**2. Soil adequacy**

#### **2.1 Preparation, planting corrections and rooting**

In the past, coffee cultivation was traditionally performed in grooves of 0.40 m × 0.40 m × 0.40 m. From the 1970s, the use of furrows for planting coffee was introduced in large scale. These furrows, open with tractors and with small furrowers, were shallow at 0.30–0.40 m deep and V-shaped, with small width at the bottom. For these reasons, and also due to the fact that under conventional coffee growing conditions soil fertilization was performed on the surface layers, much of the root system was limited to the first 0.40 m depth [5].

With the advancement of knowledge and technologies, it has been found that coffee roots can reach depths well above 1 m when in the absence of physical limitations and when adequate chemical conditions [6–8], such as sufficient calcium, phosphorus and boron contents, are provided [9].

With the development of new soil preparation tools, coffee farmers have been adopting deep furrow associated with soil correction and/or fertilization [10]. In the south and southwest regions of the state of Minas Gerais, deep tillage has often been carried out, allowing the incorporation of phosphate or limestone to a depth of 0.90 m. Due to higher soil turnover, larger amounts of fertilizer can be added in the furrow, correcting the soil in deeper layers and providing a better environment for coffee root development [6, 7, 10, 11].

Coffee cultivation using deep tillage system associated with surface application of additional doses of gypsum presents better drought resistance when compared with crops planted using conventional system, which conditions the permanence of the root system on the soil surface. Regarding the additional operation costs, the practice of deep tillage is compensated by the high crop yields in the first harvest [12]. Nevertheless, there are large variations in production costs, especially considering the price of the product.

Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) is considered a good soil conditioner due to its high mobility in the soil profile, providing calcium and sulfur to the plants, as well as acting as a deep corrective for toxic aluminum (**Figure 1**) [13].

The ability of gypsum to increase Ca2+ levels in the deepest soil layers is important for the proper development of the crop root system, especially because Ca2+ is the main component of the cell wall, being responsible for root elongation and growth [6–8].

The increase in effective CEC of the subsurface layers in management systems in which gypsum is applied is due to the increase in soil organic matter (SOM) (**Figure 2**). Coffee is mostly grown intercropped with Brachiaria between rows [10]. This grass is periodically mowed and its residues remain in the coffee line, representing continuous input of organic matter to the soil [8]. Thus, SOM contributes to

**27**

to raise the CEC (**Figure 1**).

*Average values of organic carbon contents (g kg<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>*

*Soil Management and Water-Use Efficiency in Brazilian Coffee Crops*

*11 years of deep preparation conservation system and application of 28 Mg ha<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>*

increased CEC and improved nutrient utilization efficiency by providing a signifi-

*Contents of Al3+ (a), Ca2+ (b) and effective CEC (c) in red Latosol under conventional management and after* 

 *of gypsum. Source: From authors.*

Studies showed that up to 21% of the carbon added by the roots could be incorporated into SOM [15]. Thus, the biomass of the coffee root system itself, favored by calcium, is also a source of organic matter for the soil and certainly contributed

*) in red Latosol under conventional management and after* 

 *of gypsum. Source: From* 

Moreover, this management system can be considered efficient in the construction of fertility of Latosols, whose mineralogy is dominated by low chemical activity clay minerals (kaolinite and iron and aluminum oxides in the form of goethite, hematite and gibbsite). In these soils, which are typical of the Brazilian Cerrado biome, organic matter can contribute to up to 80% of negative soil loads [16]. Due to intense soil revolving, tillage management systems promote aggregate breakage, leading to significant structural changes [10, 12, 17]. However, by evaluating a Cambisol after 6 months of implantation of the coffee crop, Serafim et al. [17] observed a reduction in soil density and an increase in total porosity due to the benefits conditioned by the structural relief and construction of soil fertility. Serafim et al. [10] described the presence of coffee root system with average depth in the soil profile of 0.80 and 0.60 m at 6 months after planting for Latosol and Cambisol, respectively. After 1 year, the root system reached 1.40 m in Latossol and 1.20 m in Cambisol.

cant number of binding sites for essential elements present in the soil [14].

