Gamma Irradiation and High Hydrostatic Pressure Applied to Hamburger Conservation

*Michelle Guimarães Horta, Fabiana Regina Lima, Carlos Alberto Gois Suzart and Poliana Mendes De Souza*

## **Abstract**

Human nutrition is an essential process, since it provides the essential nutrients for their development. Animal source foods are rich in protein, amino acids, vitamins, and minerals. And they are subject to contaminants from the raw material to the final consumption. To avoid microbial contamination and deterioration, various technologies are used to ensure their innocuity. These include gamma irradiation and high hydrostatic pressure (HHP), which are nonthermal treatments. Such treatments may reduce the known adverse effects that occur during thermal processing. In meat products, these technologies may induce lipid oxidation, and to limit this process, the addition of synthetic or natural food antioxidants or both are used. This chapter discusses the use of gamma irradiation, high hydrostatic pressure, and application of natural antioxidants in beef hamburger to ensure their quality.

**Keywords:** hamburger, gamma irradiation, high hydrostatic pressure, natural food additives, nonthermal technologies

### **1. Introduction**

The nutrition is an essential process for humans as they provide the essential nutrients. Meat and meat products have a prominent position among foods in the human diet, since it is rich in high-quality protein, essential amino acids, B vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients [1, 2] . These nutrients are important in the formation of enzymes, hormones, antibodies, structural proteins, and transporters as well as in the construction and maintenance of tissues [3].

Meats are defined as muscle tissues, without or not include their bone base, and can come from different animal species as long as they are fit for consumption. Meat products are those obtained from meat, edible parts of different animal species in which the properties of the raw materials are modified by means of physical, chemical, or biological treatment techniques or a combination of these methods [4]. These techniques in general may involve the addition of ingredients or co-adjuvants of technology for the production of industrialized meat.

The nutritional composition of meat and meat products favors the possibility microorganism's proliferation [5]. Contamination of meat products may occur during processing and handling of food such as slaughtering, deboning, cutting,

fragmentation, processing, packaging, storage, and so forth. This may occur due to extrinsic and/or intrinsic factors such as water, air, soil, temperature, and pH [6, 7].

To improve food safety and quality, various technologies have been used and developed to preserve and protect food against microbial contamination and deterioration. These technologies include nonthermal, thermal, biological, and chemical treatments. Thermal treatments are efficient in inactivation of microorganisms but have the disadvantage of generating unwanted biochemical reactions, since temperature-altered treatment favors changes in food quality. Texture, color, vitamin amounts, and development of unpleasant flavors are included in this change [8].

As an alternative to thermal treatments, the nonthermal treatments were developed. Among them, we can list gamma, electron, X-ray irradiation, high hydrostatic pressure (HHP), and the addition of natural antimicrobials [5]. These processes do not use temperature as a way to inactivate microorganisms and enzymes [8], and further generally, the nonthermal treatments do not affect their nutritional and sensory characteristics [8]. The use of nonthermal treatments in meats and derivatives for industrial productions is shown in several studies that among them, the irradiation and HHP are the ones that offer practical possibilities of application [9].

The production of meat industrialized is a strategy for total or partial use of less noble meat. In this class of derivates, sausages, cured meat, ham, hamburger, meatball, and others are included.

The hamburger originated in the city of Hamburg, located in Germany, and this product was consumed raw. In the 1920s, it emerged in the United States. In Brazil, it arrived in the 1950s and became known after it was produced and distributed by fast food chain [10]. It is defined as a meat product, obtained from ground beef of different animal species, with or without the addition of ingredients, molded as a disc or an oval, and subjected to a specific technological process [4, 11]. Also, according to the US Federal Code of Regulation [12], the hamburger is defined as "fresh or frozen ground beef steak, with or without added fat and/or condiments, which should not contain more than 30% fat and should not contain added water."

In relation to world beef production, the United States produces about 19%, followed by Brazil with 17%, the European Union and China with 13% each, and India with 7% [13]. Brazil exports approximately US\$ 500 million/month, being considered the largest exporter of beef [14]. In the year 2018, from January to September, 23.47 million heads of cattle were slaughtered [15]. Research conducted by the US Department of Agriculture is estimated that in 2019, there will be a 3% increase in production and a 5% increase in beef exports in Brazil [16].

The quality, safety, and nutritional profile of beef depend on several factors, such as genetic characteristics and animal feeding, slaughter, processing, handling, and others [13].

This chapter discusses the use of emerging nonthermal technologies in meats and derivatives for industrial production, in highlighting among them the irradiation and HHP, to ensure their sage consumption.

### **2. Nonthermal treatments**

A discussion of the most representative nonthermal treatments is shown in this section. Further to the application of natural antioxidants among nonthermal treatments, irradiation and HHP are the ones that offer practical application possibilities in meats and derivatives for industrial production [9]. Despite the efficiency of these nonthermal treatments in food conservation, they may favor lipid oxidation of meat products. To avoid this, there is a tendency to combine these treatments

**131**

*Gamma Irradiation and High Hydrostatic Pressure Applied to Hamburger Conservation*

with the use of natural antioxidants to reduce the sensory changes that are caused

Irradiation is a physical treatment in which the food is exposed to a defined ionizing radiation dose. The purpose of this treatment is to control insect infestation, reduce the number of pathogenic microorganisms or deterioration, delay, or eliminate natural biological processes (ripening, germination, or sprouting in fresh

According to [19], irradiated foods were evaluated by several surveys and tests over several years, thus ensuring a safe food for consumption, in relation to nutri-

Before 1997, the use of irradiation was limited. However, after Food and Drug Administration (FDA) was approved of the use of irradiation in refrigerated or frozen meats and derivatives to control food-borne pathogens, the consumers began

According to Codex Alimentarius Commission [22] for irradiated foods, the radiation sources that can be used are gamma rays, the radionuclides 60Co, or 137Cs; X-rays generated with a maximum level of 5 MeV; and electrons generated with a maximum level of 10 MeV. These sources have high energy that changes the position of the electrons of the atoms and molecules, converting them into electrically charged particles (ions). It should be noted that these energies are not capable of

Irradiation is considered one of the best emerging technologies to guarantee microbiological safety, in which any food can be irradiated, including meats and derivatives [18]. It is effective in eliminating or reducing pathogenic microorganisms, such as *Listeria monocytogenes*, *Salmonella* spp., *Escherichia coli,* and

Although the numerous advantages of the use of the irradiation in the foods, the use this process in the meat products may favor physicochemical and biochemical alterations, as for example the lipid oxidation increase. This oxidation is characterized by the formation of free radicals, that is, it is initiated in the unsaturated fraction of fatty acids by the uptake of a hydrogen atom and propagated as a radicalmediated chain reaction. This process depends on the chemical composition of the meat and access to light, oxygen, and storage temperature. As it causes the increase of oxidation, there are changes in taste, aroma, and nutritional value changes that affect the quality of the food [25–27]. The addition of antioxidants may contribute

