**2.1 Theoretical framework**

The study on which this chapter is based was premised on the stakeholder theory [32] and the [33] tourism performance model. Its tenets are that organizations depend on a wide range of audiences or groups of stakeholders in order to realize their objectives [34]. Modern life and tourism in particular is affected by a wide range of variables which include technology, social dimensions, political developments, environmental factors and others. The stakeholder groups cited in this theory include clients, end users (the other theories above do not make this distinction), employees, suppliers, pressure groups, local communities and the media and each stakeholder makes a decisive role in the organization's future. This theory is currently popularly used in tourism development and in destination image recovery and in the enhancement of tourism performance.

According to [33], there are eight drivers of tourism performance which are indicated here in their order of importance: (1) tourism and related infrastructure; (2) economic conditions; (3) security, safety, and health; (4) tourism price competitiveness; (5) government policies; (6) environmental sustainability; (7) labor skills and training; and (8) natural and cultural resources. This theory links quite well with destination image recovery in that it focuses on attributes which are central to destination image recovery. The [30] noted that these destination attributes are important in generating a destination's appeal. However, the limitations of this theory are that it assumes that any factor outside these eight may not as critical as those included on this list.

#### **2.2 Perceptual images of a tourist destination**

Most frequently, the concept of DI has been operationalized as consisting of two components: A perceptual-cognitive component that captures knowledge and beliefs about a destination's attributes and an affective component that describes feelings towards a destination [35]. The cognitive component of the image refers to *Development of a Destination Image Recovery Model for Enhancing the Performance… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93854*

a person's beliefs and knowledge about a destination and its attributes, which together help to form an internally accepted mental picture of the place [36]. It also includes a set of attributes that mainly correspond to the resources of a tourist destination [37, 38]. Those resource attributes generally involve the natural environment (scenic beauty, weather, beaches); Amenities (hotels, restaurants, service quality, shops); Attractions (water sports, well - known attractions, a variety of tourist activities); Accessibility (convenient transportation, developed infrastructure, ease of access, Social Environment (personal safety - security, friendly local people, good value for money, a clean environment) [37]. All these can induce an individual to visit a specific destination. The affective component refers to the evaluation stage, concerning the feelings that the individual associates with the place of visit [38]. The affective component generally covers a number of categories: distressing -relaxing, unpleasant-pleasant, boring-exciting, sleepy-lively [39]. The destination should conjure the right emotions in the potential visitor for it to earn a visit [40]. The Conative component (behavioral intention) of DI has been considered by several researchers in DI formation [31, 41, 42]. For these researchers conation is part of the image formation process which is "analogous to behavior evolving from cognitive and affective images" [43] denoting the "intent or action component" [44]. Understanding tourists' intention or the likelihood of visiting a destination is crucial for destination marketing managers.

Destination image comprises functional characteristics, psychological characteristics, common and unique dimensions [45]. Common psychological attributes refer to the friendliness of the locals or beauty of the landscape, whereas unique psychological factors include feelings associated with places of religious pilgrimage or some historic event. [46] indicates that functional characteristics can be easily measured while psychological characteristics, on the contrary, cannot be easily measured. However, together they influence the formation of DI explaining why the use of mixed methods in DI studies has gained prominence [46–48].

#### **2.3 Determinants of destination image and performance of the tourism sector**

The determinants of DI include natural resources; general infrastructure; tourist infrastructure; tourist and leisure recreation; culture, history and art; political and economic factors; the social environment and the atmosphere of the place [49]. However, this view tends to marginalize the role of the tourist's reasoned and emotional interpretation in DI formation. Most studies [50, 51] tend to consider image to be a concept formed by the consumer's reasoned and emotional interpretation as the consequence of two closely inter-related concepts: perceptive/cognitive evaluations referring to an individual's own knowledge and beliefs about the object, and affective appraisals related to the individual's feelings towards the object. The combination of these two factors produces an overall, or compound, image related to the positive or negative evaluation of the product or brand [52].

#### **2.4 Demand (tourist) factors as determinants of DI and performance**

The demand side of determinants of DI and performance relates to issues which pertain to tourists'socio-demographic factors [53], tourists' nationality [52, 54] tourists' level of awareness or familiarity with a particular destination [55]. In [56], internal factors influencing the image construct include socio-demographic factors. Specifically, the social and cultural environment relate to socio-demographic aspects of a human being [57]. It is postulated that today's tourists play a leading role in image projection [58]. They have become an active agent who use Web 2.0

**1.3 Research hypotheses**

**2. Literature review**

recovery and tourism performance.

