.1 Devon

145

Table 3. Coding map.

#### 3.6 Validity

Triangulation of the data collection was achieved through multiple sources of data and through agreement upon emerging themes that served as the basis for organizing our focal case studies. The emerging themes were connected back to our theoretical framework for alignment with our participants' lived experiences and perceptions. Our third author provided peer debriefing or analytic triangulation as she was not engaged in the data collection or analysis process, so she was able to help us reflect on our thinking through these processes and to look for researcher bias or assumptions.

#### 4. Case studies

In this section we present our four case studies, using pseudonyms for people and places to maintain confidentiality. Each case study narrative provides a brief


Teaching, Reflecting and Learning: Exploring Teacher Education Study Abroad Programs… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88578

#### Table 3. Coding map.

program (Maastricht and Manú) conducted the post interviews of participants from

skills, and how this has influenced the current pedagogies they employ.

Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges

In the interviews, we asked questions to help us capture our participants' cultural awareness and developed cultural competencies as evidenced in their descriptions of their pedagogies. Interview questions were structured in such a way as to elicit participants' perceptions and reflections on their lived experiences while abroad, how those experiences may have affected their intercultural sensitivity development [16], how their lived experiences afforded cultural awareness and added knowledge and

Data analysis was theory-guided [23]. Ten a priori codes were determined that

In our first round of coding, we independently coded each focal case study using the 10 a priori codes. Then, we met together to compare our first round of coding to come to agreement on how we were defining the 10 parent codes. Next, we individually analyzed each of the 10 parent codes for emerging patterns and themes and then met together to decide on the final blended coding, which lead to five subcodes (see Table 3). We then compared our coding across our participants. Through this process, we fine-tuned our common definitions of terms and codes, as well as the

Once the essays, video transcriptions, and interview transcripts were coded, data were analyzed with Dedoose software features that allowed us to spotlight high frequency codes on an x-y axis graph for two codes and sized 'bubbles' for a third code. Using graphic visualizations of the code frequencies in data codes helped us as

researchers to systematically compare and contrast codes for the four focal case studies. Once we felt we had captured all the salient codes, we compiled our four descriptive case studies' 10 parent codes and the five subcodes into three emerging themes. These three emerging themes were: History/Context; Study/Reflect/Learn; and Perform/ Pedagogy. These three themes became the case study framework for reporting our findings with regard to transformational learning and culturally relevant pedagogy (see

Triangulation of the data collection was achieved through multiple sources of data and through agreement upon emerging themes that served as the basis for organizing our focal case studies. The emerging themes were connected back to our theoretical framework for alignment with our participants' lived experiences and perceptions. Our third author provided peer debriefing or analytic triangulation as she was not engaged in the data collection or analysis process, so she was able to help us reflect on our thinking through these processes and to look for researcher bias or assumptions.

In this section we present our four case studies, using pseudonyms for people and places to maintain confidentiality. Each case study narrative provides a brief

aligned with our theoretical framework of transformational learning theory ([4, 10], see Table 3). Dedoose software was used to analyze our data sources for each round of our coding process. Two of us performed the majority of the data analysis so that the third author could provide member checking in how coding was

their respective program.

3.5 Data analysis

implemented.

Table 3).

3.6 Validity

4. Case studies

144

range and limits of each code for this study.

overview of the participant's personal 'history and context', what they learned, noting evidence of transformational learning and subsequent development of pedagogical knowledge and skills.

#### 4.1 Devon

"The biggest thing in my point of view that this study abroad has done for me is opened my eyes to other ways of life and education besides the American way. After this study abroad, I can honestly say I have improved as a person and a teacher. I've grown simply because of the fact that I have learned new things from every teacher I have talked to over here." Vlog Synthesis while abroad [2011].

#### 4.1.1 History and context

Devon was a 27-year-old, male teacher. He self-identified as mixed race. He taught for 3 years. Devon always knew he wanted to be a teacher in an urban setting. His passion for urban education grew from his own experience at a Title I midwestern urban school. This passion led him to study in the urban education cohort at a large Midwestern public university. The cohort provided Devon the

chance to take education courses that emphasized urban learning environments and the impact of context on teaching and learning. Eventually, Devon completed his year-long student teaching experience in a classroom in a large urban midwestern city. In 2011, at 19 years old, Devon participated in the Maastricht study abroad program. Before the study abroad program he had only traveled to Mexico with his family. He is now a teacher in an urban school district in a large southeastern city. He taught ninth grade at this school for 3 years. Currently, Devon is pursuing his Master's degree in Curriculum and Teaching with an emphasis on cultural and socioeconomic components of teaching and learning.

In addition, Devon transferred his critical reflection to the news media in the US. Devon changed his frame of reference and thus viewed the messages received from the American news media differently. He became highly critical of the messages being shared about refugees and people who are from other places. With this new first-hand knowledge, he began to be critical of his "blinders" (biases) as well. Devon remembered that after hearing about the horrific experiences that young refugees experience throughout their lives, including their journeys to their asylum country, he began to examine his assumptions about others from places outside of

Teaching, Reflecting and Learning: Exploring Teacher Education Study Abroad Programs…

Devon became keenly aware of injustices in the world. After the visit to the Refugee School, the group visited an International School in the same city. Devon continued his critical reflection, nothing the stark differences between the two

"Then I think the other story that really stood out to me was in the same town we visited, that very-very high-end type school that had, maybe it was middle school, that had children speaking multiple languages, one to one technology, and all sorts of bells and whistles that I think it just kind of reaffirmed that the socioeconomic gap is not something that happens in America, for education. Obviously, as educators and going to colleges, in America, we're often taught to and talked about those socioeconomic gaps that actually happen in our schools. But we need to be mindful they exist all over the globe and it's not just United States' issues. We have to work as educators globally to figure out how to solve that and how to make sure all students receive that equity in the classroom no matter how much money

"I think I was making progress towards being a more globally responsible citizen,

Devon had a strong sense of obligation and service to the education field. Since Devon had the privilege of studying abroad, he felt that he must take action and share his experiences with other educators. According to Devon, the experience led him to feel more responsible for the continued evolution or growth of education. To him, going to another country to study education was a true privilege that should

Since traveling abroad, Devon saw his students as people with values, beliefs, and perspectives that may differ from his own [4], and he understands the importance of appreciating, recognizing, and empathizing with his students [4, 5]. "It eases their (students') mind a little bit to know that they have a teacher who tries to be kind of, as culturally responsible as I can. And who is, tries to make them as comfortable as I can, with accepting and celebrating the cultures in different places and different ideas that their families come from and have. "His students come from a variety of countries and regions (e.g., Mexico, Peru, Central America, Africa, Middle East, Asia), speak a number of languages, and view the world in ways that differ from Devon's perspective. Despite the level of discomfort, Devon finds ways to connect with his students, essentially maintaining a fluid teacherstudent relationship and connecting with students at a level outside of the classroom [3]. He consistently works to explore his students' cultures. He talks with parents, attends community events, and reads to gain knowledge about his students' diverse backgrounds. For instance, he mentioned even though he cannot speak Spanish and does not know much about the Catholic religion, Devon recently attended his student's Catholic confirmation. "So, it was definitely an interesting event, but the

the United States and tied these to his teaching practice.

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88578

their school does or does not have."

and educator." Post Interview [2018].

4.1.3 Perform/pedagogy

not be wasted.

147

schools.

Devon is passionate about cultural issues including race and privilege, and how these intersect with education. It was apparent that Devon's educational background influenced his career choice. As his instructor, I was impressed with his ability to challenge his own cultural understanding of the world, which included his growing awareness of his privilege. He reported that the experience abroad assisted in his evolving understanding of implicit bias and how privilege plays out in the world.

#### 4.1.2 Study, reflect, learn

"...it (study abroad) just really did a great job at breaking down my ideas, kind of breaking down the blinders I had (in) relation to privilege and what good education is, and what we can do as teachers and the things that we are equipped with, and know how to overcome things like that." Post Interview [2018].

The study abroad experience had a significant impact on his views and assumptions on privilege. "...how race, socioeconomic status, gender, sex, religion, plays a role in education and as we develop as teachers, it's got so many different layers and just things to learn about what you learn in actual classes. So, it was just life changing on so many different levels." To him, this was especially significant as an American undergraduate student studying abroad in Europe. As a teacher in an urban school he reflected back on the experience abroad as a truly impactful experience for examining privilege in the classroom.

Devon viewed education as an essential component of a well-rounded life but also recognized education as a system with global implications. He gave credit to the study abroad experience, the urban education cohort courses, and his experience teaching in an urban setting to his pursuit for equity in his classroom. He was globally aware and understood that his knowledge and experiences were possible based on his identities and how those identities intersected with his position in the world.

The Refugee School exposed him to people and their personal stories of survival that he had never heard before. Devon's privilege once again came to light after an intense, and somewhat disorienting conversation [6, 10, 24] with a refugee student and a Dutch interpreter.

"There's one story where we had gone to what I believe was, like, a Refugee School in the Netherlands, and I had asked a question to one of the students. It was like a high school age student, and he was from Iran or maybe Afghanistan. I'd asked him what he wanted to do with his life, (how) he had gotten over (to) the Refugee School and his translator had looked at me and apologized cause he's like, "he hasn't given it any thought because he never expected to live to this age," so he had not considered what to do with a job. He came to the conclusion that he was going to be killed in the fighting in his country, so that was a really eye-opening experience for me, and as a privilege that I have and the privilege I think us, as Americans, have."

#### Teaching, Reflecting and Learning: Exploring Teacher Education Study Abroad Programs… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88578

In addition, Devon transferred his critical reflection to the news media in the US. Devon changed his frame of reference and thus viewed the messages received from the American news media differently. He became highly critical of the messages being shared about refugees and people who are from other places. With this new first-hand knowledge, he began to be critical of his "blinders" (biases) as well. Devon remembered that after hearing about the horrific experiences that young refugees experience throughout their lives, including their journeys to their asylum country, he began to examine his assumptions about others from places outside of the United States and tied these to his teaching practice.

Devon became keenly aware of injustices in the world. After the visit to the Refugee School, the group visited an International School in the same city. Devon continued his critical reflection, nothing the stark differences between the two schools.

"Then I think the other story that really stood out to me was in the same town we visited, that very-very high-end type school that had, maybe it was middle school, that had children speaking multiple languages, one to one technology, and all sorts of bells and whistles that I think it just kind of reaffirmed that the socioeconomic gap is not something that happens in America, for education. Obviously, as educators and going to colleges, in America, we're often taught to and talked about those socioeconomic gaps that actually happen in our schools. But we need to be mindful they exist all over the globe and it's not just United States' issues. We have to work as educators globally to figure out how to solve that and how to make sure all students receive that equity in the classroom no matter how much money their school does or does not have."

#### 4.1.3 Perform/pedagogy

chance to take education courses that emphasized urban learning environments and the impact of context on teaching and learning. Eventually, Devon completed his year-long student teaching experience in a classroom in a large urban midwestern city. In 2011, at 19 years old, Devon participated in the Maastricht study abroad program. Before the study abroad program he had only traveled to Mexico with his family. He is now a teacher in an urban school district in a large southeastern city. He taught ninth grade at this school for 3 years. Currently, Devon is pursuing his Master's degree in Curriculum and Teaching with an emphasis on cultural and

Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges

Devon is passionate about cultural issues including race and privilege, and how

"...it (study abroad) just really did a great job at breaking down my ideas, kind of breaking down the blinders I had (in) relation to privilege and what good education is, and what we can do as teachers and the things that we are equipped with, and

The study abroad experience had a significant impact on his views and assumptions on privilege. "...how race, socioeconomic status, gender, sex, religion, plays a role in education and as we develop as teachers, it's got so many different layers and

Devon viewed education as an essential component of a well-rounded life but also recognized education as a system with global implications. He gave credit to the study abroad experience, the urban education cohort courses, and his experience teaching in an urban setting to his pursuit for equity in his classroom. He was globally aware and understood that his knowledge and experiences were possible based on his identities and how those identities intersected with his position in the

The Refugee School exposed him to people and their personal stories of survival that he had never heard before. Devon's privilege once again came to light after an intense, and somewhat disorienting conversation [6, 10, 24] with a refugee student

"There's one story where we had gone to what I believe was, like, a Refugee School in the Netherlands, and I had asked a question to one of the students. It was like a high school age student, and he was from Iran or maybe Afghanistan. I'd asked him what he wanted to do with his life, (how) he had gotten over (to) the Refugee School and his translator had looked at me and apologized cause he's like, "he hasn't given it any thought because he never expected to live to this age," so he had not considered what to do with a job. He came to the conclusion that he was going to be killed in the fighting in his country, so that was a really eye-opening experience for me, and as a privilege that I have and the privilege I think us, as

just things to learn about what you learn in actual classes. So, it was just life changing on so many different levels." To him, this was especially significant as an American undergraduate student studying abroad in Europe. As a teacher in an urban school he reflected back on the experience abroad as a truly impactful expe-

know how to overcome things like that." Post Interview [2018].

rience for examining privilege in the classroom.

these intersect with education. It was apparent that Devon's educational background influenced his career choice. As his instructor, I was impressed with his ability to challenge his own cultural understanding of the world, which included his growing awareness of his privilege. He reported that the experience abroad assisted in his evolving understanding of implicit bias and how privilege plays out in the

socioeconomic components of teaching and learning.

world.

world.

and a Dutch interpreter.

Americans, have."

146

4.1.2 Study, reflect, learn

"I think I was making progress towards being a more globally responsible citizen, and educator." Post Interview [2018].

Devon had a strong sense of obligation and service to the education field. Since Devon had the privilege of studying abroad, he felt that he must take action and share his experiences with other educators. According to Devon, the experience led him to feel more responsible for the continued evolution or growth of education. To him, going to another country to study education was a true privilege that should not be wasted.

Since traveling abroad, Devon saw his students as people with values, beliefs, and perspectives that may differ from his own [4], and he understands the importance of appreciating, recognizing, and empathizing with his students [4, 5]. "It eases their (students') mind a little bit to know that they have a teacher who tries to be kind of, as culturally responsible as I can. And who is, tries to make them as comfortable as I can, with accepting and celebrating the cultures in different places and different ideas that their families come from and have. "His students come from a variety of countries and regions (e.g., Mexico, Peru, Central America, Africa, Middle East, Asia), speak a number of languages, and view the world in ways that differ from Devon's perspective. Despite the level of discomfort, Devon finds ways to connect with his students, essentially maintaining a fluid teacherstudent relationship and connecting with students at a level outside of the classroom [3]. He consistently works to explore his students' cultures. He talks with parents, attends community events, and reads to gain knowledge about his students' diverse backgrounds. For instance, he mentioned even though he cannot speak Spanish and does not know much about the Catholic religion, Devon recently attended his student's Catholic confirmation. "So, it was definitely an interesting event, but the

fact to be there for her because it meant a lot to her and it's something that I'm not comfortable with or not familiar with or likely, and it just is something that is near to me and you know, just is always fun of learn new things even if they are uncomfortable at first." Devon continued to develop his global competencies and his cultural competence, by seeking out culturally uncomfortable situations. "I've got to start thinking outside of the box and expanding (my) horizons that way."

her with a "cultural translator" [4], increased her access to the Dutch culture, provided her with a richer experience beyond the prepared activities of the program, and in turn changed her cultural frame of reference about intercultural communication and the Dutch culture. Making new friends was one skill Andrea mentioned as making an impact on her experience abroad. She has continued communication with at least one of the Dutch students. They speak periodically over social media. She shared another example about how she connected with one of the refugee students and then attended an Afghan night sponsored by a local

Teaching, Reflecting and Learning: Exploring Teacher Education Study Abroad Programs…

Andrea was also able to transcend her ethnocentric worldview [11] because of her time in International Schools and interacting with Dutch students. Because of the program abroad, Andrea became more concerned with the events that were happening overseas. Her thoughts on culture and her worldview have become more congruent with her newly developed assumptions and perspectives leading her to

During the interview, Andrea mentioned speaking with an American international teacher in a German International School. After that conversation, she realized that like this teacher, she could also see herself as a teacher in an international setting. After this, her identity as a teacher began to shift. "I guess in relation to me teaching abroad, it was when we met a woman teaching in Germany. And she's from Frisco. So right next to my hometown. "So, for me that was a wakeup call is just to, oh my gosh, this is possible." She decided to pursue international teaching. The February after her study abroad experience, Andrea attended the International School job fair. During the fair, she was able to connect with a school in Honduras. In response to experiencing different cultures abroad. Andrea's career trajectory changed during the study abroad program. "(I) wouldn't really have considered

Andrea emphasized the importance of culture in the learning process. Being a teacher at an International School has helped her focus on students and their individual needs. She found it necessary to mine for information or pull information out of her students [3] to better serve them. "I would say I'm trying to bring in different cultures into my teaching. I'm trying to see, okay, where are my students coming from, what are their experiences like?" She was more aware of her students' previous cultural knowledge and how that impacts her teaching practices. During the first few months, she found a few ways to integrate learning about culture into her lessons. For instance, she found a video that followed students from different cultural backgrounds around their daily lives. She showed her class the videos and had them answer questions such as "How is this person's life different from yours? What did

they do? What did they like? How is this person's life the same as yours?"

it influences worldviews and understanding. As she continues to improve her teaching practice, she plans to continue including global education examples and

This practice helped her students become curious about the concept of culture as

Andrea, as a way to be a member of her new community, challenged her own assumptions by pushing herself out of her cultural comfort zone. For instance, she visited a mountain village with a few of her teaching colleagues. During the experience she was curious about the openness of the houses (i.e., no doors on bedrooms and bathrooms) and the way the people of that village interact with each other. Andrea continued to question her previous understanding of Honduran culture as

Afghan group in the Dutch city.

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88578

take a more ethnorelative stance.

teaching abroad if I wouldn't have gone on this."

experiences into her teaching.

she traveled through the country.

149

4.2.3 Perform/pedagogy

#### 4.2 Andrea

"I feel like I was confident abroad, which is something I've never really considered myself that back in the states. That was something I noticed this past summer when I was traveling. My friend said, "You just carry yourself in a different way... And it looks like you lived here. You know what you're doing." Post Interview [2018].

#### 4.2.1 History and context

Andrea did not attend university with the goal of becoming an elementary teacher but made the decision after a year on campus. Andrea participated in an education study abroad program to Maastricht as a junior in the spring of 2017. Before the study abroad experience, she had traveled to Mexico to visit her father's childhood home. She completed her undergraduate studies at a small southern private university. At the time of the interview, she was a 22-year-old Latina, and a first-year kindergarten teacher at an American International preK-12 school in Honduras. Most of her students were English Language Learners from Honduras. The interview took place only a month after she started teaching. During her interview, she mentioned that she would not have decided to teach abroad if it had not been for her experiences in the 2017 program.

#### 4.2.2 Study, reflect, learn

While abroad, Andrea's confidence grew as a result of connecting with others, trying new things, and experiencing life abroad during her hours alone. She had a sense of self efficacy and a belief she could accomplish tasks she normally could not do or would not try to complete in the US. She was able to challenge her own perceived limitations. After the trip, Andrea became more open to experiences, more willing to take calculated risks, and more open to spontaneity. Ultimately, she became more comfortable connecting with others, and as she shared, she now sees that "we're all interconnected in some way."