Regarding the label of the irradiated food, according to the Codex, food that goes through the irradiation process must include on the label a statement

Irradiation can be applied to any kind food. The Codex Alimentarius Commission [22] regulates that the maximum safe dosage for food in general is 10 kGy, where the minimum dosage absorbed by the food must be sufficient to achieve the technological purpose and the maximum dosage absorbed must not compromise the consumer's health or cause the food to be disposed of [22]. According to Codex Alimentarius Commission [22], there is no minimum dosage to be used in meats, but the corresponding maximum dosages of 4.5 kGy for refrigerated beefs, 7 kGy for frozen meats, and 3 kGy for poultry meats have been defined. In Brazilian legislation [23], it is defined for any food that the minimum dose should be sufficient to achieve the purpose, and the maximum should be lower than that which would compromise the functional and sensorial characteristics of

tional adequacy and toxicological and microbiological safety.

to check the benefits of irradiated food [20, 21].

inducing radioactivity in any material [18].

*Staphylococcus aureus* [24].

to the reduction of this process [28].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88874*

by oxidation [17].

foods) [18].

the food.

**2.1 Gamma irradiation**

*Gamma Irradiation and High Hydrostatic Pressure Applied to Hamburger Conservation DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88874*

with the use of natural antioxidants to reduce the sensory changes that are caused by oxidation [17].

### **2.1 Gamma irradiation**

*Food Processing*

meatball, and others are included.

added water."

and others [13].

**2. Nonthermal treatments**

fragmentation, processing, packaging, storage, and so forth. This may occur due to extrinsic and/or intrinsic factors such as water, air, soil, temperature, and pH [6, 7]. To improve food safety and quality, various technologies have been used and developed to preserve and protect food against microbial contamination and deterioration. These technologies include nonthermal, thermal, biological, and chemical treatments. Thermal treatments are efficient in inactivation of microorganisms but have the disadvantage of generating unwanted biochemical reactions, since temperature-altered treatment favors changes in food quality. Texture, color, vitamin amounts, and development of unpleasant flavors are included in this change [8]. As an alternative to thermal treatments, the nonthermal treatments were developed. Among them, we can list gamma, electron, X-ray irradiation, high hydrostatic pressure (HHP), and the addition of natural antimicrobials [5]. These processes do not use temperature as a way to inactivate microorganisms and enzymes [8], and further generally, the nonthermal treatments do not affect their nutritional and sensory characteristics [8]. The use of nonthermal treatments in meats and derivatives for industrial productions is shown in several studies that among them, the irradiation and HHP are the ones that offer practical possibilities of application [9]. The production of meat industrialized is a strategy for total or partial use of less noble meat. In this class of derivates, sausages, cured meat, ham, hamburger,

The hamburger originated in the city of Hamburg, located in Germany, and this product was consumed raw. In the 1920s, it emerged in the United States. In Brazil, it arrived in the 1950s and became known after it was produced and distributed by fast food chain [10]. It is defined as a meat product, obtained from ground beef of different animal species, with or without the addition of ingredients, molded as a disc or an oval, and subjected to a specific technological process [4, 11]. Also, according to the US Federal Code of Regulation [12], the hamburger is defined as "fresh or frozen ground beef steak, with or without added fat and/or condiments, which should not contain more than 30% fat and should not contain

In relation to world beef production, the United States produces about 19%, followed by Brazil with 17%, the European Union and China with 13% each, and India with 7% [13]. Brazil exports approximately US\$ 500 million/month, being considered the largest exporter of beef [14]. In the year 2018, from January to September, 23.47 million heads of cattle were slaughtered [15]. Research conducted by the US Department of Agriculture is estimated that in 2019, there will be a 3% increase in

The quality, safety, and nutritional profile of beef depend on several factors, such as genetic characteristics and animal feeding, slaughter, processing, handling,

This chapter discusses the use of emerging nonthermal technologies in meats and derivatives for industrial production, in highlighting among them the irradia-

A discussion of the most representative nonthermal treatments is shown in this section. Further to the application of natural antioxidants among nonthermal treatments, irradiation and HHP are the ones that offer practical application possibilities in meats and derivatives for industrial production [9]. Despite the efficiency of these nonthermal treatments in food conservation, they may favor lipid oxidation of meat products. To avoid this, there is a tendency to combine these treatments

production and a 5% increase in beef exports in Brazil [16].

tion and HHP, to ensure their sage consumption.

**130**

Irradiation is a physical treatment in which the food is exposed to a defined ionizing radiation dose. The purpose of this treatment is to control insect infestation, reduce the number of pathogenic microorganisms or deterioration, delay, or eliminate natural biological processes (ripening, germination, or sprouting in fresh foods) [18].

According to [19], irradiated foods were evaluated by several surveys and tests over several years, thus ensuring a safe food for consumption, in relation to nutritional adequacy and toxicological and microbiological safety.

Before 1997, the use of irradiation was limited. However, after Food and Drug Administration (FDA) was approved of the use of irradiation in refrigerated or frozen meats and derivatives to control food-borne pathogens, the consumers began to check the benefits of irradiated food [20, 21].

Irradiation can be applied to any kind food. The Codex Alimentarius Commission [22] regulates that the maximum safe dosage for food in general is 10 kGy, where the minimum dosage absorbed by the food must be sufficient to achieve the technological purpose and the maximum dosage absorbed must not compromise the consumer's health or cause the food to be disposed of [22].

According to Codex Alimentarius Commission [22], there is no minimum dosage to be used in meats, but the corresponding maximum dosages of 4.5 kGy for refrigerated beefs, 7 kGy for frozen meats, and 3 kGy for poultry meats have been defined. In Brazilian legislation [23], it is defined for any food that the minimum dose should be sufficient to achieve the purpose, and the maximum should be lower than that which would compromise the functional and sensorial characteristics of the food.

According to Codex Alimentarius Commission [22] for irradiated foods, the radiation sources that can be used are gamma rays, the radionuclides 60Co, or 137Cs; X-rays generated with a maximum level of 5 MeV; and electrons generated with a maximum level of 10 MeV. These sources have high energy that changes the position of the electrons of the atoms and molecules, converting them into electrically charged particles (ions). It should be noted that these energies are not capable of inducing radioactivity in any material [18].

Irradiation is considered one of the best emerging technologies to guarantee microbiological safety, in which any food can be irradiated, including meats and derivatives [18]. It is effective in eliminating or reducing pathogenic microorganisms, such as *Listeria monocytogenes*, *Salmonella* spp., *Escherichia coli,* and *Staphylococcus aureus* [24].

