Section 4 Ecology of Biofilms

*Bacterial Biofilms*

tlsr2016.27.2.6

S0007114508123431

of probiotics. Tropical Life Sciences Research. 2016;**27**:73-90. DOI: 10.21315/

[70] Broadley KJ, Akhtar Anwar M, Herbert AA, Fehler M, Jones EM, Devies WE, et al. Effects of dietary amines on the gut and its vasculature. The British Journal of Nutrition. 2009;**101**:1645-1652. DOI: 10.1017/

[71] Juneja VK, Sofos JN. Pathogens and Toxins in Foods: Challenges and Interventions. 1st ed. Vancouver: ASM Press; 2010. 500 p. DOI: 10.1128/9781555815936

[72] Matín-Muňoz MF, Fortuni M, Caminoa M, Belver T, Quirce S, Caballero T. Anaphylactic reaction to probiotics. Cow's milk and hen's egg allergens in probiotic compounds. Pediatric Allergy and Immunology. 2012;**23**:778-784. DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-3038.2012.01338.x

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**Chapter 18**

*John A. Glaser*

pollutants, toxicity

**1. Introduction**

**Abstract**

The Importance of Biofilms to the

Microplastics are global pollutants in water media ranging from drinking water to freshwater streams to oceanic pollutant gyres. Besides the obvious appearance involving a scattered presence in the environmental landscape, microplastics are ubiquitous across modern society in products, food, and beginning to have strong economic effects too. Ingestion of microplastics is virtually unavoidable for each of us as we consume food, breathe air, or drink liquids. For example, beer has been found to be contaminated with plastic materials having the dimensions of microand nanoparticles. In the environment, the formation of biofilms on microplastics is widely observed and this can significantly alter properties important to environmental and human health. Significant research has been conducted on the role of biofilms in the fate and effect of microplastics on environmental and human health, with a general message to avoid contact with microplastics in the environment until

**Keywords:** biofilms, fate and effects, microplastics, pathogenic human threats,

Plastic derived from the Greek *plasticos* refers to synthetic carbonaceous polymers that exhibit the desired degree of physical flexibility required for molding. During the past 60 years, the product of organic polymer production exploded to virtually all nooks and crannies across the globe [1]. In 2020, global plastic production is composed of a few well-known polymers used in a wide range of products having differing compositions and properties. Current plastic polymer production levels exceed 320 million metric tons (Mt). This surpassed production in the previous decade when significant production capacities were idled [2]. Massive plastic pollution in the world's oceans is estimated to exceed 5 trillion pieces of plastic with a mass of 250,000 Mt [3]. Carbon-based commercialized polymeric materials having desirable physical and chemical properties constitute a wide range of applications. Plastics have been part of the broad range of commercial materials entering the global economy since 1950. The mass production of virgin polymers has been estimated at 8300 Mt. for the period from 1950 to 2015 [4]. Global consumption of plastics continues at a rate of roughly 311 Mt. per year with 90% derived from a petroleum origin and has become a major worldwide solid waste problem. Plastic packaging enhancements have changed the composition of solid waste to where the plastic fraction exceeds 10% in 2005 [5]. In the plastic recycle flow, packaging plastics are poorly recycled. The bulk of plastic waste is disposed in landfills and the natural environment which

more complete strategies for cleanup are developed.

Fate and Effects of Microplastics