For Andrea, the study abroad experience allowed her to evaluate herself and her cultural identity as a Latina American. "I guess before I went to (university) I have never really thought about my culture or I guess maybe meeting other people from different cultures and interacting with them." She shared how this was prompted by her ease of conversation about issues with her Dutch peers during a crosscultural education experience. This disorienting experience led her to examine herself in relation to her Dutch peers. In turn, she acted on her revised understanding of intercultural communication and her ability to communicate with others by pushing herself out of her comfort zone and taking action to continue gaining new knowledge and skills from her new Dutch friend. She told about how at the end of the day-long intercultural experience with the Dutch preservice teachers that she finally asked to connect with one of the students via social media. This connection allowed her to be in continued conversations with this student. Because of the bold move to ask to connect, she met up with the Dutch student a number of times to talk, explore Amsterdam, and experience a karaoke night together. This provided

#### Teaching, Reflecting and Learning: Exploring Teacher Education Study Abroad Programs… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88578

her with a "cultural translator" [4], increased her access to the Dutch culture, provided her with a richer experience beyond the prepared activities of the program, and in turn changed her cultural frame of reference about intercultural communication and the Dutch culture. Making new friends was one skill Andrea mentioned as making an impact on her experience abroad. She has continued communication with at least one of the Dutch students. They speak periodically over social media. She shared another example about how she connected with one of the refugee students and then attended an Afghan night sponsored by a local Afghan group in the Dutch city.

Andrea was also able to transcend her ethnocentric worldview [11] because of her time in International Schools and interacting with Dutch students. Because of the program abroad, Andrea became more concerned with the events that were happening overseas. Her thoughts on culture and her worldview have become more congruent with her newly developed assumptions and perspectives leading her to take a more ethnorelative stance.

#### 4.2.3 Perform/pedagogy

fact to be there for her because it meant a lot to her and it's something that I'm not comfortable with or not familiar with or likely, and it just is something that is near

"I feel like I was confident abroad, which is something I've never really considered myself that back in the states. That was something I noticed this past summer when I was traveling. My friend said, "You just carry yourself in a different way... And it looks like you lived here. You know what you're doing." Post Interview [2018].

Andrea did not attend university with the goal of becoming an elementary teacher but made the decision after a year on campus. Andrea participated in an education study abroad program to Maastricht as a junior in the spring of 2017. Before the study abroad experience, she had traveled to Mexico to visit her father's childhood home. She completed her undergraduate studies at a small southern private university. At the time of the interview, she was a 22-year-old Latina, and a first-year kindergarten teacher at an American International preK-12 school in Honduras. Most of her students were English Language Learners from Honduras. The interview took place only a month after she started teaching. During her interview, she mentioned that she would not have decided to teach abroad if it had

While abroad, Andrea's confidence grew as a result of connecting with others, trying new things, and experiencing life abroad during her hours alone. She had a sense of self efficacy and a belief she could accomplish tasks she normally could not do or would not try to complete in the US. She was able to challenge her own perceived limitations. After the trip, Andrea became more open to experiences, more willing to take calculated risks, and more open to spontaneity. Ultimately, she became more comfortable connecting with others, and as she shared, she now sees

For Andrea, the study abroad experience allowed her to evaluate herself and her cultural identity as a Latina American. "I guess before I went to (university) I have never really thought about my culture or I guess maybe meeting other people from different cultures and interacting with them." She shared how this was prompted by her ease of conversation about issues with her Dutch peers during a crosscultural education experience. This disorienting experience led her to examine herself in relation to her Dutch peers. In turn, she acted on her revised understanding of intercultural communication and her ability to communicate with others by pushing herself out of her comfort zone and taking action to continue gaining new knowledge and skills from her new Dutch friend. She told about how at the end of the day-long intercultural experience with the Dutch preservice teachers that she finally asked to connect with one of the students via social media. This connection allowed her to be in continued conversations with this student. Because of the bold move to ask to connect, she met up with the Dutch student a number of times to talk, explore Amsterdam, and experience a karaoke night together. This provided

to me and you know, just is always fun of learn new things even if they are uncomfortable at first." Devon continued to develop his global competencies and his cultural competence, by seeking out culturally uncomfortable situations. "I've got to start thinking outside of the box and expanding (my) horizons that way."

Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges

4.2 Andrea

4.2.1 History and context

4.2.2 Study, reflect, learn

148

not been for her experiences in the 2017 program.

that "we're all interconnected in some way."

During the interview, Andrea mentioned speaking with an American international teacher in a German International School. After that conversation, she realized that like this teacher, she could also see herself as a teacher in an international setting. After this, her identity as a teacher began to shift. "I guess in relation to me teaching abroad, it was when we met a woman teaching in Germany. And she's from Frisco. So right next to my hometown. "So, for me that was a wakeup call is just to, oh my gosh, this is possible." She decided to pursue international teaching. The February after her study abroad experience, Andrea attended the International School job fair. During the fair, she was able to connect with a school in Honduras. In response to experiencing different cultures abroad. Andrea's career trajectory changed during the study abroad program. "(I) wouldn't really have considered teaching abroad if I wouldn't have gone on this."

Andrea emphasized the importance of culture in the learning process. Being a teacher at an International School has helped her focus on students and their individual needs. She found it necessary to mine for information or pull information out of her students [3] to better serve them. "I would say I'm trying to bring in different cultures into my teaching. I'm trying to see, okay, where are my students coming from, what are their experiences like?" She was more aware of her students' previous cultural knowledge and how that impacts her teaching practices. During the first few months, she found a few ways to integrate learning about culture into her lessons. For instance, she found a video that followed students from different cultural backgrounds around their daily lives. She showed her class the videos and had them answer questions such as "How is this person's life different from yours? What did they do? What did they like? How is this person's life the same as yours?"

This practice helped her students become curious about the concept of culture as it influences worldviews and understanding. As she continues to improve her teaching practice, she plans to continue including global education examples and experiences into her teaching.

Andrea, as a way to be a member of her new community, challenged her own assumptions by pushing herself out of her cultural comfort zone. For instance, she visited a mountain village with a few of her teaching colleagues. During the experience she was curious about the openness of the houses (i.e., no doors on bedrooms and bathrooms) and the way the people of that village interact with each other. Andrea continued to question her previous understanding of Honduran culture as she traveled through the country.

#### 4.3 Tanyia

"I realized how we have to take care of the world" Post Interview [2019].

saw how different it was, and how people, even if they do things different, that's not

Teaching, Reflecting and Learning: Exploring Teacher Education Study Abroad Programs…

In her post interview, Tanyia said that study abroad did influence her teaching. Her favorite part of the Peru program was interacting with the kids at the Lima school, seeing how they do things there, and having lunch with them. In the jungle she said, "We talked with the people who worked there (at the birdwatchers lodge on the Manú River)... I'm still Facebook friends with Guillermo (one of the guides)... he's some kind of bird specialist". She shared stories about her study abroad travels with her fourth grade class in the US, and noted that some of her students have not traveled; they have not even been to big shopping centers in their city close to where they live She said that her students consider her well-traveled. Tanyia also had some of her students take action and "send off" to help preserve the rainforest as part of her pedagogy, teaching them to "take care of the world", She tells them her story of how big the base of the Kapok tree is, "as big as this classroom", and how a fellow student in study abroad stood in the space between the roots at the base of the Kapok tree and bats flew out. She deeply understands her students' lives, and helps broaden their cultural and environmental awareness and

As to her personal aspirations for the future, Tanyia is currently seeking a Master's degree, and she expressed on social media that ".. . there are other things

"Before the trip, I didn't understand the complexity of how the world really works,

Lucia, 28 years old, self-identified as Latina, and identifies strongly with her country of origin, where she immigrated from to the US and still has family, and is bilingual in Spanish and English. She had visited Columbia in the past, while a child growing up in the United States. She said, "It's been for me, something that I've always kind of struggled with... am I American or am I Colombian?" Her frame of

As an undergraduate, Lucia interned and student taught at a science magnet elementary school as part of a science-focused cohort in her K-6 licensure program in Teacher Education at a large public southeastern state university. She was not one to take on leadership positions in her cohort. Neither was she one to shirk her share of the load as she worked hard in designing her science lessons. She had developed superior pedagogical skills in setting up science inquiry lessons by the time student

She taught 6th grade science at the largest middle school in her metropolitan district. Academic tracking was utilized in her school (⅓ high, ⅓ medium, and ⅓ low tracks in each grade). Lucia taught what she referred to as the "low" group. Most of her students were youth who came from feeder Title 1 elementary schools, and the majority were African American, with a large percentage of Latinos. New immigrant students were often assigned to her class as her school district did not

bad" she said, "it's just different".

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88578

knowledge with amazing true stories from her travels.

reference before traveling to Manú was multifaceted.

have a designated school for new immigrants.

more important to me, like being called Dr. Jones one day."

and the complexity of just,... life itself." Post Interview [2019].

4.3.3 Perform-pedagogy

4.4 Lucia

4.4.1 History and context

teaching was over.

151

#### 4.3.1 History and context

Tanyia was 26 years old and grew up in the US in the fifth largest metropolitan area in her southeastern home state on the Atlantic coastal plain. She taught fourth grade for 5 years in two of the largest cities in her home state. Robinson Elementary, located but a short block away from one of the city's main thoroughfares, is where Tanyia currently teaches fourth grade, a Title 1 public elementary school. The school's racial/ethnic breakdown is over half African American, a quarter Hispanic, and a mix of other races—similar to the racial/ethnic makeup of the surrounding low-income residential community where Tanyia's students lived.

As an instructor, I met Tanyia 2 years prior to her participation in the Manú program as her instructor in her science-focused Teacher Education cohort at one of our state's largest public universities. Tanyia stood out as keenly intelligent with a true understanding of science, which she often shared with the cohort class. She was self-assured, knowledgeable, and competent in teaching science in her internship at a local science magnet elementary school.

Tanyia also instinctively stood up for the oppressed and was culturally competent. During an advocacy exercise in a cohort seminar course she chose to share her first-hand knowledge of the lag-time of police response to 911 calls in her Black neighborhood. By choosing this issue in 2014, she chose a more controversial racebased community problem to advocate for in a class where others identified issues experienced by most college students, such as problems with the parking system on campus. Tanyia naturally had a marginalized frame of reference in addition to well understanding the dominant White culture in the South.

#### 4.3.2 Study-reflect-learn

Tanyia recalled how "fresh" the Manú jungle was because it had hardly been affected by humans. Then she caught herself as she remembered there were some humans in the jungle, because, as she said, some tribes had chosen to stay there. She noted that the trip to Manú did boost her cultural awareness. "I was always out of my cultural comfort zone on that trip, this was the first time I'd travelled outside of the country without my family," she said, "without anybody from my family with me, but that's how we learn, and I went out of my comfort zone". She had traveled internationally before going to Manú, but only on a family cruise to Mexico that was "geared to tourists".

The trip to the jungle was a disequilibrium triggering event for her, wrought with new and overwhelming experiences in the wild for most participants. Hiking in the jungle was not always easy for Tanyia. One day she asked if she could stay in her room instead of hike. We required the whole group participate in each EE activity the lodge organized for us, but she had swollen ankles, her feet hurt and were blistered from walking so much, so we thought it was better for her that she stayed back that day with one of the grad students. But, after the trip to the Manú Rainforest she was confident enough to travel abroad again, and "stayed with the locals" in Aruba.

What stood out to her about the Manú program was socializing on the trip. She remembered trying to communicate as best she could with the people that worked at the lodge in the jungle at the Manú River site. As she reflected upon her experience, she said it "opened her mind" when she saw how different people lived. "I just Teaching, Reflecting and Learning: Exploring Teacher Education Study Abroad Programs… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88578

saw how different it was, and how people, even if they do things different, that's not bad" she said, "it's just different".

#### 4.3.3 Perform-pedagogy

4.3 Tanyia

4.3.1 History and context

4.3.2 Study-reflect-learn

"geared to tourists".

150

"I realized how we have to take care of the world" Post Interview [2019].

Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges

low-income residential community where Tanyia's students lived.

a local science magnet elementary school.

understanding the dominant White culture in the South.

Tanyia was 26 years old and grew up in the US in the fifth largest metropolitan area in her southeastern home state on the Atlantic coastal plain. She taught fourth grade for 5 years in two of the largest cities in her home state. Robinson Elementary, located but a short block away from one of the city's main thoroughfares, is where Tanyia currently teaches fourth grade, a Title 1 public elementary school. The school's racial/ethnic breakdown is over half African American, a quarter Hispanic, and a mix of other races—similar to the racial/ethnic makeup of the surrounding

As an instructor, I met Tanyia 2 years prior to her participation in the Manú program as her instructor in her science-focused Teacher Education cohort at one of our state's largest public universities. Tanyia stood out as keenly intelligent with a true understanding of science, which she often shared with the cohort class. She was self-assured, knowledgeable, and competent in teaching science in her internship at

Tanyia also instinctively stood up for the oppressed and was culturally competent. During an advocacy exercise in a cohort seminar course she chose to share her first-hand knowledge of the lag-time of police response to 911 calls in her Black neighborhood. By choosing this issue in 2014, she chose a more controversial racebased community problem to advocate for in a class where others identified issues experienced by most college students, such as problems with the parking system on campus. Tanyia naturally had a marginalized frame of reference in addition to well

Tanyia recalled how "fresh" the Manú jungle was because it had hardly been affected by humans. Then she caught herself as she remembered there were some humans in the jungle, because, as she said, some tribes had chosen to stay there. She noted that the trip to Manú did boost her cultural awareness. "I was always out of my cultural comfort zone on that trip, this was the first time I'd travelled outside of the country without my family," she said, "without anybody from my family with me, but that's how we learn, and I went out of my comfort zone". She had traveled internationally before going to Manú, but only on a family cruise to Mexico that was

The trip to the jungle was a disequilibrium triggering event for her, wrought with new and overwhelming experiences in the wild for most participants. Hiking in the jungle was not always easy for Tanyia. One day she asked if she could stay in her room instead of hike. We required the whole group participate in each EE activity the lodge organized for us, but she had swollen ankles, her feet hurt and were blistered from walking so much, so we thought it was better for her that she stayed back that day with one of the grad students. But, after the trip to the Manú Rainforest she was confident enough to travel abroad again, and "stayed with the locals" in Aruba.

What stood out to her about the Manú program was socializing on the trip. She remembered trying to communicate as best she could with the people that worked at the lodge in the jungle at the Manú River site. As she reflected upon her experience, she said it "opened her mind" when she saw how different people lived. "I just

In her post interview, Tanyia said that study abroad did influence her teaching. Her favorite part of the Peru program was interacting with the kids at the Lima school, seeing how they do things there, and having lunch with them. In the jungle she said, "We talked with the people who worked there (at the birdwatchers lodge on the Manú River)... I'm still Facebook friends with Guillermo (one of the guides)... he's some kind of bird specialist". She shared stories about her study abroad travels with her fourth grade class in the US, and noted that some of her students have not traveled; they have not even been to big shopping centers in their city close to where they live She said that her students consider her well-traveled. Tanyia also had some of her students take action and "send off" to help preserve the rainforest as part of her pedagogy, teaching them to "take care of the world", She tells them her story of how big the base of the Kapok tree is, "as big as this classroom", and how a fellow student in study abroad stood in the space between the roots at the base of the Kapok tree and bats flew out. She deeply understands her students' lives, and helps broaden their cultural and environmental awareness and knowledge with amazing true stories from her travels.

As to her personal aspirations for the future, Tanyia is currently seeking a Master's degree, and she expressed on social media that ".. . there are other things more important to me, like being called Dr. Jones one day."

#### 4.4 Lucia

"Before the trip, I didn't understand the complexity of how the world really works, and the complexity of just,... life itself." Post Interview [2019].

#### 4.4.1 History and context

Lucia, 28 years old, self-identified as Latina, and identifies strongly with her country of origin, where she immigrated from to the US and still has family, and is bilingual in Spanish and English. She had visited Columbia in the past, while a child growing up in the United States. She said, "It's been for me, something that I've always kind of struggled with... am I American or am I Colombian?" Her frame of reference before traveling to Manú was multifaceted.

As an undergraduate, Lucia interned and student taught at a science magnet elementary school as part of a science-focused cohort in her K-6 licensure program in Teacher Education at a large public southeastern state university. She was not one to take on leadership positions in her cohort. Neither was she one to shirk her share of the load as she worked hard in designing her science lessons. She had developed superior pedagogical skills in setting up science inquiry lessons by the time student teaching was over.

She taught 6th grade science at the largest middle school in her metropolitan district. Academic tracking was utilized in her school (⅓ high, ⅓ medium, and ⅓ low tracks in each grade). Lucia taught what she referred to as the "low" group. Most of her students were youth who came from feeder Title 1 elementary schools, and the majority were African American, with a large percentage of Latinos. New immigrant students were often assigned to her class as her school district did not have a designated school for new immigrants.

#### 4.4.2 Study-reflect-learn

"I would say, just my worldview, and how big the world really is changed" after the study abroad trip. For Lucia, the size of the knowable world literally grew before her eyes in the jungle. She remembered sitting out on the dock on the river at the birdwatcher's lodge near the Manú Rainforest Preserve and looking up to a clear night sky unhampered by lights on Earth and seeing many, many stars. She said she had never seen anything like it before or since, and that she felt small, "in a good way", with the full expanse of the universe before her, visible.

that to me is what's important, is being open-minded and really wanting to learn and be mindful that just because your culture is different than mine, doesn't make it wrong." For instance, she shared how she went to an Ethiopian fair and ate a dish one of her immigrant students from Africa enjoyed, and she was able to connect

Teaching, Reflecting and Learning: Exploring Teacher Education Study Abroad Programs…

"A lot of these kids... are not even aware that these things exist, that these can happen..." referring to what she saw and experienced in Peru, "... any of that, because they're so caught up in whatever is just in front of them" she said of her students. "So had I not had that experience (in Manú) I could have been like them, and not understood the importance of taking care of our planet and doing our own part– and how even if it's just that one little part that we do, it still contributes... And so, it's really important that they hear it from a (witness). Look, I actually went. I actually know about this. I've seen it. It gets them excited, it gets them to think outside of what they've been ... exposed to already, because they haven't been

Lucia's recognized identity was as a cultural leader during the study abroad trip to Peru, as she was one of the few Spanish-English bilingual participants. In the jungle when we had to split the group of 29 people into 6 jeeps to cross a remote land bridge between boat rides on the river, Lucia was the assigned Spanish speaker/leader in one of the jeeps, even though she was an undergraduate student. In addition, she noticed that other students turned to her when they did not understand what was being said around them. She felt she had to continually "negotiate"

Lucia admitted that she was not a leader when she was an undergraduate preservice teacher, but she became a recognized leader at the middle school where she worked, as well as in the school's Spanish-speaking community. She was called on frequently to communicate with Spanish-speaking families, as she was the only staff member who spoke Spanish. Lucia finished, as she put it, her "last" year of teaching in 2019. She will finish her Master's program in educational administration in 2020, and then planned to spend some time in Colombia before going back to the elementary school level as a principal in her home state. She noticed there are not too many Latinas in administration, so she wants to move into that career. Study abroad, Lucia said, "Literally changed my life. Seriously, I'm so serious. When people ask me (what's) one of the most important pivotal experiences of my life, (Manú) that's literally one of them... it completely changed my life.. . I remember

Our data evidenced pronounced lasting effects of study abroad, especially increased cultural awareness, knowledge and skills [25]. Our participants described their study abroad experiences as transformational learning. The experiences that were mentioned the most were cross-cultural social interaction and intensive school visits with opportunities to teach. These experiences are examples of disequilibrium or triggering experiences that elicited in all four teachers a reevaluation of existing cultural assumptions. Our study points to the necessity of creating thoughtful experiences abroad that push students outside of their cultural comfort zone to explore a new culture in order to experience dissonance for cultural learning. In addition, our findings indicate the strong importance of guided reflection and discussions that helped students to retrospectively analyze and examine their assumptions and knowledge about culture. The combination of disorienting experiences and thoughtful reflection promoted transformational learning outcomes

this space between two cultures and languages while in Peru.

everything. I talk to my students about it all the time".