Although the numerous advantages of the use of the irradiation in the foods, the use this process in the meat products may favor physicochemical and biochemical alterations, as for example the lipid oxidation increase. This oxidation is characterized by the formation of free radicals, that is, it is initiated in the unsaturated fraction of fatty acids by the uptake of a hydrogen atom and propagated as a radicalmediated chain reaction. This process depends on the chemical composition of the meat and access to light, oxygen, and storage temperature. As it causes the increase of oxidation, there are changes in taste, aroma, and nutritional value changes that affect the quality of the food [25–27]. The addition of antioxidants may contribute to the reduction of this process [28].

Regarding the label of the irradiated food, according to the Codex, food that goes through the irradiation process must include on the label a statement indicating that the treatment has taken place and may optionally use the international symbol available [29]. However, under US law, the symbol must be used and must be declared: "Treated with radiation" or "Treated by irradiation." The Brazilian regulation should include in the main panel the words "FOOD TREATED BY IRRADIATION PROCESS" [23].

**Table 1** shows data from the study by Kume et al. [30] that reported the quantity of meat and fish products that were irradiated in the listed countries.

In a research conducted by Chirinos et al. [31], samples of industrialized hamburger inoculated with *Escherichia coli* O157: H7 were subjected to the irradiation process. It was found that at low doses (1.08 kGy), it was sufficient to reduce the microorganism, without rejection by the trained tasters.

It was evaluated by Moura [32], the oxidation of cholesterol in beef burgers and chicken burgers submitted to irradiation and stored under freezing conditions. It was found that there was an 11% increase in cholesterol oxide levels in frozen burgers.

Frozen chicken hamburger was inoculated with *Salmonella* sp. and irradiated in a study conducted by Vieira [33], and it was found that dosages of 5 and 7 kGy would be sufficient to reduce the population of *Salmonella* sp. Sensory evaluation did not change significantly, and shelf life was 120 days the same as the conventional product.

## **2.2 High hydrostatic pressure**

The effect of high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) processing was first reported in 1899 by Hite [34]. This process uses an isostatic pressure at room temperature between 100 and 600 MPa. The pressure in the closed and degassed chamber is transmitted by pumps through a liquid (usually uses water) uniformly and instantaneously, which causes the molecular volume to change. The physical effect of the process occurs in the molecules, in which bonds that are weaker, such as those of hydrogen and hydrophobic, are modified [9].

The behavior of food under pressure is determined by three principles: Le Chatelier principle (any reaction that is accompanied by the decrease in volume and increased by pressure); principle of microscopic ordering (increasing pressure increases the order of molecules at constant temperature); and isostatic principle (foods are subjected to uniform pressure from all directions and return to their original shape after release of pressure) [35].

High hydrostatic pressure processing has been used in the industries for the processing and preservation of meats and meat products. Its application can inactivate


**133**

*Gamma Irradiation and High Hydrostatic Pressure Applied to Hamburger Conservation*

pathogenic microorganisms and enzymes, increase shelf life, and maintain sensory quality [8, 35]. When compared to thermal treatments, the main advantage of this process is the maintenance of the sensorial and nutritional characteristics of the treated foods. With the wide application of this process, it is possible to develop value-added foods with better quality and shelf life compared to those produced in

Some of the important achievements in the treatment of meat product as chicken, pork, and beef processed by using HHP were presented in the works of

The work of [36] applied HHP with control parameters 300 MPa for 5 min, at 20°C on fresh chicken breast fillets, and indicated that modified atmosphere packaging maintained their sensory attributes, color, tenderness, and microbiological quality. High hydrostatic pressure processing applied by Grossi et al. [37] indicated that treatment with 600 MPa for 6 min in pork affected the myofibrillar protein degradation pattern due to the increase of cathepsin activity. It was reported by Sanchez-Basurto et al. [38] that the HHP preserved raw meat over a longer-time period without significant difference of texture, tenderness, and color using the

In general, nonthermal technologies are not stand-alone techniques, and in order to improve the inactivation rates, several authors have proposed that HHP treatments are applied in combination with natural bioactive compounds, of which

In the work of Kalchayanand et al. [39], HHP treatment was used in roast beef samples inoculated with a mixture of clostridial spores that could be stored for 42 days at 4°C. It was observed that combined treatment of HHP and vacteriocin controlled the growth clostridium spores and extended the shelf life of roast beef

Different conditions for cooked ham were considered in the works of [40–42]. These studies compare samples submitted only to HHP treatment and in combination with some antimicrobials. The results reported by the authors generally show

A wide range of studies have been conducted to determine and enhance the efficacy in the combination of antimicrobial compounds with HHP treatments in the inactivation induced by pressure of pathogenic microorganisms. More details of

Lipid oxidation is the main cause for loss of sensory quality in meat products [28]. It is a chemical process that generates unpleasant odors, deterioration of the color, texture, and nutritive value of meat and meat products, which diminishes consumer acceptance, since the main attribute for evaluation of the food by the

Meat proteins are also susceptible to oxidative reactions during heating and storage, and these reactions damage membranes and cellular functions, altering water

To avoid the development of oxidative reactions, the industries use synthetic and natural antioxidants. Antioxidants have the functions of delaying or preventing oxidation processes, for example, in the elimination of free radicals. In this way, it will increase the shelf life and maintenance of food quality and safety [26, 43]. There are laws that regulate the use of antioxidants in food products. Sodium isocyanurate, butylhydroxyanisole (BHA), and butylhydroxytoluene (BHT) have

control parameters 172–620 MPa and 1–5 min in treatment.

many originate from distinct natural sources [17].

for 84 days and can be stored at the same condition.

control of pathogen growth and increased shelf life.

the main recent results can be found in the work of [17].

retention, color, and reducing essential amino acids [1, 2].

**2.3 Natural antioxidants**

consumer is their appearance [1].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88874*

a conventional way [35].

[36–38], respectively.

#### **Table 1.**

*Quantity of meat and fish products that were irradiated in some countries.*

#### *Gamma Irradiation and High Hydrostatic Pressure Applied to Hamburger Conservation DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88874*

pathogenic microorganisms and enzymes, increase shelf life, and maintain sensory quality [8, 35]. When compared to thermal treatments, the main advantage of this process is the maintenance of the sensorial and nutritional characteristics of the treated foods. With the wide application of this process, it is possible to develop value-added foods with better quality and shelf life compared to those produced in a conventional way [35].

Some of the important achievements in the treatment of meat product as chicken, pork, and beef processed by using HHP were presented in the works of [36–38], respectively.

The work of [36] applied HHP with control parameters 300 MPa for 5 min, at 20°C on fresh chicken breast fillets, and indicated that modified atmosphere packaging maintained their sensory attributes, color, tenderness, and microbiological quality. High hydrostatic pressure processing applied by Grossi et al. [37] indicated that treatment with 600 MPa for 6 min in pork affected the myofibrillar protein degradation pattern due to the increase of cathepsin activity. It was reported by Sanchez-Basurto et al. [38] that the HHP preserved raw meat over a longer-time period without significant difference of texture, tenderness, and color using the control parameters 172–620 MPa and 1–5 min in treatment.