*11 years in deep preparation conservation system and application of 28 Mg ha<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89558*

**Figure 1.**

**Figure 2.**

*authors.*

*Soil Management and Water-Use Efficiency in Brazilian Coffee Crops DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89558*

#### **Figure 1.**

*Coffee - Production and Research*

**2. Soil adequacy**

physical-hydrological adequacy of the soil.

on research that have been developed for over a decade.

**2.1 Preparation, planting corrections and rooting**

system was limited to the first 0.40 m depth [5].

phosphorus and boron contents, are provided [9].

coffee root development [6, 7, 10, 11].

ering the price of the product.

of pores with extreme diameters [2]. Thus, it leads to very rapid loss of water stored

A number of measures have been sought by Brazilian researchers to solve the problems, such as selecting drought tolerant plants [3, 4]. However, a measure that has attracted the attention of most producers is the adoption of soil management systems that provide the best development of the root system of coffee crops and

Therefore, this chapter will discuss the main limitations of soils used in the main coffee growing area of Brazil and the mitigation techniques for soil suitability based

In the past, coffee cultivation was traditionally performed in grooves of 0.40 m × 0.40 m × 0.40 m. From the 1970s, the use of furrows for planting coffee was introduced in large scale. These furrows, open with tractors and with small furrowers, were shallow at 0.30–0.40 m deep and V-shaped, with small width at the bottom. For these reasons, and also due to the fact that under conventional coffee growing conditions soil fertilization was performed on the surface layers, much of the root

With the advancement of knowledge and technologies, it has been found that coffee roots can reach depths well above 1 m when in the absence of physical limitations and when adequate chemical conditions [6–8], such as sufficient calcium,

With the development of new soil preparation tools, coffee farmers have been adopting deep furrow associated with soil correction and/or fertilization [10]. In the south and southwest regions of the state of Minas Gerais, deep tillage has often been carried out, allowing the incorporation of phosphate or limestone to a depth of 0.90 m. Due to higher soil turnover, larger amounts of fertilizer can be added in the furrow, correcting the soil in deeper layers and providing a better environment for

Coffee cultivation using deep tillage system associated with surface application of additional doses of gypsum presents better drought resistance when compared with crops planted using conventional system, which conditions the permanence of the root system on the soil surface. Regarding the additional operation costs, the practice of deep tillage is compensated by the high crop yields in the first harvest [12]. Nevertheless, there are large variations in production costs, especially consid-

Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) is considered a good soil conditioner due to its high mobility in the soil profile, providing calcium and sulfur to the plants, as well as

The ability of gypsum to increase Ca2+ levels in the deepest soil layers is important for the proper development of the crop root system, especially because Ca2+ is the main component of the cell wall, being responsible for root elongation and

The increase in effective CEC of the subsurface layers in management systems in which gypsum is applied is due to the increase in soil organic matter (SOM) (**Figure 2**). Coffee is mostly grown intercropped with Brachiaria between rows [10]. This grass is periodically mowed and its residues remain in the coffee line, representing continuous input of organic matter to the soil [8]. Thus, SOM contributes to

acting as a deep corrective for toxic aluminum (**Figure 1**) [13].

in very large pores, or to its strong retention in extremely small pores.

**26**

growth [6–8].

*Contents of Al3+ (a), Ca2+ (b) and effective CEC (c) in red Latosol under conventional management and after 11 years of deep preparation conservation system and application of 28 Mg ha<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> of gypsum. Source: From authors.*

#### **Figure 2.**

*Average values of organic carbon contents (g kg<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> ) in red Latosol under conventional management and after 11 years in deep preparation conservation system and application of 28 Mg ha<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> of gypsum. Source: From authors.*

increased CEC and improved nutrient utilization efficiency by providing a significant number of binding sites for essential elements present in the soil [14].

Studies showed that up to 21% of the carbon added by the roots could be incorporated into SOM [15]. Thus, the biomass of the coffee root system itself, favored by calcium, is also a source of organic matter for the soil and certainly contributed to raise the CEC (**Figure 1**).

Moreover, this management system can be considered efficient in the construction of fertility of Latosols, whose mineralogy is dominated by low chemical activity clay minerals (kaolinite and iron and aluminum oxides in the form of goethite, hematite and gibbsite). In these soils, which are typical of the Brazilian Cerrado biome, organic matter can contribute to up to 80% of negative soil loads [16].