5. Findings and discussion

153

with the student by talking about the dish.

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88578

exposed to much of anything else."

Nature and culture in Peru were both different from what she knew in the United States or Colombia. It was disorienting "... with just the exposure of seeing other cultures and knowing what it feels like to not be of that culture, and not really understand what's going on. And then, now you're here, you're immersed in it,... you're trying to navigate". She was making her way through new experiences. She said, "I think it (the trip to Peru) was one of those things too that kind of helped me also learn how to navigate between cultures as well. Because at the end of the day, I did grow up here in the United States. And so, I understand the cultural group that I'm coming from that I'm with. And then, also navigating between that cultural group with this new cultural group that we're immersed into".

Through her assignment teaching a lesson she had designed, a read aloud, at the EE fair at the K-6 primary school, Lucia developed empathy for her classmates and other study abroad students there with her who did not speak Spanish. "I can empathize with people not knowing any of the language whatsoever, and feeling completely lost" she said, "So it did help a lot being able to speak the language. And also, connect with the kids, just because I was able to have actual conversations with them, instead of just trying to figure out what you're saying" She knew that others in the group who could not speak Spanish could not figure out what the children were saying, if they spoke in Spanish. "So," she said, it was, "... me just wanting to help people navigate, because I understand that it's not an easy task." She commented that it wasn't that she wanted that role or sought to be a leader, but because of her empathy she took on the role of interpreter for others in the group. She realized it was hard for others in the study abroad group to navigate between cultures, and she felt that by doing so, and doing so for others, this helped her develop intercultural competencies.

#### 4.4.3 Perform-pedagogy

Lucia was able to connect with new immigrant students, and she linked this ability to how she was able to connect with Peruvian students at the school we visited in Lima. Though she spoke Spanish fluently and had lived in and visited Colombia, she was still challenged by immersion in Peruvian culture, and connecting with the Peruvian students was not simple, so this connection was one of her proudest memories. She mentioned it repeatedly. She also developed an awareness of nuances in the cultural differences between herself and her new immigrant students. She pointed out that one of her students, from a Central American country that spoke Spanish, was of native descent and did not speak Spanish. She also noted that "...yes, I have an added advantage (in Peru) because I can speak another language, but even within that, my dialect is different. Our cultural forms are very different. So, I think being able to connect with those (immigrant) students (in my classes) in a more meaningful way had a lot to do with my trip to Peru."

She felt it was an achievement to be able to connect with her students from many different cultures, even with students from countries that did not speak Spanish. "I feel as though I'm open to other cultures and experiencing learning. And

#### Teaching, Reflecting and Learning: Exploring Teacher Education Study Abroad Programs… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88578

that to me is what's important, is being open-minded and really wanting to learn and be mindful that just because your culture is different than mine, doesn't make it wrong." For instance, she shared how she went to an Ethiopian fair and ate a dish one of her immigrant students from Africa enjoyed, and she was able to connect with the student by talking about the dish.

"A lot of these kids... are not even aware that these things exist, that these can happen..." referring to what she saw and experienced in Peru, "... any of that, because they're so caught up in whatever is just in front of them" she said of her students.

"So had I not had that experience (in Manú) I could have been like them, and not understood the importance of taking care of our planet and doing our own part– and how even if it's just that one little part that we do, it still contributes... And so, it's really important that they hear it from a (witness). Look, I actually went. I actually know about this. I've seen it. It gets them excited, it gets them to think outside of what they've been ... exposed to already, because they haven't been exposed to much of anything else."

Lucia's recognized identity was as a cultural leader during the study abroad trip to Peru, as she was one of the few Spanish-English bilingual participants. In the jungle when we had to split the group of 29 people into 6 jeeps to cross a remote land bridge between boat rides on the river, Lucia was the assigned Spanish speaker/leader in one of the jeeps, even though she was an undergraduate student. In addition, she noticed that other students turned to her when they did not understand what was being said around them. She felt she had to continually "negotiate" this space between two cultures and languages while in Peru.

Lucia admitted that she was not a leader when she was an undergraduate preservice teacher, but she became a recognized leader at the middle school where she worked, as well as in the school's Spanish-speaking community. She was called on frequently to communicate with Spanish-speaking families, as she was the only staff member who spoke Spanish. Lucia finished, as she put it, her "last" year of teaching in 2019. She will finish her Master's program in educational administration in 2020, and then planned to spend some time in Colombia before going back to the elementary school level as a principal in her home state. She noticed there are not too many Latinas in administration, so she wants to move into that career. Study abroad, Lucia said, "Literally changed my life. Seriously, I'm so serious. When people ask me (what's) one of the most important pivotal experiences of my life, (Manú) that's literally one of them... it completely changed my life.. . I remember everything. I talk to my students about it all the time".

#### 5. Findings and discussion

Our data evidenced pronounced lasting effects of study abroad, especially increased cultural awareness, knowledge and skills [25]. Our participants described their study abroad experiences as transformational learning. The experiences that were mentioned the most were cross-cultural social interaction and intensive school visits with opportunities to teach. These experiences are examples of disequilibrium or triggering experiences that elicited in all four teachers a reevaluation of existing cultural assumptions. Our study points to the necessity of creating thoughtful experiences abroad that push students outside of their cultural comfort zone to explore a new culture in order to experience dissonance for cultural learning. In addition, our findings indicate the strong importance of guided reflection and discussions that helped students to retrospectively analyze and examine their assumptions and knowledge about culture. The combination of disorienting experiences and thoughtful reflection promoted transformational learning outcomes

4.4.2 Study-reflect-learn

"I would say, just my worldview, and how big the world really is changed" after the study abroad trip. For Lucia, the size of the knowable world literally grew before her eyes in the jungle. She remembered sitting out on the dock on the river at the birdwatcher's lodge near the Manú Rainforest Preserve and looking up to a clear night sky unhampered by lights on Earth and seeing many, many stars. She said she had never seen anything like it before or since, and that she felt small, "in a good

Nature and culture in Peru were both different from what she knew in the United States or Colombia. It was disorienting "... with just the exposure of seeing other cultures and knowing what it feels like to not be of that culture, and not really understand what's going on. And then, now you're here, you're immersed in it,... you're trying to navigate". She was making her way through new experiences. She said, "I think it (the trip to Peru) was one of those things too that kind of helped me also learn how to navigate between cultures as well. Because at the end of the day, I did grow up here in the United States. And so, I understand the cultural group that I'm coming from that I'm with. And then, also navigating between that cultural

Through her assignment teaching a lesson she had designed, a read aloud, at the EE fair at the K-6 primary school, Lucia developed empathy for her classmates and other study abroad students there with her who did not speak Spanish. "I can empathize with people not knowing any of the language whatsoever, and feeling completely lost" she said, "So it did help a lot being able to speak the language. And also, connect with the kids, just because I was able to have actual conversations with them, instead of just trying to figure out what you're saying" She knew that others in the group who could not speak Spanish could not figure out what the children were saying, if they spoke in Spanish. "So," she said, it was, "... me just wanting to

Lucia was able to connect with new immigrant students, and she linked this ability to how she was able to connect with Peruvian students at the school we visited in Lima. Though she spoke Spanish fluently and had lived in and visited Colombia, she was still challenged by immersion in Peruvian culture, and connecting with the Peruvian students was not simple, so this connection was one of her proudest memories. She mentioned it repeatedly. She also developed an awareness of nuances in the cultural differences between herself and her new immigrant students. She pointed out that one of her students, from a Central American country that spoke Spanish, was of native descent and did not speak Spanish. She also noted that "...yes, I have an added advantage (in Peru) because I can speak another language, but even within that, my dialect is different. Our cultural forms are very different. So, I think being able to connect with those (immigrant) students (in my classes) in a more meaning-

She felt it was an achievement to be able to connect with her students from many different cultures, even with students from countries that did not speak Spanish. "I feel as though I'm open to other cultures and experiencing learning. And

way", with the full expanse of the universe before her, visible.

Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges

group with this new cultural group that we're immersed into".

help people navigate, because I understand that it's not an easy task." She commented that it wasn't that she wanted that role or sought to be a leader, but because of her empathy she took on the role of interpreter for others in the group. She realized it was hard for others in the study abroad group to navigate between cultures, and she felt that by doing so, and doing so for others, this helped her

develop intercultural competencies.

ful way had a lot to do with my trip to Peru."

4.4.3 Perform-pedagogy

152

that capacitated the development of cultural awareness and cultural competence. This, in turn, had positive impacts on reflection skills, curiosity, and a new conception of how culture influences knowledge construction, further leading to the development of culturally relevant teaching practices, as was evidenced in teachers' narratives of their pedagogical actions and decisions. The findings suggest implications for other teacher education programs interested in using study abroad experiences in their programs to promote teachers' development of culturally relevant pedagogy [3].

from her Columbian Spanish. It was helpful to her as a future teacher to learn to be a

Cultural learning experiences, such as watching and discussing a video about tribes in Manú protesting against the Peruvian government's attempt to develop an area of the jungle where they lived, were triggering experiences for Tanyia that led her to question her initial assumptions about the jungle being devoid of humans. In reflection, she adapted her schema [18] to include the Manú tribes living deep in the preserve, even if she had not seen them, or the effects of their living there. She caught herself during the post interview when she said that the jungle was "fresh" and unaffected by humans. She then immediately changed her frame of reference, prompted by the documentary we viewed during the trip one evening at the birdwatcher's lodge with one of the guides, to include the local native tribes as humans who chose to live there, and who could affect the jungle, even if minimally, and even if they were trying to save it as a natural preserve. This activity pushed students to develop sensitivity to the existence of varied sociopolitical epistemologies by bringing to light the viewpoints held by native tribes that had been hidden even to local politicians in Peru, until they protested against economic development

Cultural disorienting experiences abroad are not sufficient for cultural competence and awareness to develop. Thoughtful and intentional reflection is a mandatory next step [5]. Each program provided participants with opportunities to examine their perceptions before, during, and after the experience. Participants were asked to reflect upon their own culture and the host country's culture a number of times. The essence of the critical viewpoint is much like what Devon mentioned during his interview: "I think just sitting and letting it stew a little bit and letting those ideas' kind of, sit, and develop over time has obviously positively

The study abroad course curricula in both programs allowed students to reflect,

share their feelings, and be critical of their assumptions [1, 4]. This process of reflection allowed participants to become more culturally aware, thus making cultural comparisons and learning to be critical of their own culture, reducing, in effect, their ethnocentrism [26]. During the Maastricht program, the video log assignments were crafted to elicit a critical viewpoint on the participants' global competence development and the emotions that surfaced during culturally unfamiliar situations, while an essay project required participants to inquire about culture or education related topics that made them curious. In the Manú program, participants were asked to reflect on their experiences abroad by journaling daily

and then participating in guided discussions with faculty and scientists.

Assignments before traveling, such as the assigned reading about the role of trees in the making of America, acted to set up a more informed frame of reference

'cultural translator' [5], interpreting while in cultural immersion for herself between her own culture of origin and that of Peru; and then interpreting for herself and for others in the group between the US dominant culture and the Peruvian culture. She reflected in her interview upon the fact that she had developed intercultural competence [2] because she realized that her Spanish dialect was distinct from the dialects used in different regions of Peru, and that there were cultural norms in Peru which varied from those in her country of origin and the US, all of which she had to "negotiate" during study abroad. The ability to acknowledge nuanced cultural differences is a valuable skill for teachers in diverse school districts with a variety of immigrant students from recognized language-dominant countries

Teaching, Reflecting and Learning: Exploring Teacher Education Study Abroad Programs…

possessing varying dialects and/or subcultures.

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88578

of their rainforest home.

5.1.2 Phase 2: critical frame of reference

changed my life for the better."

155

#### 5.1 Transformational learning

#### 5.1.1 Phase 1: disequilibrium experiences

Cultural competence does not just happen because someone travels abroad. It must be developed, cultivated, and tended to through intentional planning and action. A well-executed study abroad experience gives students the opportunity to have an experience that expands their perceptions and makes them feel dissatisfied with their existing understanding. Both programs provided participants with disorienting, cultural immersion experiences that led to disequilibrium [4, 10, 18]. In the Maastricht program the teaching experience at the Refugee School and the intercultural interaction with Dutch preservice teachers had an impact on both Devon and Andrea. On the Manú trip, Tanyia and Lucia found that navigating cultures and learning about hidden cultures were experiences that triggered dissonance and wonder. These experiences were powerful in the way they were executed. The program designers provided opportunities for their preservice teachers to experience cultural dissonance [5, 10] in turn exposing participants to their own cultural assumptions, some they may have been blind to. As evidenced from our study, any teacher education program that wants to cultivate intercultural sensitivity, cultural competence, and awareness in their preservice teachers needs to create extensive intercultural immersion experiences for their participants [5].

School visits proved to be experiences that exposed discrepancies in the preservice teachers' views on culture, teaching, and learning. The Refugee School experience was culturally disorienting to Devon [6]. He developed a new frame of reference after discussing life with the students at the Refugee School [10]. In turn, he began to question the US media and his own views on refugees and immigration. In essence, Devon began his critical stance of the knowledge [3] portrayed by the US news media. This was the first step to thinking critically about cultural knowledge and could be translated to his students and their sociopolitical situations.

Social interactions in cultural immersion were challenging for our participants, who had traveled little or not at all internationally before study abroad. Andrea experienced disequilibrium as she interacted with the Dutch people. Her initial exposure to a new culture and people who were different from her caused her to consider herself a cultured being with certain views and perspectives shaped by her context and experiences from a new frame of reference [10]. The local people that students communicated with on study abroad trips were in effect cultural translators [5], and as such they were a key component to making sense of new information about culture. They provided participants with a person who could answer questions about assumptions, and could provide context to triggering experiences, further enhancing the chance for participants to learn new knowledge and skills such as intercultural communication and inquiry.

Intercultural interactions during study abroad provided opportunities for participants to acknowledge and grapple with cultural nuances, such as language dialects. For Lucia, the Spanish spoken in Peru was disorienting as it was different

#### Teaching, Reflecting and Learning: Exploring Teacher Education Study Abroad Programs… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88578

from her Columbian Spanish. It was helpful to her as a future teacher to learn to be a 'cultural translator' [5], interpreting while in cultural immersion for herself between her own culture of origin and that of Peru; and then interpreting for herself and for others in the group between the US dominant culture and the Peruvian culture. She reflected in her interview upon the fact that she had developed intercultural competence [2] because she realized that her Spanish dialect was distinct from the dialects used in different regions of Peru, and that there were cultural norms in Peru which varied from those in her country of origin and the US, all of which she had to "negotiate" during study abroad. The ability to acknowledge nuanced cultural differences is a valuable skill for teachers in diverse school districts with a variety of immigrant students from recognized language-dominant countries possessing varying dialects and/or subcultures.

Cultural learning experiences, such as watching and discussing a video about tribes in Manú protesting against the Peruvian government's attempt to develop an area of the jungle where they lived, were triggering experiences for Tanyia that led her to question her initial assumptions about the jungle being devoid of humans. In reflection, she adapted her schema [18] to include the Manú tribes living deep in the preserve, even if she had not seen them, or the effects of their living there. She caught herself during the post interview when she said that the jungle was "fresh" and unaffected by humans. She then immediately changed her frame of reference, prompted by the documentary we viewed during the trip one evening at the birdwatcher's lodge with one of the guides, to include the local native tribes as humans who chose to live there, and who could affect the jungle, even if minimally, and even if they were trying to save it as a natural preserve. This activity pushed students to develop sensitivity to the existence of varied sociopolitical epistemologies by bringing to light the viewpoints held by native tribes that had been hidden even to local politicians in Peru, until they protested against economic development of their rainforest home.

#### 5.1.2 Phase 2: critical frame of reference

Cultural disorienting experiences abroad are not sufficient for cultural competence and awareness to develop. Thoughtful and intentional reflection is a mandatory next step [5]. Each program provided participants with opportunities to examine their perceptions before, during, and after the experience. Participants were asked to reflect upon their own culture and the host country's culture a number of times. The essence of the critical viewpoint is much like what Devon mentioned during his interview: "I think just sitting and letting it stew a little bit and letting those ideas' kind of, sit, and develop over time has obviously positively changed my life for the better."

The study abroad course curricula in both programs allowed students to reflect, share their feelings, and be critical of their assumptions [1, 4]. This process of reflection allowed participants to become more culturally aware, thus making cultural comparisons and learning to be critical of their own culture, reducing, in effect, their ethnocentrism [26]. During the Maastricht program, the video log assignments were crafted to elicit a critical viewpoint on the participants' global competence development and the emotions that surfaced during culturally unfamiliar situations, while an essay project required participants to inquire about culture or education related topics that made them curious. In the Manú program, participants were asked to reflect on their experiences abroad by journaling daily and then participating in guided discussions with faculty and scientists.

Assignments before traveling, such as the assigned reading about the role of trees in the making of America, acted to set up a more informed frame of reference

that capacitated the development of cultural awareness and cultural competence. This, in turn, had positive impacts on reflection skills, curiosity, and a new conception of how culture influences knowledge construction, further leading to the development of culturally relevant teaching practices, as was evidenced in teachers' narratives of their pedagogical actions and decisions. The findings suggest implications for other teacher education programs interested in using study abroad experiences in their programs to promote teachers' development of culturally relevant

Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges

Cultural competence does not just happen because someone travels abroad. It must be developed, cultivated, and tended to through intentional planning and action. A well-executed study abroad experience gives students the opportunity to have an experience that expands their perceptions and makes them feel dissatisfied with their existing understanding. Both programs provided participants with disorienting, cultural immersion experiences that led to disequilibrium [4, 10, 18]. In the Maastricht program the teaching experience at the Refugee School and the intercultural interaction with Dutch preservice teachers had an impact on both Devon and Andrea. On the Manú trip, Tanyia and Lucia found that navigating cultures and learning about hidden cultures were experiences that triggered dissonance and wonder. These experiences were powerful in the way they were executed. The program designers provided opportunities for their preservice teachers to experience cultural dissonance [5, 10] in turn exposing participants to their own cultural assumptions, some they may have been blind to. As evidenced from our study, any teacher education program that wants to cultivate intercultural sensitivity, cultural competence, and awareness in their preservice teachers needs to create

extensive intercultural immersion experiences for their participants [5]. School visits proved to be experiences that exposed discrepancies in the preservice teachers' views on culture, teaching, and learning. The Refugee School experience was culturally disorienting to Devon [6]. He developed a new frame of reference after discussing life with the students at the Refugee School [10]. In turn, he began to question the US media and his own views on refugees and immigration. In essence, Devon began his critical stance of the knowledge [3] portrayed by the US news media. This was the first step to thinking critically about cultural knowledge and could be translated to his students and their sociopolitical situations.

such as intercultural communication and inquiry.