In general, nonthermal technologies are not stand-alone techniques, and in order to improve the inactivation rates, several authors have proposed that HHP treatments are applied in combination with natural bioactive compounds, of which many originate from distinct natural sources [17].

In the work of Kalchayanand et al. [39], HHP treatment was used in roast beef samples inoculated with a mixture of clostridial spores that could be stored for 42 days at 4°C. It was observed that combined treatment of HHP and vacteriocin controlled the growth clostridium spores and extended the shelf life of roast beef for 84 days and can be stored at the same condition.

Different conditions for cooked ham were considered in the works of [40–42]. These studies compare samples submitted only to HHP treatment and in combination with some antimicrobials. The results reported by the authors generally show control of pathogen growth and increased shelf life.

A wide range of studies have been conducted to determine and enhance the efficacy in the combination of antimicrobial compounds with HHP treatments in the inactivation induced by pressure of pathogenic microorganisms. More details of the main recent results can be found in the work of [17].

#### **2.3 Natural antioxidants**

Lipid oxidation is the main cause for loss of sensory quality in meat products [28]. It is a chemical process that generates unpleasant odors, deterioration of the color, texture, and nutritive value of meat and meat products, which diminishes consumer acceptance, since the main attribute for evaluation of the food by the consumer is their appearance [1].

Meat proteins are also susceptible to oxidative reactions during heating and storage, and these reactions damage membranes and cellular functions, altering water retention, color, and reducing essential amino acids [1, 2].

To avoid the development of oxidative reactions, the industries use synthetic and natural antioxidants. Antioxidants have the functions of delaying or preventing oxidation processes, for example, in the elimination of free radicals. In this way, it will increase the shelf life and maintenance of food quality and safety [26, 43].

There are laws that regulate the use of antioxidants in food products. Sodium isocyanurate, butylhydroxyanisole (BHA), and butylhydroxytoluene (BHT) have

*Food Processing*

burgers.

tional product.

**2.2 High hydrostatic pressure**

hydrogen and hydrophobic, are modified [9].

original shape after release of pressure) [35].

BY IRRADIATION PROCESS" [23].

indicating that the treatment has taken place and may optionally use the international symbol available [29]. However, under US law, the symbol must be used and must be declared: "Treated with radiation" or "Treated by irradiation." The Brazilian regulation should include in the main panel the words "FOOD TREATED

of meat and fish products that were irradiated in the listed countries.

microorganism, without rejection by the trained tasters.

**Table 1** shows data from the study by Kume et al. [30] that reported the quantity

In a research conducted by Chirinos et al. [31], samples of industrialized hamburger inoculated with *Escherichia coli* O157: H7 were subjected to the irradiation process. It was found that at low doses (1.08 kGy), it was sufficient to reduce the

It was evaluated by Moura [32], the oxidation of cholesterol in beef burgers and chicken burgers submitted to irradiation and stored under freezing conditions. It was found that there was an 11% increase in cholesterol oxide levels in frozen

Frozen chicken hamburger was inoculated with *Salmonella* sp. and irradiated in a study conducted by Vieira [33], and it was found that dosages of 5 and 7 kGy would be sufficient to reduce the population of *Salmonella* sp. Sensory evaluation did not change significantly, and shelf life was 120 days the same as the conven-

The effect of high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) processing was first reported in 1899 by Hite [34]. This process uses an isostatic pressure at room temperature between 100 and 600 MPa. The pressure in the closed and degassed chamber is transmitted by pumps through a liquid (usually uses water) uniformly and instantaneously, which causes the molecular volume to change. The physical effect of the process occurs in the molecules, in which bonds that are weaker, such as those of

The behavior of food under pressure is determined by three principles: Le Chatelier principle (any reaction that is accompanied by the decrease in volume and increased by pressure); principle of microscopic ordering (increasing pressure increases the order of molecules at constant temperature); and isostatic principle (foods are subjected to uniform pressure from all directions and return to their

High hydrostatic pressure processing has been used in the industries for the processing and preservation of meats and meat products. Its application can inactivate

**Country Irradiated meat and fish (tons)**

The United States 8000 Belgium 5530 France 2789 The Netherlands 944 Indonesia 1008 Vietnam 14,200 Total 32,471

*Quantity of meat and fish products that were irradiated in some countries.*

**132**

**Table 1.**


#### **Table 2.**

*Natural extract used in meat and meat products.*

been used in meat products. There are studies that show that synthetic antioxidants have the potential to cause toxicological effects, so it may be desirable to replace conventional antioxidants with natural antioxidants [25, 27, 43, 44].

These natural antioxidants are extracted in the form of extracts from different sources such as fruits (grapes and pomegranate), vegetables (broccoli and potatoes), herbs, and spices (tea, rosemary, oregano, cinnamon, sage, thyme, mint, ginger, and clove) [27]. The antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antifungal properties of these spices and extracts are mainly related to their bioactive components, such as phenolic compounds, flavonoids, vitamins, minerals, carotenoids, and phytoestrogens [1, 25].

**Table 2** lists some studies that used natural extracts in meat and meat products.

In meat and poultry products, rosemary extract (*Rosmarinus officinalis*) is one of the most studied natural antioxidants, and its efficiency in turkey meat, ground beef, and pork has been reported [43].

The antioxidant activity of rosemary extract has been associated with the presence of several phenolics, such as carnosic acid, carnosol, rosmanol, and rosmaridiphenol, which has the function of breaking free-radical chains by electron and metal ion donation [25]. However, rosemary extract can be extracted from leaves and branches [27].

The use of synthetic and natural antioxidants helps to preserve the desirable characteristics of food. It is important to emphasize that when using a natural antioxidant, it is important to evaluate its impact on the sensorial analysis and quality of the final product [2, 43].

### **3. Conclusions**

Consumers want to purchase quality meat products that are safe, nutritious, and natural, with appropriate appearance and flavor. To ensure the innocuity of products to consumers, various technologies and treatments can be used to achieve this result, such as nonthermal treatments, which ensure a safe and better quality product. In addition to these, treatments can use natural antioxidants to ensure a food with its natural characteristics. However, further studies are necessary to

**135**

**Author details**

and Poliana Mendes de Souza\*

provided the original work is properly cited.

*Gamma Irradiation and High Hydrostatic Pressure Applied to Hamburger Conservation*

check the advantages and disadvantages of the beef hamburger irradiation process as well as in the use of combined processes may be involving the freezing, addition

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88874*

of natural antioxidants and irradiation.