**2.1 Theoretical framework**

as those included on this list.

**104**

**2.2 Perceptual images of a tourist destination**

affective image.

*Tourism*

H1: Price is significantly positively related to affective image.

H5: Price significantly influences performance. H6: Amenities significantly influence performance. H7: Ancillary services significantly influence performance. H8: Accessibility significantly influences performance.

H2: There is a significant and positive relationship between amenities and

H3: Ancillary services have a significant relationship with affective image. H4: Accessibility has a significant positive influence on affective image.

Literature review entailed describing, comparing, contrasting and evaluating the major theories, arguments, themes, approaches and controversies in the scholarly literature on DI and performance of the tourism sector. Literature review was also conducted to identify gaps in literature with regards to DI and performance of the tourism sector. This was done in order to fill such gap or gaps with new knowledge thereby contributing towards extending the frontiers of knowledge in terms of DI

The study on which this chapter is based was premised on the stakeholder theory

[32] and the [33] tourism performance model. Its tenets are that organizations depend on a wide range of audiences or groups of stakeholders in order to realize their objectives [34]. Modern life and tourism in particular is affected by a wide range of variables which include technology, social dimensions, political developments, environmental factors and others. The stakeholder groups cited in this theory include clients, end users (the other theories above do not make this distinction), employees, suppliers, pressure groups, local communities and the media and each stakeholder makes a decisive role in the organization's future. This theory is currently popularly used in tourism development and in destination image

According to [33], there are eight drivers of tourism performance which are indicated here in their order of importance: (1) tourism and related infrastructure; (2) economic conditions; (3) security, safety, and health; (4) tourism price competitiveness; (5) government policies; (6) environmental sustainability; (7) labor skills and training; and (8) natural and cultural resources. This theory links quite well with destination image recovery in that it focuses on attributes which are central to destination image recovery. The [30] noted that these destination attributes are important in generating a destination's appeal. However, the limitations of this theory are that it assumes that any factor outside these eight may not as critical

Most frequently, the concept of DI has been operationalized as consisting of two

components: A perceptual-cognitive component that captures knowledge and beliefs about a destination's attributes and an affective component that describes feelings towards a destination [35]. The cognitive component of the image refers to

recovery and in the enhancement of tourism performance.

quality, satisfaction, intention to return, and willingness to recommend the destination. In [53], it is conducted a study on DI, perceived value, tourist satisfaction and loyalty focusing on Mauritius. They reported that their results supported the proposed destination loyalty model, which advocated that DI directly influenced attribute satisfaction; DI and attribute satisfaction were both direct antecedents of overall satisfaction; and overall satisfaction and attribute satisfaction in turn had direct and positive impact on destination loyalty. The implication of these relationships seems to that it is important to develop positive images of a tourist destination

*Development of a Destination Image Recovery Model for Enhancing the Performance…*

In [16], it is proposed two broad categories of DI recovery: the cosmetic and strategic approaches both of which emphasize the role of the media. Media strategies in the cosmetic approach try to change the destination's image without really changing the reality behind it; the destination's problems are not solved or managed but the local decision-makers try to potray it in a positive light, by using advertising or public relations campaigns [66]. Strategies within this category include ignoring the image crisis problem, disassociation from the problematic location, association with prestige locations, acknowledging a negative DI, delivering a counter-message to the negative stereotype, spinning the negative characteristic to positive and ridiculing the stereotype [16]. However, these strategies are associated with a low level of change in the destination's characteristics including its performance while those which use the strategic approach tend to be associated with a high level of

Destinations host major events to attract visitors, gain positive attention from the media and improve their image [16]. Zimbabwe has used special events which include hallmark and mega events to improve DI and ultimately destination performance. Special events describe specific rituals, presentations or anniversaries specifically planned or designed to mark a specific occasion, cultural or organizational goals [67]. Special events can include national days and celebrations, important civic occasions, unique cultural performances, major sporting fixtures, corporate functions, trade promotions and product launches [68, 69]. However, it appears that very little has been achieved by way of improving image and perfor-

*The strategic vs. cosmetic approach for altering prolonged negative images. Source: Avraham and Ketter (2013).*

in order to increase the number of tourists and tourist receipts [53].

**2.7 Strategies to improve destination image**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93854*

mance of Zimbabwe as a tourist destination.

change (**Figure 2**).