154

Social interactions in cultural immersion were challenging for our participants, who had traveled little or not at all internationally before study abroad. Andrea experienced disequilibrium as she interacted with the Dutch people. Her initial exposure to a new culture and people who were different from her caused her to consider herself a cultured being with certain views and perspectives shaped by her context and experiences from a new frame of reference [10]. The local people that students communicated with on study abroad trips were in effect cultural translators [5], and as such they were a key component to making sense of new information about culture. They provided participants with a person who could answer questions about assumptions, and could provide context to triggering experiences, further enhancing the chance for participants to learn new knowledge and skills

Intercultural interactions during study abroad provided opportunities for participants to acknowledge and grapple with cultural nuances, such as language dialects. For Lucia, the Spanish spoken in Peru was disorienting as it was different

pedagogy [3].

5.1 Transformational learning

5.1.1 Phase 1: disequilibrium experiences

[10] in the United States for students. The assignment introduced a critical view of deforestation in the United States, and as such helped prepare students for a better informed and critical view of proposed destruction of the rainforest home to native tribes in Manú, as portrayed in the documentary we viewed and discussed while on site near the natural preserve. Teacher educators can intentionally set out to help students with growing their cultural awareness through carefully planned experiences and assignments.

essential part of both study abroad programs. Through planned activities in each programs'study abroad curriculum, preservice teachers stepped out of their cultural security zones to engage with local people on their own, overcoming cultural and language differences, learning to communicate with people from different cultures who spoke a different language or dialect. Cultural immersion prompted them to adopt a new frame of reference [7] when they realized through intercultural comparisons that they had a culture of their own, and a dialect of English or Spanish of their own. Cultural immersion with the support of guided reflection in the form of video logs and journal writing forced participants to acquire new knowledge in order to function, leading them to change their thinking about culture and its effect on their ability to connect and communicate with others around the world. As teachers, Devon, Andrea, Tanyia and Lucia continue to deliberately make efforts to be a part of their local communities [3], and in particular the new immigrant cultures within. Global perspectives of education are not easy to take on without international travel to schools, as Devon expressed in his interview. Experiences such as visiting and teaching at schools abroad prompted a transformed cultural awareness of the larger implications of education as a global imperative, not merely a local mission. Teacher educators want students to grapple with ideas about the purpose of an education and social justice as they move through their respective programs [5]. Observing teaching styles and the mechanics of teaching were important learning opportunities for Devon. His experience with the Refugee School and the private International School impacted him by transforming his views of what effective culturally responsive teaching should include for optimal student success. As he said, "Really (the study abroad experience) just kind of readjusted the idea of what good teaching is, and what responsible teaching is, and what responsible cultural pedagogy and curriculum is, and things like that. So, it was very beneficial to me, even at such a young age, cause I was only nineteen during that time." This acquired view of education prompted him to pursue a Master's degree in Curriculum and Teaching with an emphasis on cultural and socioeconomic components of teaching and learning further enhancing his understandings of cultural competence and how

Teaching, Reflecting and Learning: Exploring Teacher Education Study Abroad Programs…

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88578

that correlates to classroom practices at a diverse urban school.

157

Seeking out new cultural experiences was an activity we as teacher educators included in our study abroad programs, hoping to assist students in reaching out to the international communities we visited, hoping they would forge relationships based upon meaningful understandings of other peoples'similarities and differences to their own culture [4]. We found overwhelming willingness on the part of interviewees to still engage in new cultural explorations in the years after their study abroad experience, in personal life and in both the classroom and through personal relationships with students and their families. Devon moved beyond his cultural comfort zone to attend a student's confirmation. Lucia tasted an Ethiopian dish that one of her students knew of and could bridge cultures by talking to him about it. Most notably she transformed her sense of confidence after the roles she took on negotiating cultures and as a bilingual interpreter in Peru [4] and became a valued cross-cultural expert at her school as the only interpreter and translator for Spanishspeaking families in her school community. Andrea continues to experience new cultures and works to be a part of her new Honduran community. She became aware of her ability to effectively interact with new cultures and explored her new role as an intercultural communicator by befriending others from other countries [28]. Tanyia said the most rewarding part of the trip was visiting the local school in Chorrillos where she taught and socialized with children all day. She said she would have liked to have had another day there. She later traveled to stay with the "locals" in Aruba, instead of in tourist areas, as she had in the past when she traveled with her family, and she shared stories of her experiences with her students. Seeking out

Critical reflection was required in assignments. After experience visiting two starkly different schools in the Netherlands, Devon began to critically reflect on the global inequalities that exist in education. After talking with a refugee student, he became increasingly critical of the American media's view on immigration and his existing perspectives on refugees in the US. Even before study abroad, Tanyia had an informed critical view of US mainstream culture, and she was not afraid to share her own interpretations publicly, so her willingness to see and share her critical cultural stance well prepared her for taking on a critical view of how mainstream culture may see Latin American cultures or native cultures in Manú in her reflections and discussions during study abroad. Tanyia took on a critical view of mainstream negative views of Latin American culture in the US at the time. She found new cultures she encountered in Peru were different and not to be considered as less, but as she said, "just different". Taking on a critical stance of cultural assumptions happens when students are asked to compare those assumptions to real experiences. In this way stereotypes are revealed as such.

New cultural self-awareness, when participants realized that they too had a culture of their own with certain perspectives, traditions, and ways of being, was prompted by school visits and socialization. Through the auspices of a cultural guide, a Dutch preservice teacher, Andrea's new realization of her own heritage and culture led her to reflect on her identity as a Latina American. As an in-service teacher, in order to better serve her students, many who were from Honduras, she went on to critically assess her assumptions about Honduran culture. She had recently explored a Honduran mountain village. In doing so, she continued to seek perspective consciousness [27] and continued to develop her cultural competence [4]. This provided continued evidence that the skills developed during an education study abroad experience can have far-reaching impacts on classroom teaching and learning.

#### 5.1.3 Phase 3: changes in viewpoint and future plans

Through the use of guided reflection and retrospective research methods we were able to examine how the teachers felt that the study abroad experience was transformational, helping them gain new knowledge and skills, and a more critical awareness of culture and its effects on pedagogy. This learning, in turn affected their teaching practices. Learning from a study abroad experience does not end after a study abroad program has ended the impacts are much more long term [16]. Based on our findings, we suggest the impacts of teacher education study abroad should be analyzed years later to examine the greatest impact on teaching practices.

We connect transformational learning to performance and culturally relevant pedagogy [5]. Essentially, a change during transformational learning can lead to a change in performance, either within teaching practice or in daily practice. Devon, Andrea, Tanyia, and Lucia all reported some form of transformation directly related to their undergraduate teacher education study abroad experience.

The new knowledge, skills, and awareness gained from the study abroad experiences led to meaningful engagement in communities and new cultures years after participation in the study abroad experiences. This form of engagement was an

#### Teaching, Reflecting and Learning: Exploring Teacher Education Study Abroad Programs… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88578

essential part of both study abroad programs. Through planned activities in each programs'study abroad curriculum, preservice teachers stepped out of their cultural security zones to engage with local people on their own, overcoming cultural and language differences, learning to communicate with people from different cultures who spoke a different language or dialect. Cultural immersion prompted them to adopt a new frame of reference [7] when they realized through intercultural comparisons that they had a culture of their own, and a dialect of English or Spanish of their own. Cultural immersion with the support of guided reflection in the form of video logs and journal writing forced participants to acquire new knowledge in order to function, leading them to change their thinking about culture and its effect on their ability to connect and communicate with others around the world. As teachers, Devon, Andrea, Tanyia and Lucia continue to deliberately make efforts to be a part of their local communities [3], and in particular the new immigrant cultures within.

Global perspectives of education are not easy to take on without international travel to schools, as Devon expressed in his interview. Experiences such as visiting and teaching at schools abroad prompted a transformed cultural awareness of the larger implications of education as a global imperative, not merely a local mission. Teacher educators want students to grapple with ideas about the purpose of an education and social justice as they move through their respective programs [5]. Observing teaching styles and the mechanics of teaching were important learning opportunities for Devon. His experience with the Refugee School and the private International School impacted him by transforming his views of what effective culturally responsive teaching should include for optimal student success. As he said, "Really (the study abroad experience) just kind of readjusted the idea of what good teaching is, and what responsible teaching is, and what responsible cultural pedagogy and curriculum is, and things like that. So, it was very beneficial to me, even at such a young age, cause I was only nineteen during that time." This acquired view of education prompted him to pursue a Master's degree in Curriculum and Teaching with an emphasis on cultural and socioeconomic components of teaching and learning further enhancing his understandings of cultural competence and how that correlates to classroom practices at a diverse urban school.

Seeking out new cultural experiences was an activity we as teacher educators included in our study abroad programs, hoping to assist students in reaching out to the international communities we visited, hoping they would forge relationships based upon meaningful understandings of other peoples'similarities and differences to their own culture [4]. We found overwhelming willingness on the part of interviewees to still engage in new cultural explorations in the years after their study abroad experience, in personal life and in both the classroom and through personal relationships with students and their families. Devon moved beyond his cultural comfort zone to attend a student's confirmation. Lucia tasted an Ethiopian dish that one of her students knew of and could bridge cultures by talking to him about it. Most notably she transformed her sense of confidence after the roles she took on negotiating cultures and as a bilingual interpreter in Peru [4] and became a valued cross-cultural expert at her school as the only interpreter and translator for Spanishspeaking families in her school community. Andrea continues to experience new cultures and works to be a part of her new Honduran community. She became aware of her ability to effectively interact with new cultures and explored her new role as an intercultural communicator by befriending others from other countries [28]. Tanyia said the most rewarding part of the trip was visiting the local school in Chorrillos where she taught and socialized with children all day. She said she would have liked to have had another day there. She later traveled to stay with the "locals" in Aruba, instead of in tourist areas, as she had in the past when she traveled with her family, and she shared stories of her experiences with her students. Seeking out

[10] in the United States for students. The assignment introduced a critical view of deforestation in the United States, and as such helped prepare students for a better informed and critical view of proposed destruction of the rainforest home to native tribes in Manú, as portrayed in the documentary we viewed and discussed while on site near the natural preserve. Teacher educators can intentionally set out to help students with growing their cultural awareness through carefully planned experi-

Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges

Critical reflection was required in assignments. After experience visiting two starkly different schools in the Netherlands, Devon began to critically reflect on the global inequalities that exist in education. After talking with a refugee student, he became increasingly critical of the American media's view on immigration and his existing perspectives on refugees in the US. Even before study abroad, Tanyia had an informed critical view of US mainstream culture, and she was not afraid to share her own interpretations publicly, so her willingness to see and share her critical cultural stance well prepared her for taking on a critical view of how mainstream culture may see Latin American cultures or native cultures in Manú in her reflections and discussions during study abroad. Tanyia took on a critical view of mainstream negative views of Latin American culture in the US at the time. She found new cultures she encountered in Peru were different and not to be considered as less, but as she said, "just different". Taking on a critical stance of cultural assumptions happens when students are asked to compare those assumptions to real expe-

New cultural self-awareness, when participants realized that they too had a culture of their own with certain perspectives, traditions, and ways of being, was prompted by school visits and socialization. Through the auspices of a cultural guide, a Dutch preservice teacher, Andrea's new realization of her own heritage and culture led her to reflect on her identity as a Latina American. As an in-service teacher, in order to better serve her students, many who were from Honduras, she went on to critically assess her assumptions about Honduran culture. She had recently explored a Honduran mountain village. In doing so, she continued to seek perspective consciousness [27] and continued to develop her cultural competence [4]. This provided continued evidence that the skills developed during an education study abroad experience can have far-reaching impacts on classroom teaching and

Through the use of guided reflection and retrospective research methods we were able to examine how the teachers felt that the study abroad experience was transformational, helping them gain new knowledge and skills, and a more critical awareness of culture and its effects on pedagogy. This learning, in turn affected their teaching practices. Learning from a study abroad experience does not end after a study abroad program has ended the impacts are much more long term [16]. Based on our findings, we suggest the impacts of teacher education study abroad should be analyzed years later to examine the greatest impact on teaching practices.

We connect transformational learning to performance and culturally relevant pedagogy [5]. Essentially, a change during transformational learning can lead to a change in performance, either within teaching practice or in daily practice. Devon, Andrea, Tanyia, and Lucia all reported some form of transformation directly related

The new knowledge, skills, and awareness gained from the study abroad experiences led to meaningful engagement in communities and new cultures years after participation in the study abroad experiences. This form of engagement was an

to their undergraduate teacher education study abroad experience.

ences and assignments.

learning.

156

riences. In this way stereotypes are revealed as such.

5.1.3 Phase 3: changes in viewpoint and future plans

new cultural experiences after their study abroad showed, as multiple participants described it, an "open-mindedness" to cultural differences.

experiences she had on the trip to Peru, "I've never sought out to be like, 'Oh, I'm going to be this leader.' And now, five years later, I'm going to be... the leader. The trip to Peru," she said, "was that stepping stone into the next direction of my life." Andrea also experienced transformational learning in response to her experiences in Europe. She began to behave and think in a way that was more congruent with her

Teaching, Reflecting and Learning: Exploring Teacher Education Study Abroad Programs…

The manner in which social relations are structured is important to culturally relevant pedagogy [3] Reaching out to socialize with students at schools we visited, finding ways to explore cultures, were common practices during study abroad. Devon, Andrea, Tanyia, and Lucia deliberately made efforts to be a part of their school communities as teachers and explore different cultures within their communities [3]. Study participants had developed intercultural sensitivity [4] to the differences there were between their cultural backgrounds and the cultures they encountered while on study abroad, and later between their culture and the cultures in their communities and classrooms. This deeper understanding, cultivated from the study abroad experience, led them to be a part of their community by attending student activities outside of the school, exploring different parts of the community, or as in Lucia's case, serving as an interpreter to assist students and their families. All of which helped to "maintain a fluid student-teacher relationship" [3], p. 480

Evidenced by the teacher narratives, we found conceptions of knowledge as global, able to be understood from multiple epistemologies, and not static but constructed [3]. They thought that multiple forms of knowledge should be valued in the classroom and beyond. In addition, these participants also brought their new ideas and study abroad experiences to their classroom pedagogy, enhancing their curriculum and the relationships with their students. Tanyia became more aware of biodiversity through lived experiences in the rainforest, and her world view became increasingly complex [28]. This new cultural awareness of the jungle context became part of her pedagogy. She stood under an enormous Kapok tree and could describe the experience to her students. She was more aware of nature conservation and of the local tribes in the Manú preserve who fought to save Manú from the Peruvian government's land acquisition and resource exploitation efforts. Lucia's new knowledge of native South American culture was an awareness she could also use in her classroom. Students from native cultures unfamiliar to her were arriving in her classroom. She developed the skill to recognize students who were from native populations, such as from indigenous Central American populations. She was aware of students who did not speak Spanish but were from Spanish-speaking countries, even if those of the dominant culture in their country of origin were Spanish speakers. Her deeper knowledge of native cultures and recognizing cultures espoused by new immigrant students arriving in her classroom in the United States

was, as she described it, helped by what she learned on the trip to Manú.

Cultural awareness, knowledge and skills mentioned by the teachers in our study can be considered stepping stones along the path to cultural competence and culturally relevant pedagogy [3], which we would expect them to develop further over time. Andrea was in her first year of teaching, and the other three teachers in the study were in their third and fifth years of teaching while pursuing a Master's

We found that engaging preservice teachers in deliberately designed study abroad programs to culturally new settings was transformative. Our participants

newly acquired cultural perspectives [4, 10].

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88578

that does not end at the classroom door.

degree at the time of their post interviews.

6. Conclusion

159

#### 5.2 Cultural awareness, competence, and relevant pedagogical practices

To become more culturally competent teachers, those who incorporate culturally aware plans and actions in pedagogy, study abroad participants can utilize their increased cultural awareness, knowledge and skills that they found that they gained through transformational learning from their study abroad programs. All four of our study participants coincidentally sought out/chose challenging positions for these first few years of teaching, either going abroad to teach or teaching in a high needs urban diverse classroom. All four were from minority and marginalized populations in the teaching profession (Male, Mixed Race, African American, and Latina), but this alone did not prepare them to be culturally competent teachers in these complex contexts. Study abroad experiences, for these teachers, were pivotal through transformational learning towards cultural competence in their teaching practices.

While we as teacher educators can implement classroom activities [29] that promote cultural competence and awareness without study abroad, what is difficult to do in class is to provide lived experiences within another culture. We found that lived intercultural experiences significantly increased cultural awareness for our study participants. Overall, participants realized the interconnected nature of the world after study abroad. This shift in increased cultural consciousness is a strong indicator for culturally relevant/responsive teaching [4, 5, 30]. This happened in part by offering them opportunities for reflection in journals and discussions, making visible new frames of reference from which to critically view alternatives to their own lives and culture, by showing them different social structures, and by presenting different epistemologies, in alignment with three elements of culturally competent teaching, as per Ladson-Billings: "Conceptions of self and others. .. the manner in which social relations are structured... and conceptions of knowledge" [3], p. 478.

Conception of self as a capable professional and others as capable learners are cultural competencies that we as teacher educators hoped to model and support in our programs. As an after effect of study abroad experiences, researchers found that students feel an increased sense of self efficacy and confidence in their abilities [4, 7, 28, 31], and our findings supported this. What was transformational about study abroad for preservice teachers was carried forward into professional life and practices in the classroom. Teachers in this study, once back in the US, were aware of the cultural heritage immigrant students had, the limited cultural experiences some of their students had, and recognized in themselves the broad experiences they had gained. Ladson Billings described culturally relevant teachers as "risk takers." [3], p. 479. We, too, would describe our study participants as risk takers. They were willing to step outside of themselves to teach at low income, Title I schools or international school. They were also willing to learn new things and have new experiences to better serve their students and their school districts. Lucia saw an all Latin American teaching and administrative staff at the school we visited in Peru, and subsequently became culturally aware of how few Latinas there are in teaching and administration in schools in the US. From taking a back-row seat in her undergraduate cohort courses and quietly minimizing her participation in class, to being recognized by her colleagues and administrators as a trusted leader and invaluable in communicating with Spanish-speaking families, Lucia's trajectory evidenced increased cultural awareness, knowledge and skills. She evidenced an incredible character change from her preservice teacher days, seeking leadership roles as she planned to work as a school principal upon completion of her Master's degree. She attributed her first step towards her new career choices to the

#### Teaching, Reflecting and Learning: Exploring Teacher Education Study Abroad Programs… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88578

experiences she had on the trip to Peru, "I've never sought out to be like, 'Oh, I'm going to be this leader.' And now, five years later, I'm going to be... the leader. The trip to Peru," she said, "was that stepping stone into the next direction of my life." Andrea also experienced transformational learning in response to her experiences in Europe. She began to behave and think in a way that was more congruent with her newly acquired cultural perspectives [4, 10].