**Acronyms and abbreviations**

kGy kiloGrays

BHA butylhydroxyanisole BHT butylhydroxytoluene

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

FDA Food and Drug Administration HHP high hydrostatic pressure

TBARS thiobarbituric acid reactive substances

Michelle Guimarães Horta, Fabiana Regina Lima, Carlos Alberto Gois Suzart

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri, Brazil

\*Address all correspondence to: poliana.souza@ict.ufvjm.edu.br

**Conflict of interest**

*Gamma Irradiation and High Hydrostatic Pressure Applied to Hamburger Conservation DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88874*

check the advantages and disadvantages of the beef hamburger irradiation process as well as in the use of combined processes may be involving the freezing, addition of natural antioxidants and irradiation.

## **Conflict of interest**

*Food Processing*

**Source of antioxidant**

Grape seed extract

**Table 2.**

Pomegranate Chicken patties

Rosemary Frozen beef

Oregano Irradiated frozen beef

*Natural extract used in meat and meat products.*

(hamburgers)

hamburgers

hamburgers

Irradiated frozen beef hamburgers

been used in meat products. There are studies that show that synthetic antioxidants have the potential to cause toxicological effects, so it may be desirable to replace

extract

Plum Irradiated turkey breast Reduced lipid oxidation [45]

**Products Main results References**

Reduced TBARS [48]

Red color stability during storage [50]

Reduced lipid oxidation [25]

Decreased lipid oxidation, but not as efficient when compared to rosemary [47]

[25]

Precooked roast beef [46]

Cooled chicken meat [49]

Precooked sausages Kept the odor of fresh meat cooked and longer flavor

These natural antioxidants are extracted in the form of extracts from different sources such as fruits (grapes and pomegranate), vegetables (broccoli and potatoes), herbs, and spices (tea, rosemary, oregano, cinnamon, sage, thyme, mint, ginger, and clove) [27]. The antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antifungal properties of these spices and extracts are mainly related to their bioactive components, such as phenolic compounds, flavonoids, vitamins, minerals, carotenoids, and phytoestrogens [1, 25]. **Table 2** lists some studies that used natural extracts in meat and meat products. In meat and poultry products, rosemary extract (*Rosmarinus officinalis*) is one of the most studied natural antioxidants, and its efficiency in turkey meat, ground

The antioxidant activity of rosemary extract has been associated with the presence of several phenolics, such as carnosic acid, carnosol, rosmanol, and rosmaridiphenol, which has the function of breaking free-radical chains by electron and metal ion donation [25]. However, rosemary extract can be extracted from leaves

The use of synthetic and natural antioxidants helps to preserve the desirable characteristics of food. It is important to emphasize that when using a natural antioxidant, it is important to evaluate its impact on the sensorial analysis and quality

Consumers want to purchase quality meat products that are safe, nutritious, and natural, with appropriate appearance and flavor. To ensure the innocuity of products to consumers, various technologies and treatments can be used to achieve this result, such as nonthermal treatments, which ensure a safe and better quality product. In addition to these, treatments can use natural antioxidants to ensure a food with its natural characteristics. However, further studies are necessary to

conventional antioxidants with natural antioxidants [25, 27, 43, 44].

beef, and pork has been reported [43].

and branches [27].

**3. Conclusions**

of the final product [2, 43].

**134**

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

## **Acronyms and abbreviations**


## **Author details**

Michelle Guimarães Horta, Fabiana Regina Lima, Carlos Alberto Gois Suzart and Poliana Mendes de Souza\* Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri, Brazil

\*Address all correspondence to: poliana.souza@ict.ufvjm.edu.br

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

## **References**

[1] Hygreeva D, Pandey M, Radhakrishna K. Potential applications of plant based derivatives as fat replacers, antioxidants and antimicrobials in fresh and processed meat products. Meat Science. 2014;**98**(1):47-57

[2] Ribeiro JS, Santos MJMC, Silva LKR, Pereira LCL, Santos IA, da Silva Lannes SC, et al. Natural antioxidants used in meat products: A brief review. Meat Science. 2018;**148**:181-188

[3] Cuppari L. Guia de nutrição: Nutrição clínica do adulto. In: Guia de nutrição: Nutrição clínica do adulto. 2005

[4] BRASIL. Ministério da Agricultura e do Abastecimento. Decreto n° 9013, de 29 de março de 2017. Decreto dispõe sobre o regulamento da inspeção industrial e sanitária de produtos de origem animal. Diário Oficial da União, Brasília. 2017

[5] Aymerich T, Picouet PA, Monfort JM. Decontamination technologies for meat products. Meat Science. 2008;**78**(1-2):114-129

[6] Stellato G, La Storia A, De Filippis F, Borriello G, Villani F, Ercolini D. Overlap of spoilage-associated microbiota between meat and the meat processing environment in small-scale and largescale retail distributions. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 2016;**82**(13):4045-4054

[7] Chai C, Lee SY, Oh SW. Shelf-life charts of beef according to level of bacterial contamination and storage temperature. LWT—Food Science and Technology. 2017;**81**:50-57

[8] Wang CY, Huang HW, Hsu CP, Yang BB. Recent advances in food processing using high hydrostatic pressure technology. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2016;**56**(4):527-540

[9] Hugas M, Garriga M, Monfort J. New mild technologies in meat processing: High pressure as a model technology. Meat Science. 2002;**62**(3):359-371

[10] Nascimento MDGF, Oliveira CZF, Nascimento ER. Hambúrguer: Evolução comercial e padrões microbiológicos. Boletim do Centro de Pesquisa de Processamento de Alimentos. 2005;**23**(1):59-74

[11] Brasil. Ministério da Agricultura e do Abastecimento. Instrução Normativa n° 20, 31 jul. 2000. Dispõe sobre os regulamentos técnicos de identidade e qualidade de almôndega, de apresuntado, de fiambre, de hambúrguer, de kibe, de presunto cozido e de presunto, conforme consta dos anexos desta instrução normativa. Diário Oficial da União, Brasília. 2000

[12] Romans JR, Costello WJ, Jones K, Carlson CW, Ziegler PT, et al. The Meat We Eat. Danville: The Interstate Printers and Publishers Inc.; 2000

[13] Ojha KS, Tiwari BK, Kerry JP, Troy D. Beef. In: Caballero B, Finglas PM, Toldrá F, editors. Encyclopedia of Food and Health. Oxford: Academic Press; 2016. pp. 332-338. Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/ article/pii/B9780123849472000568

[14] Pires RN, Caurio CF, Saldanha GZ, Martins AF, Pasqualotto AC. Clostridium difficile contamination in retail meat products in Brazil. The Brazilian Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2018;**22**(4):345-346

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[25] Trindade R, Mancini-Filho J, Villavicencio A. Natural antioxidants protecting irradiated beef burgers from lipid oxidation. LWT-Food Science and

Technology. 2010;**43**(1):98-104

2014;**171**:32-40

2014;**98**(1):21-33

STAN. 1985:1-1985

2009;**78**(3):222-226

Paulo. 2004

[28] Trindade R, Lima A, Andrade-Wartha E. Consumer's evaluation of the effects of gamma irradiation and natural antioxidants on general acceptance of frozen beef burger. Radiation Physics and Chemistry. 2009;**78**(4):293-300

[26] Babuskin S, Babu PAS, Sasikala M, Sabina K, Archana G, Sivarajan M, et al. Antimicrobial and antioxidant effects of spice extracts on the shelf life extension of raw chicken meat. International Journal of Food Microbiology.