Due to intense soil revolving, tillage management systems promote aggregate breakage, leading to significant structural changes [10, 12, 17]. However, by evaluating a Cambisol after 6 months of implantation of the coffee crop, Serafim et al. [17] observed a reduction in soil density and an increase in total porosity due to the benefits conditioned by the structural relief and construction of soil fertility. Serafim et al. [10] described the presence of coffee root system with average depth in the soil profile of 0.80 and 0.60 m at 6 months after planting for Latosol and Cambisol, respectively. After 1 year, the root system reached 1.40 m in Latossol and 1.20 m in Cambisol.

Serafim et al. [18], using the Least Limiting Water Range (LLWR) technique, found that a Cambisol presented no physical-water limitations after 3.5 years of coffee plantation and the crop implanted in this soil reached productivity much higher than the average of the state of Minas Gerais. It evidences the longevity of the positive effects of deep tillage on soil physical properties. Moreover, Serafim et al. [10, 17–19] and Silva [20] observed positive responses in soil physical properties, such as increase in the volume of large macropores (>147 μm), fine macropores (147–73 μm) and large mesopores (73–49 and 49–29 μm), when evaluating the physical quality of this soil after 5 years of tillage implementation. Similarly, Silva et al. [21] observed a significant increase in LLWR and a significant reduction in soil density when evaluating the structural quality of very clayey Latosol after 2 years of coffee cultivation.

Silva et al. [8] found a significant volume of inter-aggregate pores (macropores) after 3 years of coffee cultivation in Latosols, confirming the benefits of the management system using deep preparation associated with surface gypsum application. In the layer between 0.20–0.40 m of the soil, even after 5 years of cultivation, Silva [20] also found that soil management favored the expressive increase of pore volume of classes 9.0–2.9, 2.9–0.6 and 0.6–0.2 μm (mesopores), which is relevant since a good portion of the water retained in the soil will be available to the plants.

Particularly in Latosols under this management system, it was observed that in the absence of chemical and physical limitations of the soil the coffee root system reached depths greater than 1 m at 3 years of age (**Figure 3**), which is of fundamental importance to ensure crop survival in periods of edaphic drought [8].

Serafim et al. [19] evidenced intense water deficit up to 1.60 m in the crop line, when monitoring moisture of a very clayey and oxidic Latosol with 3.5 years of cultivation in a dry year. The authors attributed the results to the presence of roots that used intensely the available water in this depth of soil. Very thin roots were found in the soil layer between 1.50 and 1.70 m, indicating potential for water use in these deeper soil layers.

Similarly, in Cambisol, Serafim et al. [19] also showed more intense drying in the crop line up to 1.6 m caused by the roots of the plants, since active roots were found in this depth. The authors reported that although the crop does not have water availability in the layers closer to the surface in the dry period of the year, the larger volume of soil explored by the roots contributed to reduce the water deficit.

#### **Figure 3.**

*Area occupied by coffee plant roots along the profile of Rhodic Haplustox. Source: Adapted from Silva et al. [8].*

**29**

(**Figure 4**).

**Figure 4.**

(**Figure 4**) [7].

*Soil Management and Water-Use Efficiency in Brazilian Coffee Crops*

Given the above, it is noteworthy that although the benefits of mechanical soil revolving are readily apparent in coffee cultivation after 4 years of management [6, 7, 10, 17–19], studies show that these effects do not last long in some soil classes [22]. In this sense, particularly when soil is revolved, physical improvements to the soil may be temporary, since the durability of the changes depends on the texture

*Root length distribution (mm) in (A) gibbsitic Acrustox and (B) kaolinitic Haplustox both with the multipractice conservation management system for the coffee crop. Source: Adapted from Carducci et al. [7].*

Silva [20] reported that the deep tillage and gypsum management system was not effective in providing improvements in the physical quality of a Nitisol, since in the 0.0–0.20 m and 0.40–0.60 m layers, management provided a decrease in the volume of large macropores (>145 μm), which may affect the internal drainage of the profile. According to the author, in soils presenting textural B-horizon, the physical conditioning provided by soil preparation is short and the soil tends to reconsolidate. It is possible that clay illuviation may be acting in this process, as observed in Argisol by Marcolan and Anghinoni [24]. When soils are prepared there

is a breakdown of aggregates, and an increase in soil clay dispersion [25].