The manner in which social relations are structured is important to culturally relevant pedagogy [3] Reaching out to socialize with students at schools we visited, finding ways to explore cultures, were common practices during study abroad. Devon, Andrea, Tanyia, and Lucia deliberately made efforts to be a part of their school communities as teachers and explore different cultures within their communities [3]. Study participants had developed intercultural sensitivity [4] to the differences there were between their cultural backgrounds and the cultures they encountered while on study abroad, and later between their culture and the cultures in their communities and classrooms. This deeper understanding, cultivated from the study abroad experience, led them to be a part of their community by attending student activities outside of the school, exploring different parts of the community, or as in Lucia's case, serving as an interpreter to assist students and their families. All of which helped to "maintain a fluid student-teacher relationship" [3], p. 480 that does not end at the classroom door.

Evidenced by the teacher narratives, we found conceptions of knowledge as global, able to be understood from multiple epistemologies, and not static but constructed [3]. They thought that multiple forms of knowledge should be valued in the classroom and beyond. In addition, these participants also brought their new ideas and study abroad experiences to their classroom pedagogy, enhancing their curriculum and the relationships with their students. Tanyia became more aware of biodiversity through lived experiences in the rainforest, and her world view became increasingly complex [28]. This new cultural awareness of the jungle context became part of her pedagogy. She stood under an enormous Kapok tree and could describe the experience to her students. She was more aware of nature conservation and of the local tribes in the Manú preserve who fought to save Manú from the Peruvian government's land acquisition and resource exploitation efforts. Lucia's new knowledge of native South American culture was an awareness she could also use in her classroom. Students from native cultures unfamiliar to her were arriving in her classroom. She developed the skill to recognize students who were from native populations, such as from indigenous Central American populations. She was aware of students who did not speak Spanish but were from Spanish-speaking countries, even if those of the dominant culture in their country of origin were Spanish speakers. Her deeper knowledge of native cultures and recognizing cultures espoused by new immigrant students arriving in her classroom in the United States was, as she described it, helped by what she learned on the trip to Manú.

Cultural awareness, knowledge and skills mentioned by the teachers in our study can be considered stepping stones along the path to cultural competence and culturally relevant pedagogy [3], which we would expect them to develop further over time. Andrea was in her first year of teaching, and the other three teachers in the study were in their third and fifth years of teaching while pursuing a Master's degree at the time of their post interviews.

#### 6. Conclusion

We found that engaging preservice teachers in deliberately designed study abroad programs to culturally new settings was transformative. Our participants

new cultural experiences after their study abroad showed, as multiple participants

To become more culturally competent teachers, those who incorporate culturally

While we as teacher educators can implement classroom activities [29] that promote cultural competence and awareness without study abroad, what is difficult to do in class is to provide lived experiences within another culture. We found that lived intercultural experiences significantly increased cultural awareness for our study participants. Overall, participants realized the interconnected nature of the world after study abroad. This shift in increased cultural consciousness is a strong indicator for culturally relevant/responsive teaching [4, 5, 30]. This happened in part by offering them opportunities for reflection in journals and discussions, making visible new frames of reference from which to critically view alternatives to their own lives and culture, by showing them different social structures, and by presenting different epistemologies, in alignment with three elements of culturally competent teaching, as per Ladson-Billings: "Conceptions of self and others. .. the manner in which social

Conception of self as a capable professional and others as capable learners are cultural competencies that we as teacher educators hoped to model and support in our programs. As an after effect of study abroad experiences, researchers found that students feel an increased sense of self efficacy and confidence in their abilities [4, 7, 28, 31], and our findings supported this. What was transformational about study abroad for preservice teachers was carried forward into professional life and practices in the classroom. Teachers in this study, once back in the US, were aware of the cultural heritage immigrant students had, the limited cultural experiences some of their students had, and recognized in themselves the broad experiences they had gained. Ladson Billings described culturally relevant teachers as "risk takers." [3], p. 479. We, too, would describe our study participants as risk takers. They were willing to step outside of themselves to teach at low income, Title I schools or international school. They were also willing to learn new things and have new experiences to better serve their students and their school districts. Lucia saw an all Latin American teaching and administrative staff at the school we visited in Peru, and subsequently became culturally aware of how few Latinas there are in teaching and administration in schools in the US. From taking a back-row seat in her undergraduate cohort courses and quietly minimizing her participation in class, to being recognized by her colleagues and administrators as a trusted leader and invaluable in communicating with Spanish-speaking families, Lucia's trajectory evidenced increased cultural awareness, knowledge and skills. She evidenced an incredible character change from her preservice teacher days, seeking leadership roles as she planned to work as a school principal upon completion of her Master's

relations are structured... and conceptions of knowledge" [3], p. 478.

degree. She attributed her first step towards her new career choices to the

158

5.2 Cultural awareness, competence, and relevant pedagogical practices

Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges

aware plans and actions in pedagogy, study abroad participants can utilize their increased cultural awareness, knowledge and skills that they found that they gained through transformational learning from their study abroad programs. All four of our study participants coincidentally sought out/chose challenging positions for these first few years of teaching, either going abroad to teach or teaching in a high needs urban diverse classroom. All four were from minority and marginalized populations in the teaching profession (Male, Mixed Race, African American, and Latina), but this alone did not prepare them to be culturally competent teachers in these complex contexts. Study abroad experiences, for these teachers, were pivotal through transformational learning towards cultural competence in their teaching practices.

described it, an "open-mindedness" to cultural differences.

discovered what they could only imagine before, and these discoveries grew to become new perspectives positively affecting pedagogies and actions in the classroom and their career trajectories. Our findings show that these cultural immersion experiences in the form of short-term faculty led study abroad programs had a lasting impact on the development of our participants as culturally relevant teachers, which is still felt incrementally and articulated by the participants years later. The preservice teacher participants shed their cultural blindness by analyzing their culture while being in the context of other cultural behaviors and ways of doing things. The preservice teachers began to see knowledge as something that is influenced by culture and context, and became critical of the way knowledge was communicated, valued, and transferred. We suggest study abroad experiences are essential to developing the skills necessary to develop culturally relevant teaching practices. In particular, the ways preservice teachers conceive of themselves and others, the way they socialize and communicate, in the way they view knowledge, and in how they value different ways of perceiving the world.

b. Female

d. Other

5.Highest degree;

a. Associate's Degree

b. Bachelor's Degree

c. Master's Degree

d. Doctoral Degree

6.Years teaching;

e. Professional Degree

7.Traveled before study abroad trip?

8.Traveled since study abroad trip?

migrant school visit, charity school visit)

was this important to you?

give me some details?"

After your trip?

one? How? Why?

why not?

161

9.What do you remember about your study abroad experience? What stories do you most often share with others about your study abroad experience? Why

a. Prompt memory of trip with some events that happened on the trip (e.g.

b. Prompt detail with, "Could you tell me more about this?", or "Could you

10.How would you describe yourself in relation to the world before your trip?

a. Do you identify with one specific geographic place on earth, or more than

b. Do others see you the same or differently since your trip? If different.. .

i. Would others see you as an "environmentalist"? (remind interviewee of an event on the trip that was environmentally focused) Why or

ii. Would others see you as "cultured"? (remind interviewee of an event on the trip that was culturally challenging) Why or why not?

3.Age;

c. Do not want to share

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88578

4.Where teach/work? grade/job description;

Teaching, Reflecting and Learning: Exploring Teacher Education Study Abroad Programs…

Study abroad experiences paired with mindful activity and reflection are propitious components for training preservice teachers to be culturally relevant practitioners. Transformational learning opportunities abroad provide preservice teachers with the experiences, knowledge and skills necessary to reduce ethnocentrism, and helps them become aware of their culture, and how culture affects worldviews and learning. These cultural immersion experiences can assist preservice teachers in developing the skills necessary for cultural competence that leads to culturally relevant teaching practices—uniting cultures they find in others into a multifaceted prism reflecting their own illuminations, so as to light up the room and help prevent cultural blindness.

#### Acknowledgements

We would like to thank JBQ Charitable Foundation for their support of this work.

#### Appendix: interview template

	- a. White or Caucasian not Hispanic/Latino
	- b. Black or African American
	- c. American Indian, Alaska Native
	- d. Asian
	- e. Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander
	- f. Hispanic/Latino
	- a. Male

Teaching, Reflecting and Learning: Exploring Teacher Education Study Abroad Programs… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88578

b. Female

discovered what they could only imagine before, and these discoveries grew to become new perspectives positively affecting pedagogies and actions in the classroom and their career trajectories. Our findings show that these cultural immersion experiences in the form of short-term faculty led study abroad programs had a lasting impact on the development of our participants as culturally relevant teachers, which is still felt incrementally and articulated by the participants years later. The preservice teacher participants shed their cultural blindness by analyzing their culture while being in the context of other cultural behaviors and ways of doing things. The preservice teachers began to see knowledge as something that is influenced by culture and context, and became critical of the way knowledge was communicated, valued, and transferred. We suggest study abroad experiences are essential to developing the skills necessary to develop culturally relevant teaching practices. In particular, the ways preservice teachers conceive of themselves and others, the way they socialize and communicate, in the way they view knowledge,

Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges

Study abroad experiences paired with mindful activity and reflection are propitious components for training preservice teachers to be culturally relevant practitioners. Transformational learning opportunities abroad provide preservice teachers with the experiences, knowledge and skills necessary to reduce ethnocentrism, and helps them become aware of their culture, and how culture affects worldviews and learning. These cultural immersion experiences can assist preservice teachers in developing the skills necessary for cultural competence that leads to culturally relevant teaching practices—uniting cultures they find in others into a multifaceted prism reflecting their own illuminations, so as to light up the room and help

We would like to thank JBQ Charitable Foundation for their support of this

and in how they value different ways of perceiving the world.

prevent cultural blindness.

Acknowledgements

1.Race/Ethnicity

d. Asian

f. Hispanic/Latino

2.Gender/Sex;

a. Male

160

Appendix: interview template

b. Black or African American

c. American Indian, Alaska Native

e. Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander

a. White or Caucasian not Hispanic/Latino

work.

	- a. Associate's Degree
	- b. Bachelor's Degree
	- c. Master's Degree
	- d. Doctoral Degree
	- e. Professional Degree
	- a. Prompt memory of trip with some events that happened on the trip (e.g. migrant school visit, charity school visit)
	- b. Prompt detail with, "Could you tell me more about this?", or "Could you give me some details?"
	- a. Do you identify with one specific geographic place on earth, or more than one? How? Why?
	- b. Do others see you the same or differently since your trip? If different.. .
		- i. Would others see you as an "environmentalist"? (remind interviewee of an event on the trip that was environmentally focused) Why or why not?
		- ii. Would others see you as "cultured"? (remind interviewee of an event on the trip that was culturally challenging) Why or why not?
	- i. Describe one example of how your experience influenced/changed your life.
	- ii. Did a new awareness have something to do with it? If so, please describe.
	- iii. Did new knowledge and/or skills gained through activities have something to do with it? If so, please describe.
	- iv. Did your experience change your perspectives on
		- 1.Perspectives on education?
		- 2.change your teaching?
		- 3. If so, did new awareness have something to do with it? If so, please describe.
		- 4. If so, did new knowledge and/or skills gained through activities have something to do with it? If so, please describe.
	- a. If yes, how has this experience influenced your teaching? Describe one way in detail.
	- b. If no, why not?
	- a. Describe one experience since your study abroad, in which you were out of your cultural comfort zone.

Author details

\*, Aerin Benavides<sup>2</sup> and Lacey Huffling<sup>3</sup>

2 University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC, United States

Teaching, Reflecting and Learning: Exploring Teacher Education Study Abroad Programs…

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88578

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

1 University of the Ozarks, Clarksville, AR, United States

3 Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA, United States

\*Address all correspondence to: afreed@ozarks.edu

provided the original work is properly cited.

Allison Freed1

163

	- a. Describe one experience where you were out of your cultural comfort zone

Teaching, Reflecting and Learning: Exploring Teacher Education Study Abroad Programs… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88578

#### Author details

c. Do you feel you identify with a specific place on earth? Where? Why?

Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges

Why or why not? In what ways? If yes,

your life.

describe.

in detail.

zone?

zone?

trip?

162

b. If no, why not?

your cultural comfort zone.

what stories have you shared?

d. Do you think your study abroad experience influenced/changed your life?

i. Describe one example of how your experience influenced/changed

ii. Did a new awareness have something to do with it? If so, please

iii. Did new knowledge and/or skills gained through activities have

3. If so, did new awareness have something to do with it? If so,

4. If so, did new knowledge and/or skills gained through activities

have something to do with it? If so, please describe.

a. If yes, how has this experience influenced your teaching? Describe one way

12.How do you seek out experiences that take you out of your cultural comfort

a. Describe one experience since your study abroad, in which you were out of

a. Describe one experience where you were out of your cultural comfort zone

13.How did your study abroad experience take you out of your cultural comfort

14.Have you shared your study abroad experience with your students? If so,

15.Have you taken any action to preserve or protect the environment since your

11.Do you think your study abroad experience influenced your teaching?

something to do with it? If so, please describe.

iv. Did your experience change your perspectives on

1.Perspectives on education?

2.change your teaching?

please describe.


<sup>© 2019</sup> The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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[2] Ladson-Billings G. Crossing Over to Canaan: The Journey of New Teachers in Diverse Classrooms. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass; 2001. p. 198

[3] Ladson-Billings G. Toward a theory of culturally relevant pedagogy. American Educational Research Journal. 1995;32(3):465-491

[4] Cushner K. The role of experience in the making of internationally-minded teachers. Teacher Education Quarterly. 2007;34(1):27-39

[5] Marx H, Moss DM. Please mind the culture gap: Intercultural development during a teacher education study abroad program. Journal of Teacher Education. 2011;62(1):35-47. DOI: 10.1177/ 0022487110381998

[6] Sharma S, El-Atwani K, Rahatzad J, Ware J, Phillion J, Malewski E. How disorienting experiences in informal learning contexts promote cross-cultural awareness in preservice teachers: Findings from a study abroad program. Learning Landscapes. 2012;5(2):281-294

[7] Bell HL, Gibson HJ, Tarrant MA, Perry LG, Stoner L. Transformational learning through study abroad: US students' reflections on learning about sustainability in the South Pacific. Leisure Studies. 2014;35(4):389-405. DOI: 10.1080/02614367.2014.962585

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21(3):162-167. DOI: 10.1080/

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Ally and Bacon; 2010. 560 p

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[25] Willard-Holt C. The impact of a short-term international experience for preservice teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education. 2001;17(4):505-517. DOI: 10.1016/s0742-051x(01)00009-9

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[17] Cranton P. Teaching for transformation. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education. 2002; 2002(93):63-72. DOI: 10.1002/ace.50

2009;130(2):241-250

2011.627306

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[9] Passarelli A, Kolb DA. Using experiential learning theory to promote student learning and development in programs of education abroad. In: Berg V et al., editors. Student Learning Abroad. Sterling, VA: Stylus; 2012. pp. 137-161

[10] Mezirow J. Transformation theory out of context. Adult Education Quarterly. 1997;48(1):60-62. DOI: 10.1177/074171369704800105

[11] Zull JE. The brain, learning, and study abroad. Student learning abroad: What our students are learning, what they're not, and what we can do about it. In: Berg V et al., editors. Student Learning Abroad. Vol. 1. Sterling, VA: Stylus; 2012. pp. 162-187

[12] Strange H, Gibson HJ. An investigation of experiential and transformative learning in study abroad programs. Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad. 2017;29(1):85-100

[13] Vande Berg M. Intervening in the learning of US students abroad. Journal of Studies in International Education. 2007;11(3–4):392-399

[14] Engle L. The rewards of qualitative assessment appropriate to study abroad. Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad. 2013;22:111-126

[15] Wong ED. Beyond "It was great"? Not so fast! Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad. 2010;26:121-135

[16] Paige RM, Fry GW, Stallman EM, Josić J, Jon J. Study abroad for global engagement: The long-term impact of mobility experiences. Intercultural

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Education. 2009;20:S29-S44. DOI: 10.1080/14675980903370847

References

[1] Addleman RA, Nava RC, Cevallos T, Brazo CJ, Dixon K. Preparing teacher candidates to serve students from diverse backgrounds: Triggering transformative learning through shortterm cultural immersion. International Journal of Intercultural Relations. 2014;

Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges

International Journal of Intercultural

experiential learning theory to promote student learning and development in programs of education abroad. In: Berg V et al., editors. Student Learning Abroad. Sterling, VA: Stylus; 2012.

[10] Mezirow J. Transformation theory out of context. Adult Education Quarterly. 1997;48(1):60-62. DOI: 10.1177/074171369704800105

[11] Zull JE. The brain, learning, and study abroad. Student learning abroad: What our students are learning, what they're not, and what we can do about it. In: Berg V et al., editors. Student Learning Abroad. Vol. 1. Sterling, VA:

Stylus; 2012. pp. 162-187

programs. Frontiers: The

2007;11(3–4):392-399

[12] Strange H, Gibson HJ. An investigation of experiential and

Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad. 2017;29(1):85-100

[13] Vande Berg M. Intervening in the learning of US students abroad. Journal of Studies in International Education.

[14] Engle L. The rewards of qualitative assessment appropriate to study abroad. Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad. 2013;22:111-126

[15] Wong ED. Beyond "It was great"?

[16] Paige RM, Fry GW, Stallman EM, Josić J, Jon J. Study abroad for global engagement: The long-term impact of mobility experiences. Intercultural

Not so fast! Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study

Abroad. 2010;26:121-135

transformative learning in study abroad

[9] Passarelli A, Kolb DA. Using

Relations. 2004;2:62-77

pp. 137-161

[2] Ladson-Billings G. Crossing Over to Canaan: The Journey of New Teachers in Diverse Classrooms. San Francisco:

[3] Ladson-Billings G. Toward a theory of culturally relevant pedagogy.

American Educational Research Journal.

[4] Cushner K. The role of experience in the making of internationally-minded teachers. Teacher Education Quarterly.

[5] Marx H, Moss DM. Please mind the culture gap: Intercultural development during a teacher education study abroad program. Journal of Teacher Education.

[6] Sharma S, El-Atwani K, Rahatzad J, Ware J, Phillion J, Malewski E. How disorienting experiences in informal learning contexts promote cross-cultural awareness in preservice teachers: Findings from a study abroad program. Learning Landscapes. 2012;5(2):281-294

[7] Bell HL, Gibson HJ, Tarrant MA, Perry LG, Stoner L. Transformational learning through study abroad: US students' reflections on learning about sustainability in the South Pacific. Leisure Studies. 2014;35(4):389-405. DOI: 10.1080/02614367.2014.962585

[8] Bennett MJ. Becoming interculturally competent. Toward multiculturalism: A reader in multicultural education.