**Figure 2.**

**107**

**Figure 1.**

*Factors influencing DI recovery. Source: Adapted from Harahsheh (2009, p. 78).*

tools to disclose their opinion, experiences and feelings about the destination visited [59]. **Figure 1** depicts factors which influence DI recovery.

## **2.5 Supply factors as determinants of destination image and performance**

According to [60], the natural resources are the main attraction of the tourism destination. Thus, they influence destination perception and performance [33]. Scenery for example, constitutes one of the dimensions used by researchers to measure DI [61]. The natural environment is one of the three dimensions of DI and performance [33]. The first dimension comprises the socio-cultural amenities such as wonderful cultural traditions, interesting local arts and interesting cultural diversity. Second, natural amenities such as: beautiful mountains, outstanding natural wonders, wonderful sightseeing opportunities, and appealing opportunities for exploring wilderness and nature. And third, climate attributes interrelation: appealing winter climate, appealing summer climate. Nature tends to feature prominently in the classifications of the destination-image management dimensions by different scholars. In [62], for example, came up with nine dimensions/attributes that determine the perceived DI of an individual. These include natural resources such as weather and its variations, beaches and their variations, wealth of countryside such as protected nature reserves and variety and uniqueness of flora and fona.

#### **2.6 Effect of destination image on performance of the tourism sector**

Literature does not directly point out the direct effect which DI has on performance of the tourism sector. It spells out the effect of DI on value, satisfaction and loyalty of the tourists [63, 64] and not that of DI and destination performance. However, given that a direct relationship between DI, satisfaction and revisit intentions [65], it follows that there is a relationship between DI and destination performance but it appears that it is more of a derived effect than a direct one. In [64], it is found out that the tourism image is a direct antecedent of perceived

*Development of a Destination Image Recovery Model for Enhancing the Performance… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93854*

quality, satisfaction, intention to return, and willingness to recommend the destination. In [53], it is conducted a study on DI, perceived value, tourist satisfaction and loyalty focusing on Mauritius. They reported that their results supported the proposed destination loyalty model, which advocated that DI directly influenced attribute satisfaction; DI and attribute satisfaction were both direct antecedents of overall satisfaction; and overall satisfaction and attribute satisfaction in turn had direct and positive impact on destination loyalty. The implication of these relationships seems to that it is important to develop positive images of a tourist destination in order to increase the number of tourists and tourist receipts [53].

#### **2.7 Strategies to improve destination image**

In [16], it is proposed two broad categories of DI recovery: the cosmetic and strategic approaches both of which emphasize the role of the media. Media strategies in the cosmetic approach try to change the destination's image without really changing the reality behind it; the destination's problems are not solved or managed but the local decision-makers try to potray it in a positive light, by using advertising or public relations campaigns [66]. Strategies within this category include ignoring the image crisis problem, disassociation from the problematic location, association with prestige locations, acknowledging a negative DI, delivering a counter-message to the negative stereotype, spinning the negative characteristic to positive and ridiculing the stereotype [16]. However, these strategies are associated with a low level of change in the destination's characteristics including its performance while those which use the strategic approach tend to be associated with a high level of change (**Figure 2**).

Destinations host major events to attract visitors, gain positive attention from the media and improve their image [16]. Zimbabwe has used special events which include hallmark and mega events to improve DI and ultimately destination performance. Special events describe specific rituals, presentations or anniversaries specifically planned or designed to mark a specific occasion, cultural or organizational goals [67]. Special events can include national days and celebrations, important civic occasions, unique cultural performances, major sporting fixtures, corporate functions, trade promotions and product launches [68, 69]. However, it appears that very little has been achieved by way of improving image and performance of Zimbabwe as a tourist destination.

tools to disclose their opinion, experiences and feelings about the destination visited

According to [60], the natural resources are the main attraction of the tourism destination. Thus, they influence destination perception and performance [33]. Scenery for example, constitutes one of the dimensions used by researchers to measure DI [61]. The natural environment is one of the three dimensions of DI and performance [33]. The first dimension comprises the socio-cultural amenities such as wonderful cultural traditions, interesting local arts and interesting cultural diversity. Second, natural amenities such as: beautiful mountains, outstanding natural wonders, wonderful sightseeing opportunities, and appealing opportunities for

**2.5 Supply factors as determinants of destination image and performance**

exploring wilderness and nature. And third, climate attributes interrelation: appealing winter climate, appealing summer climate. Nature tends to feature prominently in the classifications of the destination-image management dimensions by different scholars. In [62], for example, came up with nine dimensions/attributes that determine the perceived DI of an individual. These include natural resources such as weather and its variations, beaches and their variations, wealth of countryside such as protected nature reserves and variety and uniqueness of flora and fona.

