**2. Biology**

*Dermanyssus gallinae* is taxonomically assigned to the Dermanyssidae family englobed in the order Mesostigmata of the Arachnida Class. There are 14 other mite species that affect birds and are morphologically very similar to *D. gallinae* which may be misidentified when identification is solely based on morphological characteristics [11]. Recent advances in molecular tools as gene sequencing or DNA barcoding, combined with morphological features is allowing a proper mite identification, including *D. gallinae* identification [12–14] (**Figure 1**).

*Dermanyssus gallinae* is an obligatory ectoparasite that feeds on the blood of the host. It has a global distribution [15]. In contrast with other *Dermanyssus* spp., *D. gallinae* is a generalist species with a low host specificity [16]. The PRM is a pest in the egg-laying farms [1], but can also be found parasitizing more than 30 wild and domestic bird species [11] and mammals [3–5], including humans [6]. The life cycle for *D. gallinae* includes five developmental stages: egg, larvae, protonymph, deutonymph and adult (**Figure 2**). Larvae have three pairs of legs while the rest of the stages have four pairs of legs. The PRM requires a blood meal for molting from protonymph to deutonymph, to adult and for egg-laying [17] (**Figure 2**). The color of the fed stages varies from bright red to brown, depending on the digestion of the blood inside de mite, while unfed stages are white. Adults and fed deutonymphs are

#### **Figure 1.**

*SEM images from several morphological characteristics useful for the identification of* D. gallinae *and differentiation from other similar species. Morphological characteristics shown are present in adult females according to Di Palma et al. [14]. (A) Dorsal overview. Dorsal shield (outline traced) with prominent shoulder. (B) Ventral overview. Epigynal (es) and anal (as) shields are rounded posteriorly. Anal shield with three anal setae (\*). (C) Detail of the sternal shield. The sternal shield is wider than long and containing two pairs of setae (\*). (D) Detail of dorsal shield. The two pairs of setae (j1 and j2) are on the dorsal shield. See methodology for additional information.*

**235**

**Figure 2.**

*information source.*

as a micro predator [16].

*Challenges for the Control of Poultry Red Mite (*Dermanyssus gallinae*)*

visible with the naked eye. Life cycle usually takes 2 weeks to complete, but it can be shorter when ideal conditions are provided (25–27°C and high relative humidity) [17–19]. Long-time emptied hen houses have been reported to remain infested. This finding is justified by the ability of the mite to survive without any blood meal for up to 9 months if the environment is suitable. However, desiccation and high temperatures (>45°C) are lethal [19]. Oviposition is carried out only by adult female mites. A maximum of approximately 30 eggs can be laid by a single female in her

*Graphical representation of the PRM biological cycle and points of action for different control measures. Iconography explanation: large red mites = fed adult mites; small red mites = fed nymphal stages; large white mites = starved adults; small white mites = starved nymphal stages; cross = points where the treatment can interrupt the mite cycle; thunderbolt = points of action for the different treatment options. New control interventions such as vaccination, predatory mites or plant extracts are shown. See methodology for* 

The PRM lacks real eyes and it can senses changes in the luminosity of the environment with photocells [21]. During daylight hours, mite is usually hidden in cracks and crevices where it is out of the reach of the hen. In these shelters, it gathers with more mites until they can form a cluster of hundreds of mites of different stages. This behavior is driven by aggregation pheromones [22]. It is in the darkness when the PRM comes out of their refuges to feed on the host. The host-seeking process is multifactorial, but temperature has been proven to play an important role as the PRM is highly sensitive to even minor changes in temperature and starved mites have an increased sensibility [23, 24]. *D. gallinae* increases its activity when exposed to substrate vibrations which are supposed to be used for host localization [23]. Surface skin lipids are also involved in the host identification and stimulation [22, 25]. These lipids are used to improve feeding rates in artificial feeding devices when synthetic membranes are used [26] and have provided possibilities for the use of essential oils in the control of PRM infestations in layer houses. In contrast with other hematophagous ectoparasites that utilize CO2 to identify their hosts, CO2 did not induce any host seeking response in *D. gallinae* under laboratory conditions but induced immobility under light conditions, which is interpreted as a survival strategy to avoid being eaten by the host [23]. Nymphal and adult stages stay on the host for feeding for 30–60 min [27]. According to this behavior, PRM can be considered

lifetime, usually in clutches of 4–8 eggs after a blood meal [20].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90439*

*Challenges for the Control of Poultry Red Mite (*Dermanyssus gallinae*) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90439*

#### **Figure 2.**

*Parasitology and Microbiology Research*

infestations.