2011;62(1):35-47. DOI: 10.1177/

43:189-200. DOI: 10.1016/j.

Jossey-Bass; 2001. p. 198

1995;32(3):465-491

2007;34(1):27-39

0022487110381998

164

ijintrel.2014.08.005

[17] Cranton P. Teaching for transformation. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education. 2002; 2002(93):63-72. DOI: 10.1002/ace.50

[18] Kalina C, Powell KC. Cognitive and social constructivism: Developing tools for an effective classroom. Education. 2009;130(2):241-250

[19] Cushner K. Intercultural research in teacher education: An essential intersection in the preparation of globally competent teachers. Action in Teacher Education. 2011;33(5–6): 601-614. DOI: 10.1080/01626620. 2011.627306

[20] Dewey J. Experiential Education. New York: Collier; 1938. p. 98

[21] Merriam SB. Case Study Research in Education. A Qualitative Approach. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishing; 1988. p. 246

[22] Yin RK. Case Study Research: Design and Methods. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage; 2003. 191 p

[23] Christensen LB, Johnson B, Turner L. Research Methods, and Design, and Analysis. 11th ed. Boston: Ally and Bacon; 2010. 560 p

[24] Phillion J, Malewski EL, Sharma S, Wang Y. Reimagining the curriculum: Future teachers and study abroad. Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad. 2009;18:323-339

[25] Willard-Holt C. The impact of a short-term international experience for preservice teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education. 2001;17(4):505-517. DOI: 10.1016/s0742-051x(01)00009-9

[26] Bennett MJ. Paradigmatic assumptions and a developmental approach to intercultural learning. In: Student Learning Abroad: What Our Students are Learning, What They're Not, and What We Can Do About It. Sterling: Stylus; 2012. pp. 90-114

[27] Harvey RG. An attainable global perspective. Theory Into Practice. 1982; 21(3):162-167. DOI: 10.1080/ 00405848209543001

[28] Hendershot K, Sperandio J. Study abroad and development of global citizen identity and cosmopolitan ideals in undergraduates. Current Issues in Comparative Education. 2009;12(1): 45-55

[29] Chiu CL, Sayman D, Carrero KM, Gibbon T, Zolkoski SM, Lusk ME. Developing culturally competent preservice teachers. Multicultural Perspectives. 2017;19(1):47-52

[30] Heyl JD, McCarthy J. International education and teacher preparation in the US. In: Paper presented at the Global Challenges and US Higher Education: National Needs and Policy Implications. 23–25 January 2003. Durham, NC: Duke University; 2003

[31] Roller KM. Pre-service teachers and study abroad: A reflective, experiential sojourn to increase intercultural competence and translate the experience into culturally relevant pedagogy. In: Global innovation of teaching and learning in higher education. Switzerland: Springer; 2015. p. 107-128

**167**

**Chapter 10**

**Abstract**

artificial intelligence

**1. Introduction**

Categorization of Educational

Technologies as Related to

*Perry P. Gao, Arvid Nagel and Horst Biedermann*

researched and fail to engage and motivate students to learn.

Educational technologies are not homogeneous. This chapter proposes a framework to categorize various technologies in the K-12 educational setting into groups of operational technologies and pedagogical technologies by whether they directly participate in the process of teaching and learning. Furthermore, pedagogical technologies are split into tool-based and program-based technologies based on whether they are teacher-driven tools or algorithm-driven learning programs. Efficient adoption of tool-based technologies requires a redefinition of learning goals to embrace student-centered education. Program-based technologies need more research to be fully understood and improved, and current ones are under-

**Keywords:** educational technologies, pedagogical practices, teaching and learning,

In 1994, when computers had just begun to be accessible to regular classrooms, an article titled "Why Use Technology?" was published [1]. The authors, Kyle Peck and Denise Dorricott, began the article by asking the question "If we removed all of the computers from schools tomorrow, would it make a big difference in the knowledge and skills students demonstrated upon graduation?" They answered, "Probably not." In the minds of Peck and Dorricott, the introduction of computers in K-12 schools did not create an electronic highway of accelerated learning but rather a dirt road without clear expectations or purpose. More than two decades have passed, and in that time, technological progress has surpassed anyone's imagination. Technologies are more capable, diverse, and accessible than ever. However, if we ask the same question again, we believe the answer is still no. This is probably because the pace of school reform is far behind the pace of digital progress. The techniques and tools that are used by today's teachers to achieve learning goals are not fundamentally different from the ones used in previous decades [2]. Teachers use *Google Docs* to replace printed worksheets and documents, use videos and *PowerPoints* to replace handwriting and drawing on backboards, use text messages as an alternative to traditional communications, and use digital student records instead of hard copies. Based on a 2017 report on a national survey, the aforementioned uses of technologies have comprised the most popular educational

Pedagogical Practices

#### **Chapter 10**

## Categorization of Educational Technologies as Related to Pedagogical Practices

*Perry P. Gao, Arvid Nagel and Horst Biedermann*

#### **Abstract**

Educational technologies are not homogeneous. This chapter proposes a framework to categorize various technologies in the K-12 educational setting into groups of operational technologies and pedagogical technologies by whether they directly participate in the process of teaching and learning. Furthermore, pedagogical technologies are split into tool-based and program-based technologies based on whether they are teacher-driven tools or algorithm-driven learning programs. Efficient adoption of tool-based technologies requires a redefinition of learning goals to embrace student-centered education. Program-based technologies need more research to be fully understood and improved, and current ones are underresearched and fail to engage and motivate students to learn.

**Keywords:** educational technologies, pedagogical practices, teaching and learning, artificial intelligence

#### **1. Introduction**

In 1994, when computers had just begun to be accessible to regular classrooms, an article titled "Why Use Technology?" was published [1]. The authors, Kyle Peck and Denise Dorricott, began the article by asking the question "If we removed all of the computers from schools tomorrow, would it make a big difference in the knowledge and skills students demonstrated upon graduation?" They answered, "Probably not." In the minds of Peck and Dorricott, the introduction of computers in K-12 schools did not create an electronic highway of accelerated learning but rather a dirt road without clear expectations or purpose. More than two decades have passed, and in that time, technological progress has surpassed anyone's imagination. Technologies are more capable, diverse, and accessible than ever. However, if we ask the same question again, we believe the answer is still no. This is probably because the pace of school reform is far behind the pace of digital progress. The techniques and tools that are used by today's teachers to achieve learning goals are not fundamentally different from the ones used in previous decades [2]. Teachers use *Google Docs* to replace printed worksheets and documents, use videos and *PowerPoints* to replace handwriting and drawing on backboards, use text messages as an alternative to traditional communications, and use digital student records instead of hard copies. Based on a 2017 report on a national survey, the aforementioned uses of technologies have comprised the most popular educational

#### *Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges*

#### **Figure 1.**

*Percentage of K-12 teachers engaged in the use of technologies in the USA. Note: Data source from Project Tomorrow's 2017 Report [3].*

technologies in the US K-12 education [3]. Other more creative uses of technologies—such as guiding students to do digital investigations, creating videos of lessons, and making a class blog to enhance discussion—are much less popular among teachers (see **Figure 1**) [3]. Apparently, technologies have not fundamentally changed the activities of teaching and learning; neither have they brought much innovation into classrooms. It is true that technologies have been well integrated into science and engineering majors in higher education and now effectively help adults to fulfill self-learning through online courses on *Coursera* or *EdX*, for example. But somehow there is a decade-long struggle surrounding technology adoption in K-12 education. In order to make a breakthrough, we will take an in-depth look into current technologies that have been used in the education context and attempt to categorize them in relation to pedagogical practices. Thereafter, we will study factors that affect the use of technologies in different categories as well as explore the following questions: Can technology replace teachers? How can we take full advantage of the power of technology to improve teaching and learning in the age of digitalization and artificial intelligence?

#### **2. Categorization of educational technologies**

Digital technologies are very diverse—different technologies have unique functions and features that are distinct from one another, and hence, generalization should be avoided when studying the use of technology in any field. Unfortunately, most current studies on technology in the field of education regard them as a singular concept without making any distinctions among different kinds of technologies—as if all technologies are homogeneous. To correct this widespread and long-lasting oversight, we will attempt to categorize technologies that have been employed in educational settings.

#### **2.1 Pedagogical technologies vs. operational technologies**

Educational technologies can be categorized into two groups: *pedagogical technologies* and *operational technologies*. The first category refers to technologies that can be utilized in the process of teaching and learning. For example, teachers use *PowerPoint* presentations to deliver effective instruction, and students use the Internet to conduct independent research. Those technologies in the aforementioned uses are pedagogical technologies. The second category refers to technologies that are not directly involved in learning and teaching activities; instead, they assist in the operative or administrative part of teachers' work, such as using email

**169**

*Categorization of Educational Technologies as Related to Pedagogical Practices*

**2.2 Tool-based technologies vs. program-based technologies**

The process and resources needed for teachers to adopt technologies are qualitatively different across different kinds of technologies [4]. Countless individual technologies can be employed in pedagogical practices, and pedagogical technologies can be further categorized into two large groups: *tool-based technologies* and

Tool-based technologies are the ones not specifically designed for education. They are merely tools that have been widely used in various fields, such as the Internet, *Smartboards*, and *Microsoft Office*, among others. Most technologies that have been widely used and studied in educational settings belong to this category. They came into education decades ago as society underwent digitalization. Toolbased technologies require teachers, either as individuals or as groups, to innovate and come up with designs and ideas to implement them in various teaching and

Program-based technologies, on the other hand, are the ones that are specifically designed for pedagogical purposes with premade learning content delivered through algorithm-enabled instruction, such as learning games and online personalized learning programs that use artificial intelligence to give each student individualized academic exercises. They are often developed by companies and large not-for-profit organizations. They give classroom teachers less control over the design and content. They are designed to replace considerable portions of teachers' traditional work, such as delivery of instruction. Teachers and schools tend to focus on managing the logistics for the implementation of such technologies to fit into their learning goals. Program-based technologies are relatively new, emerging with the advancement of artificial intelligence. These technologies have received tremendous attention, largely due to Silicon Valley's increasing interest in this field. For example, *Facebook* founder Mark Zuckerberg, through his Chan Zuckerberg Initiative, developed the Summit Learning Program to promote online personalized

Digitalized contents, such as e-books, slide shows, *YouTube* videos, TED Talks, and online curricula teachers create or download online for self-learning or assisting teaching activities, are still considered tool-based technologies, despite their pre-made educational contents. They are created using tool-based technologies and rely on teachers to design their classroom use. The same logic applies to some learning management platforms that have been widely adapted, such as *Canvas* and *Blackboard*, to help teachers to assign homework and more effectively maintain online learning materials and students' records. Although they are made specifically

to communicate with colleagues and using an online data management system to keep student records. Those two categories are not completely distinct from each other. They could have some slight overlaps. For example, teachers can use some online learning management platforms to both keep assignment grades and simultaneously deliver feedback to students. Technologies are also interchangeable between the two groups—when *Word* is used to produce learning materials, it is a pedagogical technology, and when used to write work reports, it is an operational technology. The human use of technologies defines their essence. This categorization should only be considered in relation to a specific technology or a technological element under a specific use. It is hard to say which category of technologies is more popular in educational settings. It is also difficult to demonstrate which ones have a greater impact on teachers' daily work. But, for the purpose of this chapter, we only focus on technologies that directly influence teaching and learning—pedagogical

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88629*

technologies.

*program-based technologies*.

learning activities.

learning of core subjects of grades 4–12 [5].

#### *Categorization of Educational Technologies as Related to Pedagogical Practices DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88629*

to communicate with colleagues and using an online data management system to keep student records. Those two categories are not completely distinct from each other. They could have some slight overlaps. For example, teachers can use some online learning management platforms to both keep assignment grades and simultaneously deliver feedback to students. Technologies are also interchangeable between the two groups—when *Word* is used to produce learning materials, it is a pedagogical technology, and when used to write work reports, it is an operational technology. The human use of technologies defines their essence. This categorization should only be considered in relation to a specific technology or a technological element under a specific use. It is hard to say which category of technologies is more popular in educational settings. It is also difficult to demonstrate which ones have a greater impact on teachers' daily work. But, for the purpose of this chapter, we only focus on technologies that directly influence teaching and learning—pedagogical technologies.

#### **2.2 Tool-based technologies vs. program-based technologies**

The process and resources needed for teachers to adopt technologies are qualitatively different across different kinds of technologies [4]. Countless individual technologies can be employed in pedagogical practices, and pedagogical technologies can be further categorized into two large groups: *tool-based technologies* and *program-based technologies*.

Tool-based technologies are the ones not specifically designed for education. They are merely tools that have been widely used in various fields, such as the Internet, *Smartboards*, and *Microsoft Office*, among others. Most technologies that have been widely used and studied in educational settings belong to this category. They came into education decades ago as society underwent digitalization. Toolbased technologies require teachers, either as individuals or as groups, to innovate and come up with designs and ideas to implement them in various teaching and learning activities.

Program-based technologies, on the other hand, are the ones that are specifically designed for pedagogical purposes with premade learning content delivered through algorithm-enabled instruction, such as learning games and online personalized learning programs that use artificial intelligence to give each student individualized academic exercises. They are often developed by companies and large not-for-profit organizations. They give classroom teachers less control over the design and content. They are designed to replace considerable portions of teachers' traditional work, such as delivery of instruction. Teachers and schools tend to focus on managing the logistics for the implementation of such technologies to fit into their learning goals. Program-based technologies are relatively new, emerging with the advancement of artificial intelligence. These technologies have received tremendous attention, largely due to Silicon Valley's increasing interest in this field. For example, *Facebook* founder Mark Zuckerberg, through his Chan Zuckerberg Initiative, developed the Summit Learning Program to promote online personalized learning of core subjects of grades 4–12 [5].

Digitalized contents, such as e-books, slide shows, *YouTube* videos, TED Talks, and online curricula teachers create or download online for self-learning or assisting teaching activities, are still considered tool-based technologies, despite their pre-made educational contents. They are created using tool-based technologies and rely on teachers to design their classroom use. The same logic applies to some learning management platforms that have been widely adapted, such as *Canvas* and *Blackboard*, to help teachers to assign homework and more effectively maintain online learning materials and students' records. Although they are made specifically

*Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges*

technologies in the US K-12 education [3]. Other more creative uses of technologies—such as guiding students to do digital investigations, creating videos of lessons, and making a class blog to enhance discussion—are much less popular among teachers (see **Figure 1**) [3]. Apparently, technologies have not fundamentally changed the activities of teaching and learning; neither have they brought much innovation into classrooms. It is true that technologies have been well integrated into science and engineering majors in higher education and now effectively help adults to fulfill self-learning through online courses on *Coursera* or *EdX*, for example. But somehow there is a decade-long struggle surrounding technology adoption in K-12 education. In order to make a breakthrough, we will take an in-depth look into current technologies that have been used in the education context and attempt to categorize them in relation to pedagogical practices. Thereafter, we will study factors that affect the use of technologies in different categories as well as explore the following questions: Can technology replace teachers? How can we take full advantage of the power of technology to improve teaching and learning in the age

*Percentage of K-12 teachers engaged in the use of technologies in the USA. Note: Data source from Project* 

Digital technologies are very diverse—different technologies have unique functions and features that are distinct from one another, and hence, generalization should be avoided when studying the use of technology in any field. Unfortunately, most current studies on technology in the field of education regard them as a singular concept without making any distinctions among different kinds of technologies—as if all technologies are homogeneous. To correct this widespread and long-lasting oversight, we will attempt to categorize technologies that have been

Educational technologies can be categorized into two groups: *pedagogical technologies* and *operational technologies*. The first category refers to technologies that can be utilized in the process of teaching and learning. For example, teachers use *PowerPoint* presentations to deliver effective instruction, and students use the Internet to conduct independent research. Those technologies in the aforementioned uses are pedagogical technologies. The second category refers to technologies that are not directly involved in learning and teaching activities; instead, they assist in the operative or administrative part of teachers' work, such as using email

of digitalization and artificial intelligence?

employed in educational settings.

**2. Categorization of educational technologies**

**2.1 Pedagogical technologies vs. operational technologies**

**168**

**Figure 1.**

*Tomorrow's 2017 Report [3].*

**Figure 2.** *Categorization of educational technologies.*

for educational purposes, they represent an integration of traditional technological tools to assist teachers instead of being designed to replace teachers' pedagogical functionalities (**Figure 2**).

#### **3. Adoption of tool-based technologies**

Most studies on teachers' use of technology refer to the use of tool-based technologies. Teachers' successful adoption of this kind of technology, for themselves to either motivate students or deliver instructions more efficiently or for students to engage in learning activities using technology, depends on three crucial factors: professional support, teachers' attitude, and learning goals.

The use of tool-based technologies in educational settings highly depends on teachers' competency to innovate and design. A misconception is that the introduction of technological tools to schools is equivalent to the introduction of educational technologies. On the contrary, teachers tend not to innovate when technologies are provided [6]. Teachers need to develop knowledge and skills to employ technological tools for educational purposes. Therefore, adequate professional support is needed, so teachers will be able to master the effective use of technologies specifically within a classroom setting. Teachers who have received professional development are more proficient in using technologies and are more likely to use them, whereas without professional development, teachers are not only less proficient but also likely to resist integration of technologies [4, 7]. Unfortunately, educational technology training is lacking in teacher preparation programs in universities [8]. Thereafter, in the teaching field, the majority of teachers only receive <8 h of professional development on educational technology annually [9].

A successful professional development program needs to pay attention to both its content and its format. It should contain content knowledge in three areas [10]:

1.Knowledge about technological tools: technical knowledge that helps teachers to become equipped with skills to use hardware and software

**171**

*Categorization of Educational Technologies as Related to Pedagogical Practices*

Internet to do inappropriate activities in disguise.

successful professional development program should be a place where:

2.Technology-supported pedagogical knowledge: specific knowledge and skills that teachers need to learn that help them to use technology to design materials, deliver instructions, or engage students to achieve the learning goals in

3.Knowledge about technology-related classroom management: knowledge giving teachers insight into students' reaction in a tech-infused learning environment, for example, how to prevent students from using the devices and the

The effectiveness of such a program is closely tied to a school's ability to develop a supportive learning community [7, 11, 12]. Professional development programs on educational technologies work less efficiently when they are only content- and knowledge-based; communication and interaction are of high significance [10]. A

1.Teachers can discuss their tangible and immediate needs related to the use of

2.Teachers can share successful examples of the use of technologies in real

3.Teachers can have opportunities to work with knowledgeable peers [11].

4.Teachers have adequate time to explore the technologies on their own [4, 16].