**2.6 Effect of destination image on performance of the tourism sector**

Literature does not directly point out the direct effect which DI has on performance of the tourism sector. It spells out the effect of DI on value, satisfaction and loyalty of the tourists [63, 64] and not that of DI and destination performance. However, given that a direct relationship between DI, satisfaction and revisit intentions [65], it follows that there is a relationship between DI and destination performance but it appears that it is more of a derived effect than a direct one. In [64], it is found out that the tourism image is a direct antecedent of perceived

[59]. **Figure 1** depicts factors which influence DI recovery.

*Factors influencing DI recovery. Source: Adapted from Harahsheh (2009, p. 78).*

**Figure 1.**

*Tourism*

**106**

**3.1 Research design**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93854*

tourism performance in Zimbabwe.

of the determinants of cognitive image.

**3.2 Data analysis**

**109**

The research design was more of quantitative than qualitative. The large amounts of quantitative data came from the tourists who far outnumbered the service providers and key informants who together provided mostly qualitative data. Research designs can be classified into three broad categories, namely quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods research designs [74]. Creswell [74] describes this design as concurrent procedures, in which the researcher converges quantitative and qualitative data in order to provide a comprehensive analysis of the research problem. This view is corroborated by [75] who highlighted that the purpose of doing this is to best understand or develop a more complete understanding of the research problem by obtaining different but complementary data. Both forms of data are collected simultaneously and the information is integrated in the interpretation of the overall results. Data analysis is kept independent and there is need to look for convergence, divergence, contradictions, or relationships of the two sources of data [76]. The convergent parallel mixed methods design supported the research requirements. It was the most appropriate research design in that allows for the collection and analysis of both qualitative and quantitative data separately [76]. This was consistent with what the research sought, that is, to collect qualitative data from service providers in the tourism sector and quantitative data from tourists. These two groups were mutually exclusive thus facilitating the independent collection and analysis of data. This would be followed by a comparison of the results to see if the results confirmed or disconfirmed each other. The result would be used to develop a DI recovery model which enhances and improves

*Development of a Destination Image Recovery Model for Enhancing the Performance…*

A structured questionnaire was used to collect data from international tourists and a semi-structured one was applied on the service providers. For both tourists and service providers, the closed questions included a Five-point Likert scale: (For tourists) 5-Very Good, 4-Good, 3-Unsure, 2-Poor and 1-Very Poor and another one, 5-Very Important, 4-Important, 3-Unsure, 2-Somewhat Important and 1-Not Important. For service providers: 5-Strongly Agree, 4-Agree, 3-Neutral, 2-Disagree and 1-Strongly Disagree. Semi-structured interviews were conducted on key informants. Semi-structured interview is a term that typically refers to a context in which the interviewer has a series of questions that are in the general form of an interview guide but is able to vary the sequence of the questions [77]. This type of interview is used to find out what is happening, it seeks new insights, identifies general patterns and helps to understand the relationship between variables [78]. It uses a combination of open and close-ended questions and hence it is consistent with the mixed methodology research design. Data was collected from 240 international tourists, 62 service providers and 17 key informants. **Figure 4** shows how the study was conducted. Price, amenities, accessibility and ancillary services are some

Descriptive analysis was applied on demographic data and on interval-scaled (Likert scale) data. Frequency table analysis and proportion percentage analysis was used to transform raw data into a form that would facilitate easy understanding and interpretation. Descriptive statistics were thus used to analyze and profile the perceptions (attitudes) and future intentions of the sampled international tourists. Quantitative data which was obtained from the tourists and some from service providers was analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and AMOS version 25. The study used inferential statistics in order to analyze the

**Figure 3.** *Conceptual framework. Source: Author's compilation (2018).*

#### **2.8 Conceptual framework**

The conceptual framework depicts the study hypotheses, that the components of the cognitive image, in this case price, amenities, accessibility and ancillary services impact both affective image and destination performance (**Figure 3**). Affective image which derives from the potential tourists' feelings towards the destination contributes to the improvement in overall destination image especially after visiting the destination [70]. This will ultimately result in; enhancing the performance of the tourism sector (destination performance) as the tourists spend money in the destination.