[27] Shah MA, Bosco SJD, Mir SA. Plant extracts as natural antioxidants in meat and meat products. Meat Science.

[29] Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC). General standard for the labelling of prepackaged foods. CODEX

[30] Kume T, Furuta M, Todoriki S, Uenoyama N, Kobayashi Y. Status of food irradiation in the world. Radiation Physics and Chemistry.

[31] Chirinos RR, Vizeu DM, Destro MT, Franco BD, Landgraf M. Inactivation of Escherichia coli O157: H7 in hamburgers by gamma irradiation. Brazilian Journal of Microbiology. 2002;**33**(1):53-56

[32] Moura AFPd. Efeito da radiação ionizante sobre a oxidação do colesterol em hambúrgueres de frango e bovino congelados. In: Universidade de São

[33] Vieira VdS. Avaliação do potencial de aplicação do processo de irradiação na redução da população de Salmonella

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88874*

[16] United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Livestock and Poultry: World Markets and Trade. Foreign Agricultural Service, out. 2018. Available from: https://apps.fas.usda. gov/psdonline/circulars/livestock\_ poultry.pdf [Accessed: 27 May 2019]

[17] Oliveira TLC, Ramos AL,

2015;**45**(1):60-85

2006;**17**(4):148-152

pp. 1-13

2003:106-1983

Ramos EM, Piccoli RH, Cristianini M. Natural antimicrobials as additional hurdles to preservation of foods by high pressure processing. Trends in Food Science & Technology.

[18] Arvanitoyannis IS. Irradiation of Food Commodities: Techniques, Applications, Detection, Legislation, Safety and Consumer Opinion. Cambridge: Academic Press; 2010

[19] Farkas J. Irradiation for better foods. Trends in Food Science & Technology.

[20] Diehl J. Food irradiation—Past, present and future. Radiation Physics and Chemistry. 2002;**63**(3-6):211-215

[21] Morehouse KM, Komolprasert V. Irradiation of food and packaging: An overview. In: ACS Symposium Series. Washington: ACS Publications; 2004.

[22] Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC). Codex general standard for irradiated foods. CODEX STAN.

[24] Stefanova R, Toshkov S, Vasilev NV, Vassilev NG, Marekov IN. Effect of gamma-ray irradiation on the fatty acid profile of irradiated beef meat. Food Chemistry. 2011;**127**(2):461-466

[23] Brasil. Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária. Resolução RDC n° 21, de 26 de janeiro de 2001. Dispõe sobre o regulamento técnico para irradiação de alimentos. Diário Oficial

da União, Brasília. 2001

*Gamma Irradiation and High Hydrostatic Pressure Applied to Hamburger Conservation DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88874*

[16] United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Livestock and Poultry: World Markets and Trade. Foreign Agricultural Service, out. 2018. Available from: https://apps.fas.usda. gov/psdonline/circulars/livestock\_ poultry.pdf [Accessed: 27 May 2019]

[17] Oliveira TLC, Ramos AL, Ramos EM, Piccoli RH, Cristianini M. Natural antimicrobials as additional hurdles to preservation of foods by high pressure processing. Trends in Food Science & Technology. 2015;**45**(1):60-85

[18] Arvanitoyannis IS. Irradiation of Food Commodities: Techniques, Applications, Detection, Legislation, Safety and Consumer Opinion. Cambridge: Academic Press; 2010

[19] Farkas J. Irradiation for better foods. Trends in Food Science & Technology. 2006;**17**(4):148-152

[20] Diehl J. Food irradiation—Past, present and future. Radiation Physics and Chemistry. 2002;**63**(3-6):211-215

[21] Morehouse KM, Komolprasert V. Irradiation of food and packaging: An overview. In: ACS Symposium Series. Washington: ACS Publications; 2004. pp. 1-13

[22] Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC). Codex general standard for irradiated foods. CODEX STAN. 2003:106-1983

[23] Brasil. Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária. Resolução RDC n° 21, de 26 de janeiro de 2001. Dispõe sobre o regulamento técnico para irradiação de alimentos. Diário Oficial da União, Brasília. 2001

[24] Stefanova R, Toshkov S, Vasilev NV, Vassilev NG, Marekov IN. Effect of gamma-ray irradiation on the fatty acid profile of irradiated beef meat. Food Chemistry. 2011;**127**(2):461-466

[25] Trindade R, Mancini-Filho J, Villavicencio A. Natural antioxidants protecting irradiated beef burgers from lipid oxidation. LWT-Food Science and Technology. 2010;**43**(1):98-104

[26] Babuskin S, Babu PAS, Sasikala M, Sabina K, Archana G, Sivarajan M, et al. Antimicrobial and antioxidant effects of spice extracts on the shelf life extension of raw chicken meat. International Journal of Food Microbiology. 2014;**171**:32-40

[27] Shah MA, Bosco SJD, Mir SA. Plant extracts as natural antioxidants in meat and meat products. Meat Science. 2014;**98**(1):21-33

[28] Trindade R, Lima A, Andrade-Wartha E. Consumer's evaluation of the effects of gamma irradiation and natural antioxidants on general acceptance of frozen beef burger. Radiation Physics and Chemistry. 2009;**78**(4):293-300

[29] Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC). General standard for the labelling of prepackaged foods. CODEX STAN. 1985:1-1985

[30] Kume T, Furuta M, Todoriki S, Uenoyama N, Kobayashi Y. Status of food irradiation in the world. Radiation Physics and Chemistry. 2009;**78**(3):222-226

[31] Chirinos RR, Vizeu DM, Destro MT, Franco BD, Landgraf M. Inactivation of Escherichia coli O157: H7 in hamburgers by gamma irradiation. Brazilian Journal of Microbiology. 2002;**33**(1):53-56

[32] Moura AFPd. Efeito da radiação ionizante sobre a oxidação do colesterol em hambúrgueres de frango e bovino congelados. In: Universidade de São Paulo. 2004

[33] Vieira VdS. Avaliação do potencial de aplicação do processo de irradiação na redução da população de Salmonella

**136**

*Food Processing*

**References**

[1] Hygreeva D, Pandey M,

of plant based derivatives as fat replacers, antioxidants and antimicrobials in fresh and processed

meat products. Meat Science.

Pereira LCL, Santos IA, da Silva Lannes SC, et al. Natural antioxidants used in meat products: A brief review. Meat Science. 2018;**148**:181-188

[3] Cuppari L. Guia de nutrição: Nutrição clínica do adulto. In: Guia de nutrição: Nutrição clínica do adulto.