**2. Biology**

The aim of the present review is to show the current knowledge about the PRM, the challenges it poses from the One Health perspective for both human and animal health and the future possibilities for the control and prevention of PRM

*Dermanyssus gallinae* is taxonomically assigned to the Dermanyssidae family englobed in the order Mesostigmata of the Arachnida Class. There are 14 other mite species that affect birds and are morphologically very similar to *D. gallinae* which may be misidentified when identification is solely based on morphological characteristics [11]. Recent advances in molecular tools as gene sequencing or DNA barcoding, combined with morphological features is allowing a proper mite identi-

*Dermanyssus gallinae* is an obligatory ectoparasite that feeds on the blood of the host. It has a global distribution [15]. In contrast with other *Dermanyssus* spp., *D. gallinae* is a generalist species with a low host specificity [16]. The PRM is a pest in the egg-laying farms [1], but can also be found parasitizing more than 30 wild and domestic bird species [11] and mammals [3–5], including humans [6]. The life cycle for *D. gallinae* includes five developmental stages: egg, larvae, protonymph, deutonymph and adult (**Figure 2**). Larvae have three pairs of legs while the rest of the stages have four pairs of legs. The PRM requires a blood meal for molting from protonymph to deutonymph, to adult and for egg-laying [17] (**Figure 2**). The color of the fed stages varies from bright red to brown, depending on the digestion of the blood inside de mite, while unfed stages are white. Adults and fed deutonymphs are

*SEM images from several morphological characteristics useful for the identification of* D. gallinae *and differentiation from other similar species. Morphological characteristics shown are present in adult females according to Di Palma et al. [14]. (A) Dorsal overview. Dorsal shield (outline traced) with prominent shoulder. (B) Ventral overview. Epigynal (es) and anal (as) shields are rounded posteriorly. Anal shield with three anal setae (\*). (C) Detail of the sternal shield. The sternal shield is wider than long and containing two pairs of setae (\*). (D) Detail of dorsal shield. The two pairs of setae (j1 and j2) are on the dorsal shield. See* 

fication, including *D. gallinae* identification [12–14] (**Figure 1**).

**234**

**Figure 1.**

*methodology for additional information.*

*Graphical representation of the PRM biological cycle and points of action for different control measures. Iconography explanation: large red mites = fed adult mites; small red mites = fed nymphal stages; large white mites = starved adults; small white mites = starved nymphal stages; cross = points where the treatment can interrupt the mite cycle; thunderbolt = points of action for the different treatment options. New control interventions such as vaccination, predatory mites or plant extracts are shown. See methodology for information source.*

visible with the naked eye. Life cycle usually takes 2 weeks to complete, but it can be shorter when ideal conditions are provided (25–27°C and high relative humidity) [17–19]. Long-time emptied hen houses have been reported to remain infested. This finding is justified by the ability of the mite to survive without any blood meal for up to 9 months if the environment is suitable. However, desiccation and high temperatures (>45°C) are lethal [19]. Oviposition is carried out only by adult female mites. A maximum of approximately 30 eggs can be laid by a single female in her lifetime, usually in clutches of 4–8 eggs after a blood meal [20].

The PRM lacks real eyes and it can senses changes in the luminosity of the environment with photocells [21]. During daylight hours, mite is usually hidden in cracks and crevices where it is out of the reach of the hen. In these shelters, it gathers with more mites until they can form a cluster of hundreds of mites of different stages. This behavior is driven by aggregation pheromones [22]. It is in the darkness when the PRM comes out of their refuges to feed on the host. The host-seeking process is multifactorial, but temperature has been proven to play an important role as the PRM is highly sensitive to even minor changes in temperature and starved mites have an increased sensibility [23, 24]. *D. gallinae* increases its activity when exposed to substrate vibrations which are supposed to be used for host localization [23]. Surface skin lipids are also involved in the host identification and stimulation [22, 25]. These lipids are used to improve feeding rates in artificial feeding devices when synthetic membranes are used [26] and have provided possibilities for the use of essential oils in the control of PRM infestations in layer houses. In contrast with other hematophagous ectoparasites that utilize CO2 to identify their hosts, CO2 did not induce any host seeking response in *D. gallinae* under laboratory conditions but induced immobility under light conditions, which is interpreted as a survival strategy to avoid being eaten by the host [23]. Nymphal and adult stages stay on the host for feeding for 30–60 min [27]. According to this behavior, PRM can be considered as a micro predator [16].