Learning with real examples in the field created by peers has been proven to be essential in professional development. This is also true of teacher preparation programs. Preservice teachers who have real in-school experience learning about technologies in real educational practices are more likely to succeed [8, 14, 15, 17, 18]. To leverage the power of tool-based technologies in teaching and learning, educational technology training should be very content-specific—for example, how to use the visual features of *PowerPoints* to demonstrate abstract geometry concepts in math classes and how to guide students to make an online survey in social studies. It is crucial that teachers do not receive vague information in professional development but rather have opportunities to discuss and learn specific techniques to assist

Teachers' attitude toward the effectiveness of technology affects the adoption of tool-based technologies as well. Such effects can be played out on both personal and interpersonal levels. Teachers who individually believe technologies will help them conduct better education are more likely to succeed at using them [15, 16, 19, 20]. Many of these teachers believe that technologies can help to better engage students, introduce project-based learning, help students access more information, and enhance communication and collaborative learning [21–23]. However, it is common for teachers to hold negative impressions toward the use of certain technologies, which makes it harder for them to integrate those technologies [19, 24, 25]. This situation often happens when teachers are not given sufficient information and training to learn the specific benefits of technologies, which leads them to worry about risking educational resources and teaching time to integrate unnecessary or potentially detrimental technologies [26, 27]. Additional common negative attitudes among teachers include fear of losing control over technologies, technological misfunction and lack of IT support, and concerns about the lack of time to adjust to

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88629*

specific academic domains

technologies [7, 13].

educational settings [14, 15].

immediate pedagogical needs with peers.

new pedagogical practices, risking student test scores [26–28].

*Categorization of Educational Technologies as Related to Pedagogical Practices DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88629*


The effectiveness of such a program is closely tied to a school's ability to develop a supportive learning community [7, 11, 12]. Professional development programs on educational technologies work less efficiently when they are only content- and knowledge-based; communication and interaction are of high significance [10]. A successful professional development program should be a place where:


Learning with real examples in the field created by peers has been proven to be essential in professional development. This is also true of teacher preparation programs. Preservice teachers who have real in-school experience learning about technologies in real educational practices are more likely to succeed [8, 14, 15, 17, 18]. To leverage the power of tool-based technologies in teaching and learning, educational technology training should be very content-specific—for example, how to use the visual features of *PowerPoints* to demonstrate abstract geometry concepts in math classes and how to guide students to make an online survey in social studies. It is crucial that teachers do not receive vague information in professional development but rather have opportunities to discuss and learn specific techniques to assist immediate pedagogical needs with peers.

Teachers' attitude toward the effectiveness of technology affects the adoption of tool-based technologies as well. Such effects can be played out on both personal and interpersonal levels. Teachers who individually believe technologies will help them conduct better education are more likely to succeed at using them [15, 16, 19, 20]. Many of these teachers believe that technologies can help to better engage students, introduce project-based learning, help students access more information, and enhance communication and collaborative learning [21–23]. However, it is common for teachers to hold negative impressions toward the use of certain technologies, which makes it harder for them to integrate those technologies [19, 24, 25]. This situation often happens when teachers are not given sufficient information and training to learn the specific benefits of technologies, which leads them to worry about risking educational resources and teaching time to integrate unnecessary or potentially detrimental technologies [26, 27]. Additional common negative attitudes among teachers include fear of losing control over technologies, technological misfunction and lack of IT support, and concerns about the lack of time to adjust to new pedagogical practices, risking student test scores [26–28].

*Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges*

for educational purposes, they represent an integration of traditional technological tools to assist teachers instead of being designed to replace teachers' pedagogical

Most studies on teachers' use of technology refer to the use of tool-based technologies. Teachers' successful adoption of this kind of technology, for themselves to either motivate students or deliver instructions more efficiently or for students to engage in learning activities using technology, depends on three crucial factors:

The use of tool-based technologies in educational settings highly depends on teachers' competency to innovate and design. A misconception is that the introduction of technological tools to schools is equivalent to the introduction of educational technologies. On the contrary, teachers tend not to innovate when technologies are provided [6]. Teachers need to develop knowledge and skills to employ technological tools for educational purposes. Therefore, adequate professional support is needed, so teachers will be able to master the effective use of technologies specifically within a classroom setting. Teachers who have received professional development are more proficient in using technologies and are more likely to use them, whereas without professional development, teachers are not only less proficient but also likely to resist integration of technologies [4, 7]. Unfortunately, educational technology training is lacking in teacher preparation programs in universities [8]. Thereafter, in the teaching field, the majority of teachers only receive <8 h of

A successful professional development program needs to pay attention to both its content and its format. It should contain content knowledge in three areas [10]:

1.Knowledge about technological tools: technical knowledge that helps teachers

**170**

functionalities (**Figure 2**).

*Categorization of educational technologies.*

**Figure 2.**

**3. Adoption of tool-based technologies**

professional support, teachers' attitude, and learning goals.

professional development on educational technology annually [9].

to become equipped with skills to use hardware and software

On the interpersonal level, experienced teachers' attitude toward technology significantly influences young professionals' impressions about technology. When experienced teachers exhibit a more positive and welcoming attitude toward technology, that often translates into a school culture that embraces technology and encourages teachers to support one another in terms of developing and designing learning programs that take specific advantage of technology [24, 25]. Moreover, a positive attitude among teachers also translates into positive attitudes toward education among students and better learning engagement [29].

Research also shows that teachers who believe technologies can help them transform from lecture-based learning to student-centered learning are more likely to welcome technologies [21, 23]. Therefore, the foundation provided by a school's learning goals, often reflected in institutional policy as well as practice, also significantly affects teachers' adoption of technologies [7, 16, 30]. Teachers tend to avoid technologies if they believe technologies, even if helpful, deviate from the school's learning goals [31]. For example, teachers may believe certain technologies can help students to do collaborative projects, but given the limited time and pressure from standardized testing, teachers may choose to teach to tests instead of integrating the technologies for new learning tasks.

Our current education model was largely invented for and defined by the Industrial Revolution, designed to meet the need of massive labor demand with standardized skill sets [32]. The advantage of technology has been restricted by the nature of our traditional education paradigm, where teaching and learning occur in a mechanical way with learning goals aimed at the mastery of knowledge. This learning goal can be very often achieved by traditional pedagogical techniques that do not require technological integration, such as direct instruction. Therefore, teachers often do not see the need to use technologies to conduct education in an efficient way to help students to achieve learning outcomes set by graduation standards and measured by standardized testing [1]. On the other hand, teachers are likely to have a positive impression of technology if they believe in constructivist learning [33, 34]. From a constructivist perspective, technology can serve as a powerful tool for both teachers and students to conduct research, assist in selfdirected learning, and design and produce media-infused projects. Indeed, teachers tend to increase the use of technology if the learning goals are set up to be studentcentered and project-based, focused on high-level skills such as creativity, research, and critical thinking [7, 21].

#### **3.1 A need to redefine learning goals**

Fundamentally, technologies should be offered as a way to achieve schools' learning goals, and the question we should ask is: What can we do now with technology that was not possible before? [1]. However, very often, we do not have an identified problem in education that we hope technologies can help us solve, and we do not have a clear goal or expectation about how technology should be positioned in education to help with our learning goals [35]. We realize that technologies are something good to have, and it seems irresponsible if we fail to harness this power for education. Therefore, we have introduced technologies into schools, without changing any of our traditional practices, in an effort to enact their great potential. Instead, what we have largely done is carve out some tiny spaces for technology to fit into the traditional learning paradigm. If we go into a classroom, we will find out that the most popular technologies in schools are projectors, document cameras, and smartboards. Those technologies are helpful, but not necessary; the functions they perform could be done adequately before we had technology. Teachers who see technologies merely as supplemental tools for instruction are less likely to

**173**

**Figure 3.**

*Teachers' adoption of tool-based educational technologies.*

*Categorization of Educational Technologies as Related to Pedagogical Practices*

and produce digital media such as videos and *PowerPoint* presentations.

Tool-based technologies are only as good as the way in which they are used by teachers. These technologies are not educational in nature but rather require teachers, through design and proper implementation, to transform technological tools into tool-based technologies that enhance teaching and learning. In the case of tool-based technologies, this adoption process is more important than the technologies themselves. Therefore, teachers are the key instead of machines, and teachers need to have the incentive and adequate skills to realize the process. Unfortunately, schools tend to spend tremendous resources to purchase and maintain equipment but often neglect to invest in helping teachers to adopt them [37]. The adoption process starts with redefining learning goals. Learning goals that demand less mechanical learning of content knowledge and value high-level skills—aligned with student-centered, constructivist learning and creative instruction—motivate teachers to see the unique value of technologies and develop a positive attitude toward their use. Suitable learning goals set direction for professional development for both preservice teachers in universities and in-service teachers in the field. Positive attitudes create a solid foundation for a collaborative learning community to take place, which helps teachers to be equipped with sufficient content knowledge and

successfully adopt them [7]. Technology in today's school setting gives teachers a third hand. It is something good to have, as it allows teachers to accomplish some tasks in a more convenient and efficient way [36]. However, its existence only brings quantitative difference without qualitative difference to the advancement of pedagogical practices [35]. Teachers who are experienced in teaching without technologies often do not see the necessity of having them [24, 25, 30]. Therefore, a true, successful adoption of tool-based technologies in education should start at the institutional level by redefining the learning goals that cannot be accomplished without technologies. For example, if our learning goals go beyond mastering of testable knowledge that can be obtained through direct instruction to creative and collaborative skills in project-based learning, we would arrange our class in such a way that students, under teachers' guidance, could conduct research on the Internet

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88629*

#### *Categorization of Educational Technologies as Related to Pedagogical Practices DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88629*

successfully adopt them [7]. Technology in today's school setting gives teachers a third hand. It is something good to have, as it allows teachers to accomplish some tasks in a more convenient and efficient way [36]. However, its existence only brings quantitative difference without qualitative difference to the advancement of pedagogical practices [35]. Teachers who are experienced in teaching without technologies often do not see the necessity of having them [24, 25, 30]. Therefore, a true, successful adoption of tool-based technologies in education should start at the institutional level by redefining the learning goals that cannot be accomplished without technologies. For example, if our learning goals go beyond mastering of testable knowledge that can be obtained through direct instruction to creative and collaborative skills in project-based learning, we would arrange our class in such a way that students, under teachers' guidance, could conduct research on the Internet and produce digital media such as videos and *PowerPoint* presentations.

Tool-based technologies are only as good as the way in which they are used by teachers. These technologies are not educational in nature but rather require teachers, through design and proper implementation, to transform technological tools into tool-based technologies that enhance teaching and learning. In the case of tool-based technologies, this adoption process is more important than the technologies themselves. Therefore, teachers are the key instead of machines, and teachers need to have the incentive and adequate skills to realize the process. Unfortunately, schools tend to spend tremendous resources to purchase and maintain equipment but often neglect to invest in helping teachers to adopt them [37]. The adoption process starts with redefining learning goals. Learning goals that demand less mechanical learning of content knowledge and value high-level skills—aligned with student-centered, constructivist learning and creative instruction—motivate teachers to see the unique value of technologies and develop a positive attitude toward their use. Suitable learning goals set direction for professional development for both preservice teachers in universities and in-service teachers in the field. Positive attitudes create a solid foundation for a collaborative learning community to take place, which helps teachers to be equipped with sufficient content knowledge and

**Figure 3.** *Teachers' adoption of tool-based educational technologies.*

*Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges*

education among students and better learning engagement [29].

technologies for new learning tasks.

and critical thinking [7, 21].

**3.1 A need to redefine learning goals**

On the interpersonal level, experienced teachers' attitude toward technology significantly influences young professionals' impressions about technology. When experienced teachers exhibit a more positive and welcoming attitude toward technology, that often translates into a school culture that embraces technology and encourages teachers to support one another in terms of developing and designing learning programs that take specific advantage of technology [24, 25]. Moreover, a positive attitude among teachers also translates into positive attitudes toward

Research also shows that teachers who believe technologies can help them transform from lecture-based learning to student-centered learning are more likely to welcome technologies [21, 23]. Therefore, the foundation provided by a school's learning goals, often reflected in institutional policy as well as practice, also significantly affects teachers' adoption of technologies [7, 16, 30]. Teachers tend to avoid technologies if they believe technologies, even if helpful, deviate from the school's learning goals [31]. For example, teachers may believe certain technologies can help students to do collaborative projects, but given the limited time and pressure from standardized testing, teachers may choose to teach to tests instead of integrating the

Our current education model was largely invented for and defined by the Industrial Revolution, designed to meet the need of massive labor demand with standardized skill sets [32]. The advantage of technology has been restricted by the nature of our traditional education paradigm, where teaching and learning occur in a mechanical way with learning goals aimed at the mastery of knowledge. This learning goal can be very often achieved by traditional pedagogical techniques that do not require technological integration, such as direct instruction. Therefore, teachers often do not see the need to use technologies to conduct education in an efficient way to help students to achieve learning outcomes set by graduation standards and measured by standardized testing [1]. On the other hand, teachers are likely to have a positive impression of technology if they believe in constructivist learning [33, 34]. From a constructivist perspective, technology can serve as a powerful tool for both teachers and students to conduct research, assist in selfdirected learning, and design and produce media-infused projects. Indeed, teachers tend to increase the use of technology if the learning goals are set up to be studentcentered and project-based, focused on high-level skills such as creativity, research,

Fundamentally, technologies should be offered as a way to achieve schools' learning goals, and the question we should ask is: What can we do now with technology that was not possible before? [1]. However, very often, we do not have an identified problem in education that we hope technologies can help us solve, and we do not have a clear goal or expectation about how technology should be positioned in education to help with our learning goals [35]. We realize that technologies are something good to have, and it seems irresponsible if we fail to harness this power for education. Therefore, we have introduced technologies into schools, without changing any of our traditional practices, in an effort to enact their great potential. Instead, what we have largely done is carve out some tiny spaces for technology to fit into the traditional learning paradigm. If we go into a classroom, we will find out that the most popular technologies in schools are projectors, document cameras, and smartboards. Those technologies are helpful, but not necessary; the functions they perform could be done adequately before we had technology. Teachers who see technologies merely as supplemental tools for instruction are less likely to

**172**

skills for adopting technologies to assist pedagogical practices. An efficient and thorough change starts with redefining learning goals, which are hopefully initiated top-down. The role of school leaders and experienced teachers is of the utmost importance (**Figure 3**).

#### **4. Double-faced program-based technologies**

With recent advances in technology, we have entered the Information Era, especially after the invention of the Internet. Technology made digitalized content become the main resource from which we gain information and knowledge [38]. If we think of learning as a broad, lifelong process, most knowledge we learn today is not in classrooms. With technology, we expand the learning environment, which means that learning is no longer restricted to formal classroom instruction. Some believe that if we focus solely on the work of passing information and knowledge, technology is probably able to replace some components of traditional teaching. Others predict that mobile learning will partially take the place of teachers [39]. Mobile learning has several advantages. First, technology makes information and knowledge more accessible, and students can access more enriched resources of information through mobile learning. Second, learning environments can be expanded, and as long as students can access technology, they can learn anything, anytime, and anywhere. Third, mobile learning allows students to customize learning [40]. Among all the expected benefits, personalization of education has stirred up the most hope—traditionally, dozens of students receive the same information from one teacher in a classroom. However, with technology, every student has the opportunity to learn topics that have been individually tailored. Using technologies to fulfill personalized education has recently attracted tremendous attention from Silicon Valley, fueled with hundreds of millions of dollars from the Chan Zuckerberg Initiative [5, 41]. A program developed out of this initiative is called Summit Learning, which has been collaborating with hundreds of US schools to implement its personalized learning programs. These programs deliver individualized learning content of core academic subjects of grades 4–12, from a computer to a student, with the hope that students will study better with technologies than teachers [5]. These personalized learning programs are given to individual students based on an analysis of their learning attributes using an artificial intelligence algorithm. In such programs, technologies and learning contents included have been predeveloped by technology companies that give teachers little autonomy over the balance of teaching between teachers and machines. Also, many aspects of how the algorithm works often reside in a black box, remaining largely unknown to teachers or researchers. Learning through these technological programs, or, in other words, program-based technologies, is a fundamentally different pedagogical practice and learning experience than the use of tool-based technologies, which are still largely driven by teachers. However, program-based technologies are primarily driven by digital programs.

#### **4.1 The promise of program-based technologies**

Although in the technology industry such distinction has been seldom made, the field of educational research has classified personalized education into two categories: outcome personalization and process personalization [42]. Outcome personalization gives students autonomy in the learning process. Many studentcentered, project-based learning programs are designed in such a way that students may design a project of their choice, while the education process helps students

**175**

*Categorization of Educational Technologies as Related to Pedagogical Practices*

to master necessary skills and knowledge to achieve the project. Outcome personalization is often filled by tool-based technologies, which give both teachers and students more creative power. However, most program-based technologies are used to fulfill process personalization, which gives students little choice over the learning process. Students are merely given customized learning materials selected based on computer algorithms, and the end goal of the process is to help students achieve standardized learning goals. In essence, program-based technologies could sufficiently fit into the demand of the traditional educational paradigm that emphasizes mastering standardized knowledge and skills. If implemented well, programbased technologies are expected to replace a considerable portion of teachers'

Advocates for the use of program-based technologies in personalized education believe that technologies can do a better job than traditional teachers because these technologies can unremittingly monitor individual students' learning progress and simultaneously provide learning contents that are most suitable to individual students' habits and learning attributes [43]. With a highly sophisticated algorithm, big data, and a large pool of well-tailored contents, technologies are expected to have certain advantages over human teachers in terms of delivering more effective instruction to each student. Additionally, advocates believe that technologies are more economically efficient and more accessible than human teachers, which can help to scale up good education and improve equity and equalization in education [40, 43]. Finally, teachers could be liberated from the mechanical work of teaching students basic knowledge and skills so they could be more focused on helping

Before using artificial intelligence for personalized learning, program-based technologies were largely made of learning games, with the hope that learning could be delivered in an attractive format. However, the downfall came when it became more and more clear that most educational games were not as attractive to students as regular computer games, and students easily lost interest over time [44, 45]. As a consequence, the interest in learning games has been gradually disappearing in the industry. Unfortunately, personalized learning technologies seem to share the fate of learning games—not only the fate of failure but also the specific inability to

Very little research has been conducted on the effectiveness of Summit Learning's personalized learning technologies; nor has there been much research on other program-based technologies on personalized learning [45]. Besides questionable learning outcomes, these technologies face tremendous challenges due to students' negative reaction toward the learning experience under such programs. A study shows that students significantly feel less engaged in and experience less enjoyment in school due to lack of human interaction [46, 47]. Also, there have been news reports showing that personalized learning technologies face backlash among students and parents. Some students claim they feel they were like zombies sitting in front of computers all day long [41]. The intangible "joy" of learning, so often derived from human discussion and interaction, seems to be compromised by such programs. Overall, concerns about these technologies are as follows: they reduce students' reported joy of learning; jeopardize students' bond with teachers, while a healthy relationship between children and adults is essential in their development; isolate students; encourage unhealthy competition by exposing the difference in students' learning progress; and are prone to misuse of student data by big corporations [48]. With all these perceived negative images in the public

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88629*

students with additional higher-level learning.

**4.2 The problems of program-based technologies**

engage and motivate students in the learning process.

functionality.

*Categorization of Educational Technologies as Related to Pedagogical Practices DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88629*

to master necessary skills and knowledge to achieve the project. Outcome personalization is often filled by tool-based technologies, which give both teachers and students more creative power. However, most program-based technologies are used to fulfill process personalization, which gives students little choice over the learning process. Students are merely given customized learning materials selected based on computer algorithms, and the end goal of the process is to help students achieve standardized learning goals. In essence, program-based technologies could sufficiently fit into the demand of the traditional educational paradigm that emphasizes mastering standardized knowledge and skills. If implemented well, programbased technologies are expected to replace a considerable portion of teachers' functionality.