[4] BRASIL. Ministério da Agricultura e do Abastecimento. Decreto n° 9013, de 29 de março de 2017. Decreto dispõe sobre o regulamento da inspeção industrial e sanitária de produtos de origem animal. Diário Oficial da União,

[5] Aymerich T, Picouet PA, Monfort JM. Decontamination technologies for meat products. Meat Science.

[6] Stellato G, La Storia A, De Filippis F, Borriello G, Villani F, Ercolini D. Overlap of spoilage-associated microbiota between meat and the meat processing environment in small-scale and largescale retail distributions. Applied and Environmental Microbiology.

[7] Chai C, Lee SY, Oh SW. Shelf-life charts of beef according to level of bacterial contamination and storage temperature. LWT—Food Science and

[8] Wang CY, Huang HW, Hsu CP, Yang BB. Recent advances in food processing using high hydrostatic pressure technology. Critical Reviews

2014;**98**(1):47-57

2005

Brasília. 2017

2008;**78**(1-2):114-129

2016;**82**(13):4045-4054

Technology. 2017;**81**:50-57

Radhakrishna K. Potential applications

in Food Science and Nutrition.

[9] Hugas M, Garriga M, Monfort J. New mild technologies in meat processing: High pressure as a model technology. Meat Science. 2002;**62**(3):359-371

[10] Nascimento MDGF, Oliveira CZF, Nascimento ER. Hambúrguer: Evolução comercial e padrões microbiológicos. Boletim do Centro de Pesquisa de Processamento de Alimentos.

[11] Brasil. Ministério da Agricultura e do Abastecimento. Instrução Normativa n° 20, 31 jul. 2000. Dispõe sobre os regulamentos técnicos de identidade e qualidade de almôndega, de apresuntado, de fiambre, de hambúrguer, de kibe, de presunto cozido e de presunto, conforme consta dos anexos desta instrução normativa. Diário Oficial da União, Brasília. 2000

[12] Romans JR, Costello WJ, Jones K, Carlson CW, Ziegler PT, et al. The Meat We Eat. Danville: The Interstate Printers

[13] Ojha KS, Tiwari BK, Kerry JP, Troy D. Beef. In: Caballero B, Finglas PM, Toldrá F, editors. Encyclopedia of Food and Health. Oxford: Academic Press; 2016. pp. 332-338. Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/ article/pii/B9780123849472000568

[14] Pires RN, Caurio CF, Saldanha GZ, Martins AF, Pasqualotto AC. Clostridium difficile contamination in retail meat products in Brazil. The Brazilian Journal of Infectious Diseases.

[15] Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE). Estatística da Produção Pecuária. Brasil, Rio de

and Publishers Inc.; 2000

2018;**22**(4):345-346

Janeiro: IBGE; 2018

2016;**56**(4):527-540

2005;**23**(1):59-74

[2] Ribeiro JS, Santos MJMC, Silva LKR,

sp. inoculada em hambúrguer de carne de frango: Aspectos sensoriais e vida de prateleira. In: Universidade de São Paulo. 2005

[34] Sun XD, Holley RA. High hydrostatic pressure effects on the texture of meat and meat products. Journal of Food Science. 2010;**75**(1):R17-R23

[35] Yordanov D, Angelova G. High pressure processing for foods preserving. Biotechnology & Biotechnological Equipment. 2010;**24**(3):1940-1945

[36] Rodríguez-Calleja J, Cruz-Romero M, O'sullivan M, García-López M, Kerry J. High-pressure-based hurdle strategy to extend the shelf-life of fresh chicken breast fillets. Food Control. 2012;**25**(2):516-524

[37] Grossi A, Gkarane V, Otte JA, Ertbjerg P, Orlien V. High pressure treatment of brine enhanced pork affects endopeptidase activity, protein solubility, and peptide formation. Food Chemistry. 2012;**134**(3):1556-1563

[38] Sanchez-Basurto BE, Ramírez-Gilly M, Tecante A, Severiano-Pérez P, Wacher C, Valdivia-Lopez MA. Effect of high hydrostatic pressure treatment on the preservation of beef meat. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research. 2011;**51**(17):5932-5938

[39] Kalchayanand N, Dunne CP, Sikes A, Ray B. Inactivation of bacterial endospores by combined action of hydrostatic pressure and bacteriocins in roast beef. Journal of Food Safety. 2003;**23**:219-233

[40] Marcos B, Jofre A, Aymerich T, Monfort JM, Garriga M. Combined effect of natural antimicrobials and high pressure processing to prevent Listeria monocytogenes growth after a cold chain break during storage of cooked ham. Food Control. 2008;**19**:76-81

[41] Vercammen A, Vanoirbeek KGA, Lurquin I, Steen I, Goemaere O, Szczepaniak S. Shelf-life extension of cooked ham model product by high hydrostatic pressure and natural preservatives. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies. 2011;**12**:407-415

[42] Jofre A, Aymerich T, Garriga M. Assessment of the effectiveness of antimicrobial packaging combined with high pressure to control Salmonella sp. in cooked ham. Food Control. 2008;**19**:634-638

[43] Karre L, Lopez K, Getty KJ. Natural antioxidants in meat and poultry products. Meat Science. 2013;**94**(2):220-227

[44] Jayathilakan K, Sharma G, Radhakrishna K, Bawa A. Antioxidant potential of synthetic and natural antioxidants and its effect on warmedover-flavour in different species of meat. Food Chemistry. 2007;**105**(3):908-916

[45] Lee E, Ahn D. Quality characteristics of irradiated turkey breast rolls formulated with plum extract. Meat Science. 2005;**71**(2):300- 305. DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2005.03.017

[46] Gonzalez MN, Hafley B, Boleman R, Miller R, Rhee K, Keeton J. Antioxidant properties of plum concentrates and powder in precooked roast beef to reduce lipid oxidation. Meat Science. 2008;**80**(4):997-1004

[47] Kulkarni S, DeSantos F, Kattamuri S, Rossi S, Brewer M. Effect of grape seed extract on oxidative, color and sensory stability of a pre-cooked, frozen, re-heated beef sausage model system. Meat science. 2011;**88**(1):139-144

[48] Naveena BM, Sen AR, Vaithiyanathan S, Babji Y, Kondaiah N. Comparative efficacy of pomegranate

**139**

*Gamma Irradiation and High Hydrostatic Pressure Applied to Hamburger Conservation*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88874*

juice, pomegranate rind powder extract and BHT as antioxidants in cooked chicken patties. Meat Science. 2008;**80**(4):1304-1308 Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/

article/pii/S0309174008002064

[49] Vaithiyanathan S, Naveena B,

refrigerated storage (4 C). Meat science.

