**3.2 Traditional knowledge (TK)**

Traditional knowledge (TK) of the early inhabitants (Tainos, Caribs) has been retained in pockets, and via intermingling of Amerindians, Europeans and Africans [7]. Such a connection was confirmed by analysis of a database of 2350 Afro-Surinamese plant names—20% of the Sranantongo and 43% Maroon names were similar to those used in Gabon, Angola and Benin for related plants showing that the link between the Caribbean and Africa is strong [10].

A study comparing plants used in 35 African and the 117 Caribbean tonic mixtures indicated that few of the 324 ingredients (plant parts such as leaves, seeds, rhizomes, roots) were the same on both continents and the difference in genera and family increased with increasing distance from Africa indicating that new, unrelated plants with similar taste or properties were used; and while this suggests an African heritage, it also points to Amerindian and European influences [11]. Another study of 38 indigenous Jamaican root tonics indicates that the main forest plant ingredient is endemic to the island (*Smilax balbisiana*) suggesting that the Africans could utilize local plants to obtain the health outcome they desired [12]. This study uncovered several issues—there was no database to compare the common names to, there were no herbarium samples, and no scientific names for 20 of the 94 forest plants used in the root tonics. The only reference was the common name given on the tonic bottle [12] so the actual plants used are still unknown to science.

Caribbean traditional knowledge (TK) is extensive and includes both terrestrial and marine species [7]. Protection of biodiversity and its associated traditional knowledge is supported by the Nagoya Protocol. This is an international agreement which aims at sharing the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources in a fair and equitable way; it entered into force in 2014 (https://www.cbd.int/ abs/). Continued efforts to document Caribbean TK and associated plant knowledge, in order to preserve and sustainably use it for the benefit of the Caribbean, is strongly recommended.