Advocates for the use of program-based technologies in personalized education believe that technologies can do a better job than traditional teachers because these technologies can unremittingly monitor individual students' learning progress and simultaneously provide learning contents that are most suitable to individual students' habits and learning attributes [43]. With a highly sophisticated algorithm, big data, and a large pool of well-tailored contents, technologies are expected to have certain advantages over human teachers in terms of delivering more effective instruction to each student. Additionally, advocates believe that technologies are more economically efficient and more accessible than human teachers, which can help to scale up good education and improve equity and equalization in education [40, 43]. Finally, teachers could be liberated from the mechanical work of teaching students basic knowledge and skills so they could be more focused on helping students with additional higher-level learning.

#### **4.2 The problems of program-based technologies**

Before using artificial intelligence for personalized learning, program-based technologies were largely made of learning games, with the hope that learning could be delivered in an attractive format. However, the downfall came when it became more and more clear that most educational games were not as attractive to students as regular computer games, and students easily lost interest over time [44, 45]. As a consequence, the interest in learning games has been gradually disappearing in the industry. Unfortunately, personalized learning technologies seem to share the fate of learning games—not only the fate of failure but also the specific inability to engage and motivate students in the learning process.

Very little research has been conducted on the effectiveness of Summit Learning's personalized learning technologies; nor has there been much research on other program-based technologies on personalized learning [45]. Besides questionable learning outcomes, these technologies face tremendous challenges due to students' negative reaction toward the learning experience under such programs. A study shows that students significantly feel less engaged in and experience less enjoyment in school due to lack of human interaction [46, 47]. Also, there have been news reports showing that personalized learning technologies face backlash among students and parents. Some students claim they feel they were like zombies sitting in front of computers all day long [41]. The intangible "joy" of learning, so often derived from human discussion and interaction, seems to be compromised by such programs. Overall, concerns about these technologies are as follows: they reduce students' reported joy of learning; jeopardize students' bond with teachers, while a healthy relationship between children and adults is essential in their development; isolate students; encourage unhealthy competition by exposing the difference in students' learning progress; and are prone to misuse of student data by big corporations [48]. With all these perceived negative images in the public

*Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges*

**4. Double-faced program-based technologies**

importance (**Figure 3**).

skills for adopting technologies to assist pedagogical practices. An efficient and thorough change starts with redefining learning goals, which are hopefully initiated top-down. The role of school leaders and experienced teachers is of the utmost

With recent advances in technology, we have entered the Information Era, especially after the invention of the Internet. Technology made digitalized content become the main resource from which we gain information and knowledge [38]. If we think of learning as a broad, lifelong process, most knowledge we learn today is not in classrooms. With technology, we expand the learning environment, which means that learning is no longer restricted to formal classroom instruction. Some believe that if we focus solely on the work of passing information and knowledge, technology is probably able to replace some components of traditional teaching. Others predict that mobile learning will partially take the place of teachers [39]. Mobile learning has several advantages. First, technology makes information and knowledge more accessible, and students can access more enriched resources of information through mobile learning. Second, learning environments can be expanded, and as long as students can access technology, they can learn anything, anytime, and anywhere. Third, mobile learning allows students to customize learning [40]. Among all the expected benefits, personalization of education has stirred up the most hope—traditionally, dozens of students receive the same information from one teacher in a classroom. However, with technology, every student has the opportunity to learn topics that have been individually tailored. Using technologies to fulfill personalized education has recently attracted tremendous attention from Silicon Valley, fueled with hundreds of millions of dollars from the Chan Zuckerberg Initiative [5, 41]. A program developed out of this initiative is called Summit Learning, which has been collaborating with hundreds of US schools to implement its personalized learning programs. These programs deliver individualized learning content of core academic subjects of grades 4–12, from a computer to a student, with the hope that students will study better with technologies than teachers [5]. These personalized learning programs are given to individual students based on an analysis of their learning attributes using an artificial intelligence algorithm. In such programs, technologies and learning contents included have been predeveloped by technology companies that give teachers little autonomy over the balance of teaching between teachers and machines. Also, many aspects of how the algorithm works often reside in a black box, remaining largely unknown to teachers or researchers. Learning through these technological programs, or, in other words, program-based technologies, is a fundamentally different pedagogical practice and learning experience than the use of tool-based technologies, which are still largely driven by teachers. However, program-based technologies are primarily driven by

**174**

digital programs.

**4.1 The promise of program-based technologies**

Although in the technology industry such distinction has been seldom made, the field of educational research has classified personalized education into two categories: outcome personalization and process personalization [42]. Outcome personalization gives students autonomy in the learning process. Many studentcentered, project-based learning programs are designed in such a way that students may design a project of their choice, while the education process helps students

arena, it is not hard to assert that current efforts of using program-based technologies to conduct personalized education to replace teachers, represented by Summit Learning, will be far from successful. However, there is not much rigorous evaluation of such programs through imperial research, nor does it seem that the developers of these programs have any immediate intention to grant access to scholars to conduct any evaluation.

#### **4.3 A need for research on program-based technologies**

Given that program-based technologies in education are largely developed by the technology industry instead of educators or educational researchers, as well as a special commercial interest in the industry, those technologies have seldom been well-examined in an empirical way, nor have their developers been given the incentive to conduct considerable research or comprehensive program evaluation. Chan Zuckerberg's Initiative originally planned to work with the Harvard Graduate School of Education to examine the effectiveness of its Summit Learning Program, but it was called off by the initiative before the research started [41]. By the time this paper was written, we still did not know, despite students' negative emotional reaction toward the program, whether the program could deliver its academic promises. Many factors may determine the success of program-based technologies, such as the content of learning materials, the artificial intelligence or other algorithms to assess students' learning progress, and the implementation in school settings in relation to teachers' assistance and other school activities. Many of the promises of technology-enabled personalized learning do not lose their attraction because of the failure of a first attempt. Future research is urgently needed to comprehensively examine these new technologies.

The significance and advantage of human teachers cannot be easily replaced. Although knowledge can be easily accessed through program-based technologies, a lack of human interaction and motivation results in reduced knowledge acquisition among students. As learning is not a mechanical cognitive activity, students' negative emotions could lead to *not learning*, which does not refer to being incapable of learning but a term describing the psychological state of resistance to participation in learning activities [49]. It is highly possible that program-based technologies could never work alone. They might need to open space to work closely with human teachers to be effective. Unlike tool-based technologies, which have been thoroughly researched, the adoption of program-based technologies has seldom been studied. Many do not even see the distinction between those two groups. We urge the industry and the scientific community to conduct more research on programbased technologies, which will surely open a new frontier in our understanding of the use of educational technologies in pedagogical practices, as what it takes to adopt teacher-driven tool-based technologies could be vastly different from newly emerged algorithm-driven program-based technologies. We suggest not only to research the technologies themselves, including their learning contents and algorithm, but also how these technologies are positioned in the ecological system in school and how human interaction can work together with the algorithm.

#### **5. Conclusion and a look into the future**

It has been a long-held misconception that educational technologies are homogeneous and they behave in a similar way in relation to teachers' adoption and school implementation, among other factors. It is an oversight in the field of educational

**177**

based technologies.

*Categorization of Educational Technologies as Related to Pedagogical Practices*

(used in the operative and administrative work of teachers).

research that we have seldom made any distinction in the kinds of technologies that have been used in schooling, instead often studying them in a singular set. This was not an influential mistake when most technologies used in pedagogical practices were tool-based technologies and indeed shared many similarities. However, with the recent introduction of artificial intelligence into personalized education, new categories of technologies have emerged that are drastically distinct from the ones before. Therefore, a careful categorization of educational technologies should be made to help us study issues on educational technology in a well-structured way. Educational technologies are composed of pedagogical technologies (used in direct participation of teaching and learning activities) and operational technologies

Pedagogical technologies can be further split into two groups: tool-based technologies and program-based technologies. Tool-based technologies are the most common, have a longer history, and have been well-researched. They refer to technologies that are not specifically designed for educational purposes and are versatile tools in nature. Teachers' adoption of these technologies through a process of design and implementation transforms these technological tools into pedagogical technologies that assist in teaching and learning. Teachers are less inclined to use tool-based technologies if they are considered supplemental instructional tools for efficient lectures. On the other hand, teachers are more likely to use such technologies for student-centered constructivism learning because of technologies' power to hone creative and critical thinking skills. Therefore, efficient adoption needs to be top-down, starting by setting learning goals that demand high-level creative skills instead of the mechanical acquisition of content knowledge. Suitable learning goals motivate teachers to see the value of developing positive attitudes toward technologies, which should fuel professional development programs, which should not only deliver adequate content knowledge but also create supportive and collaborative learning communities among preservice and in-service teachers. As such, teachers could be equipped with the skills, knowledge, and emotional drive to adopt tool-

Program-based technologies are predeveloped with learning contents that are delivered to students in a preprogrammed way. They leave less control to teachers and instead drive learning by their own artificial intelligence or other program algorithms. Although there has been high hope that they could replace teachers' instruction to provide students with a personalized learning experience, the lack of human interaction often makes students feel less engaged in schooling and results in learning resistance. More research should be conducted in this field to study these technologies and the possibility of teachers working with algorithms in a more

Technologies bring the Information Era to schools. As the economy has shifted

from labor-demanding to innovation-demanding, learning of basic skills and content knowledge is far from enough. A new competence set of creativity, collaborative learning, and research is more valuable than ever, which translates into new learning goals that demand students to be innovative and proactive learners. Technologies can help with that, but, without question, the role of teachers is still critical. Technologies cannot exclude teachers but should rather work with teachers to transform education from instruction-centered to student-centered. Toolbased technologies give teachers the means to be innovative and achieve that goal. Program-based technologies should be developed in a way that work seamlessly with teachers through research-based practices, instead of repeating the failure of pursuing student-centered learning by replacing teachers. After all, information

collaborative way instead of a either teacher or computer modal.

can be digitalized, but learning itself is still a very human business.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88629*

#### *Categorization of Educational Technologies as Related to Pedagogical Practices DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88629*

research that we have seldom made any distinction in the kinds of technologies that have been used in schooling, instead often studying them in a singular set. This was not an influential mistake when most technologies used in pedagogical practices were tool-based technologies and indeed shared many similarities. However, with the recent introduction of artificial intelligence into personalized education, new categories of technologies have emerged that are drastically distinct from the ones before. Therefore, a careful categorization of educational technologies should be made to help us study issues on educational technology in a well-structured way. Educational technologies are composed of pedagogical technologies (used in direct participation of teaching and learning activities) and operational technologies (used in the operative and administrative work of teachers).

Pedagogical technologies can be further split into two groups: tool-based technologies and program-based technologies. Tool-based technologies are the most common, have a longer history, and have been well-researched. They refer to technologies that are not specifically designed for educational purposes and are versatile tools in nature. Teachers' adoption of these technologies through a process of design and implementation transforms these technological tools into pedagogical technologies that assist in teaching and learning. Teachers are less inclined to use tool-based technologies if they are considered supplemental instructional tools for efficient lectures. On the other hand, teachers are more likely to use such technologies for student-centered constructivism learning because of technologies' power to hone creative and critical thinking skills. Therefore, efficient adoption needs to be top-down, starting by setting learning goals that demand high-level creative skills instead of the mechanical acquisition of content knowledge. Suitable learning goals motivate teachers to see the value of developing positive attitudes toward technologies, which should fuel professional development programs, which should not only deliver adequate content knowledge but also create supportive and collaborative learning communities among preservice and in-service teachers. As such, teachers could be equipped with the skills, knowledge, and emotional drive to adopt toolbased technologies.

Program-based technologies are predeveloped with learning contents that are delivered to students in a preprogrammed way. They leave less control to teachers and instead drive learning by their own artificial intelligence or other program algorithms. Although there has been high hope that they could replace teachers' instruction to provide students with a personalized learning experience, the lack of human interaction often makes students feel less engaged in schooling and results in learning resistance. More research should be conducted in this field to study these technologies and the possibility of teachers working with algorithms in a more collaborative way instead of a either teacher or computer modal.

Technologies bring the Information Era to schools. As the economy has shifted from labor-demanding to innovation-demanding, learning of basic skills and content knowledge is far from enough. A new competence set of creativity, collaborative learning, and research is more valuable than ever, which translates into new learning goals that demand students to be innovative and proactive learners. Technologies can help with that, but, without question, the role of teachers is still critical. Technologies cannot exclude teachers but should rather work with teachers to transform education from instruction-centered to student-centered. Toolbased technologies give teachers the means to be innovative and achieve that goal. Program-based technologies should be developed in a way that work seamlessly with teachers through research-based practices, instead of repeating the failure of pursuing student-centered learning by replacing teachers. After all, information can be digitalized, but learning itself is still a very human business.

*Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges*

**4.3 A need for research on program-based technologies**

comprehensively examine these new technologies.

**5. Conclusion and a look into the future**

conduct any evaluation.

arena, it is not hard to assert that current efforts of using program-based technologies to conduct personalized education to replace teachers, represented by Summit Learning, will be far from successful. However, there is not much rigorous evaluation of such programs through imperial research, nor does it seem that the developers of these programs have any immediate intention to grant access to scholars to

Given that program-based technologies in education are largely developed by the technology industry instead of educators or educational researchers, as well as a special commercial interest in the industry, those technologies have seldom been well-examined in an empirical way, nor have their developers been given the incentive to conduct considerable research or comprehensive program evaluation. Chan Zuckerberg's Initiative originally planned to work with the Harvard Graduate School of Education to examine the effectiveness of its Summit Learning Program, but it was called off by the initiative before the research started [41]. By the time this paper was written, we still did not know, despite students' negative emotional reaction toward the program, whether the program could deliver its academic promises. Many factors may determine the success of program-based technologies, such as the content of learning materials, the artificial intelligence or other algorithms to assess students' learning progress, and the implementation in school settings in relation to teachers' assistance and other school activities. Many of the promises of technology-enabled personalized learning do not lose their attraction because of the failure of a first attempt. Future research is urgently needed to

The significance and advantage of human teachers cannot be easily replaced. Although knowledge can be easily accessed through program-based technologies, a lack of human interaction and motivation results in reduced knowledge acquisition among students. As learning is not a mechanical cognitive activity, students' negative emotions could lead to *not learning*, which does not refer to being incapable of learning but a term describing the psychological state of resistance to participation in learning activities [49]. It is highly possible that program-based technologies could never work alone. They might need to open space to work closely with human teachers to be effective. Unlike tool-based technologies, which have been thoroughly researched, the adoption of program-based technologies has seldom been studied. Many do not even see the distinction between those two groups. We urge the industry and the scientific community to conduct more research on programbased technologies, which will surely open a new frontier in our understanding of the use of educational technologies in pedagogical practices, as what it takes to adopt teacher-driven tool-based technologies could be vastly different from newly emerged algorithm-driven program-based technologies. We suggest not only to research the technologies themselves, including their learning contents and algorithm, but also how these technologies are positioned in the ecological system in school and how human interaction can work together with the algorithm.

It has been a long-held misconception that educational technologies are homogeneous and they behave in a similar way in relation to teachers' adoption and school implementation, among other factors. It is an oversight in the field of educational

**176**

#### **Author details**

Perry P. Gao1 \*, Arvid Nagel<sup>2</sup> and Horst Biedermann<sup>2</sup>

1 Harvard Graduate School of Education, Education Bridge Institute, Cambridge, USA

2 St. Gallen University of Teacher Education, St. Gallen, Switzerland

\*Address all correspondence to: perry\_gao@mail.harvard.edu

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**179**

*Categorization of Educational Technologies as Related to Pedagogical Practices*

NCES 2010-040. National Center for

[11] Ertmer PA, Ottenbreit-Leftwich A, York CS. Exemplary technologyusing teachers: Perceptions of factors influencing success. Journal of Computing in Teacher Education.

[12] Putnam RT, Borko H. What do new views of knowledge and thinking have to say about research on teacher learning? Educational Research.

[13] Kanaya T, Light D, McMillan Culp K. Factors influencing outcomes from a technology-focused professional development program. Journal of Research on Technology in Education.

[14] Albion PR, Ertmer PA. Beyond the foundations: The role of vision and belief in teachers' preparation for integration of technology. TechTrends.

[15] Zhao Y, Cziko GA. Teacher adoption of technology: A perceptual control theory perspective. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education. 2001;**9**(1):5-30

Molohides A, Palaigeorgiou G, Psillos D,

[16] Demetriadis S, Barbas A,

Vlahavas I, et al. "Cultures in negotiation": Teachers' acceptance/ resistance attitudes considering the infusion of technology into schools. Computers in Education.

[17] Ottenbreit-Leftwich AT,

Glazewski KD, Newby TJ, Ertmer PA.

[10] Hew KF, Brush T. Integrating technology into K-12 teaching and learning: Current knowledge gaps and recommendations for future research. Educational Technology Research and Development. 2007;**55**(3):223-252

Education Statistics; 2010

2006;**23**(2):55-61

2000;**29**(1):4-15

2005;**37**(3):313-329

2002;**46**(5):34-38

2003;**41**(1):19-37

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88629*

[1] Peck KL, Dorricutt D. Why use technology? Educational Leadership.

[2] Cuban L. Oversold and Underused: Computers in the Classroom. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; 2001

[3] Trends in Digital Learning: Building teachers' capacity and competency to create new learning experiences for students. Project Tomorrow [Internet]. 2017. Available from: https://tomorrow. org/speakup/speak-up-2016-trendsdigital-learning-june-2017.html

[4] Aldunate R, Nussbaum M. Teacher adoption of technology. Computers in Human Behavior. 2013;**29**(3):519-524

[5] Summit Learning is spreading with little evidence of success [Internet]. Chalkbeat. 2019. Available from: https:// chalkbeat.org/posts/us/2019/01/17/ summit-learning-research-harvard/

[6] Zhao Y, Pugh K, Sheldon S, Byers JL. Conditions for classroom technology innovations. Teachers College Record.

[7] Ertmer PA, Ottenbreit-Leftwich AT. Teacher technology change: How knowledge, confidence, beliefs, and culture intersect. Journal of Research on Technology in Education.

[8] Tondeur J, van Braak J, Sang G, Voogt J, Fisser P, Ottenbreit-Leftwich A. Preparing pre-service teachers to integrate technology in education:

evidence. Computers & Education.

Teachers' Use of Educational Technology in US Public Schools: 2009. First Look.

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Alexandria. 1994;**51**(7):11

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*Categorization of Educational Technologies as Related to Pedagogical Practices DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88629*

#### **References**

*Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges*

**178**

**Author details**

Cambridge, USA

\*, Arvid Nagel<sup>2</sup>

provided the original work is properly cited.

and Horst Biedermann<sup>2</sup>

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

1 Harvard Graduate School of Education, Education Bridge Institute,

2 St. Gallen University of Teacher Education, St. Gallen, Switzerland

\*Address all correspondence to: perry\_gao@mail.harvard.edu

Perry P. Gao1

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Section 4

Educational Partnerships

Section 4