[50] Milani LIG, Terra NN, Fries LLM, Kubota EH. Effect of the extract of persimmon (Diospyros kaki L.) cv.'Rama Forte'and rosemary oily extract (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) on the sensory characteristics and color stability of frozen beef burgers. Semina: Ciências Agrárias. 2012;**33**(3):1085-1094

Muthukumar M, Girish P, Kondaiah N. Effect of dipping in pomegranate (Punica granatum) fruit juice phenolic solution on the shelf life of chicken meat under

2011;**88**(3):409-414

*Gamma Irradiation and High Hydrostatic Pressure Applied to Hamburger Conservation DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88874*

juice, pomegranate rind powder extract and BHT as antioxidants in cooked chicken patties. Meat Science. 2008;**80**(4):1304-1308 Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/ article/pii/S0309174008002064

*Food Processing*

Paulo. 2005

2010;**75**(1):R17-R23

2010;**24**(3):1940-1945

2012;**25**(2):516-524

2011;**51**(17):5932-5938

2003;**23**:219-233

[39] Kalchayanand N, Dunne CP, Sikes A, Ray B. Inactivation of bacterial endospores by combined action of hydrostatic pressure and bacteriocins in roast beef. Journal of Food Safety.

[40] Marcos B, Jofre A, Aymerich T, Monfort JM, Garriga M. Combined effect of natural antimicrobials and high pressure processing to prevent Listeria monocytogenes growth after a cold chain break during storage of cooked ham. Food Control. 2008;**19**:76-81

sp. inoculada em hambúrguer de carne de frango: Aspectos sensoriais e vida de prateleira. In: Universidade de São

[41] Vercammen A, Vanoirbeek KGA, Lurquin I, Steen I, Goemaere O, Szczepaniak S. Shelf-life extension of cooked ham model product by high hydrostatic pressure and natural preservatives. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies.

[42] Jofre A, Aymerich T, Garriga M. Assessment of the effectiveness of antimicrobial packaging combined with high pressure to control Salmonella sp. in cooked ham. Food Control.

[43] Karre L, Lopez K, Getty KJ. Natural antioxidants in meat and poultry products. Meat Science.

[44] Jayathilakan K, Sharma G,

Radhakrishna K, Bawa A. Antioxidant potential of synthetic and natural antioxidants and its effect on warmedover-flavour in different species of meat. Food Chemistry.

2011;**12**:407-415

2008;**19**:634-638

2013;**94**(2):220-227

2007;**105**(3):908-916

2008;**80**(4):997-1004

2011;**88**(1):139-144

[48] Naveena BM, Sen AR,

[47] Kulkarni S, DeSantos F,

[45] Lee E, Ahn D. Quality

characteristics of irradiated turkey breast rolls formulated with plum extract. Meat Science. 2005;**71**(2):300- 305. DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2005.03.017

[46] Gonzalez MN, Hafley B, Boleman R, Miller R, Rhee K, Keeton J. Antioxidant properties of plum concentrates and powder in precooked roast beef to reduce lipid oxidation. Meat Science.

Kattamuri S, Rossi S, Brewer M. Effect of grape seed extract on oxidative, color and sensory stability of a pre-cooked, frozen, re-heated beef sausage model system. Meat science.

Vaithiyanathan S, Babji Y, Kondaiah N. Comparative efficacy of pomegranate

[34] Sun XD, Holley RA. High hydrostatic pressure effects on the texture of meat and meat products. Journal of Food Science.

[35] Yordanov D, Angelova G. High pressure processing for foods preserving. Biotechnology & Biotechnological Equipment.

[36] Rodríguez-Calleja J, Cruz-Romero M, O'sullivan M, García-López M, Kerry J. High-pressure-based hurdle strategy to extend the shelf-life of fresh chicken breast fillets. Food Control.

[37] Grossi A, Gkarane V, Otte JA, Ertbjerg P, Orlien V. High pressure treatment of brine enhanced pork affects endopeptidase activity, protein solubility, and peptide formation. Food Chemistry. 2012;**134**(3):1556-1563

[38] Sanchez-Basurto BE, Ramírez-Gilly M, Tecante A, Severiano-Pérez P, Wacher C, Valdivia-Lopez MA. Effect of high hydrostatic pressure treatment on the preservation of beef meat. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research.

**138**

[49] Vaithiyanathan S, Naveena B, Muthukumar M, Girish P, Kondaiah N. Effect of dipping in pomegranate (Punica granatum) fruit juice phenolic solution on the shelf life of chicken meat under refrigerated storage (4 C). Meat science. 2011;**88**(3):409-414

[50] Milani LIG, Terra NN, Fries LLM, Kubota EH. Effect of the extract of persimmon (Diospyros kaki L.) cv.'Rama Forte'and rosemary oily extract (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) on the sensory characteristics and color stability of frozen beef burgers. Semina: Ciências Agrárias. 2012;**33**(3):1085-1094

**141**

**1. Introduction**

**Chapter 9**

**Abstract**

Food Quality

Importance and Applications of

*Maged E.A. Mohammed and Mohammed R. Alhajhoj*

**Keywords:** ultrasonic applications, ultrasonic frequency, high-intensity,

Improving the nutritional values and stability of quality is a very important parameter in food product quality assurance for a healthy life of human beings. Consumers are looking for fresh and good characteristics in their food with nutrient content and high sensorial quality. Now, consumers are more aware of the processing techniques used in the processing of their food, and they prefer natural products free of additives and chemicals. Therefore, there is a need for alternative technologies for food processing. Recently, various modern thermal and nonthermal technologies such as pulsed light, pulsed electric field, high and low hydrostatic pressure, microwave, ohmic heating, freezing, pasteurizing, ionizing radiation, etc. have been used to improve the physicochemical characteristics, extend the shelf life of food products, and control food quality by inactivating microorganisms at sublethal or ambient temperatures. One of the nonthermal technologies that can be used also is the application of ultrasonic (high-power and low-power

low-intensity, cavitation, ultrasonic equipment, food quality

Ultrasonic Technology to Improve

Nutritional value and quality of food products are very important for a healthy life of human beings. Various modern thermal and nonthermal application technologies such as pulsed light, pulsed electric field, high and low hydrostatic pressure, microwave, and ohmic heating have been used to improve food products characteristics. In recent years, ultrasonic applications have been used for food processing. The ultrasonic is defined as sound waves with a frequency exceeding the human hearing limit. Based on the frequency range of ultrasonic waves, it can be used in many industrial applications including the processing of food. Applications of highpower ultrasonic with low frequency aim to improve the quality of food products. Low-power ultrasonic with high-frequency applications are used for nondestructive quality evaluation of physicochemical properties of food. The most important advantages of ultrasonic technologies are the low cost of food processing, low power consumption, simplicity compared to other technologies, suitability for the treatment of solid and liquid food, and environmental safeness and friendliness, thus becoming a promising technology for monitoring and improving quality of food products. The main objective of this chapter is to provide an overview of the principal and recent applications of ultrasonic waves to improve food product quality.

## **Chapter 9**