Still regarding the development of the root system in Latosols, the practices employed in the management system described by Serafim et al. [10] also contributed to the coffee root growth, even in young (<3 years) roots [7], which are responsible for rapid water absorption and increased nutrient acquisition [26]

The better distribution of the coffee root system in Latosol with high levels of gibbsite was promoted not only by the employed management system but also by the good distribution of well-connected pore diameters typical of this soil class (**Figures 4** and **9**). In kaolinitic Latosol, the system promoted the relief of the denser original structure, formed by thin and elongated pores promoted by the kaolinite mineral [27, 28], due to deep revolving associated with the addition of organic matter and gypsum, which favored concentrated root growth up to 0.80 m, but with regular root expansion with 500 mm length to 1 m depth

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89558*

and mineralogy of the soil [23].

*Soil Management and Water-Use Efficiency in Brazilian Coffee Crops DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89558*

#### **Figure 4.**

*Coffee - Production and Research*

years of coffee cultivation.

able to the plants.

these deeper soil layers.

Serafim et al. [18], using the Least Limiting Water Range (LLWR) technique, found that a Cambisol presented no physical-water limitations after 3.5 years of coffee plantation and the crop implanted in this soil reached productivity much higher than the average of the state of Minas Gerais. It evidences the longevity of the positive effects of deep tillage on soil physical properties. Moreover, Serafim et al. [10, 17–19] and Silva [20] observed positive responses in soil physical properties, such as increase in the volume of large macropores (>147 μm), fine macropores (147–73 μm) and large mesopores (73–49 and 49–29 μm), when evaluating the physical quality of this soil after 5 years of tillage implementation. Similarly, Silva et al. [21] observed a significant increase in LLWR and a significant reduction in soil density when evaluating the structural quality of very clayey Latosol after 2

Silva et al. [8] found a significant volume of inter-aggregate pores (macropores) after 3 years of coffee cultivation in Latosols, confirming the benefits of the management system using deep preparation associated with surface gypsum application. In the layer between 0.20–0.40 m of the soil, even after 5 years of cultivation, Silva [20] also found that soil management favored the expressive increase of pore volume of classes 9.0–2.9, 2.9–0.6 and 0.6–0.2 μm (mesopores), which is relevant since a good portion of the water retained in the soil will be avail-

Particularly in Latosols under this management system, it was observed that in the absence of chemical and physical limitations of the soil the coffee root system reached depths greater than 1 m at 3 years of age (**Figure 3**), which is of fundamen-

Serafim et al. [19] evidenced intense water deficit up to 1.60 m in the crop line, when monitoring moisture of a very clayey and oxidic Latosol with 3.5 years of cultivation in a dry year. The authors attributed the results to the presence of roots that used intensely the available water in this depth of soil. Very thin roots were found in the soil layer between 1.50 and 1.70 m, indicating potential for water use in

Similarly, in Cambisol, Serafim et al. [19] also showed more intense drying in the crop line up to 1.6 m caused by the roots of the plants, since active roots were found in this depth. The authors reported that although the crop does not have water availability in the layers closer to the surface in the dry period of the year, the larger volume of soil explored by the roots contributed to reduce the water deficit.

*Area occupied by coffee plant roots along the profile of Rhodic Haplustox. Source: Adapted from Silva et al. [8].*

tal importance to ensure crop survival in periods of edaphic drought [8].

**28**

**Figure 3.**

*Root length distribution (mm) in (A) gibbsitic Acrustox and (B) kaolinitic Haplustox both with the multipractice conservation management system for the coffee crop. Source: Adapted from Carducci et al. [7].*

Given the above, it is noteworthy that although the benefits of mechanical soil revolving are readily apparent in coffee cultivation after 4 years of management [6, 7, 10, 17–19], studies show that these effects do not last long in some soil classes [22]. In this sense, particularly when soil is revolved, physical improvements to the soil may be temporary, since the durability of the changes depends on the texture and mineralogy of the soil [23].

Silva [20] reported that the deep tillage and gypsum management system was not effective in providing improvements in the physical quality of a Nitisol, since in the 0.0–0.20 m and 0.40–0.60 m layers, management provided a decrease in the volume of large macropores (>145 μm), which may affect the internal drainage of the profile. According to the author, in soils presenting textural B-horizon, the physical conditioning provided by soil preparation is short and the soil tends to reconsolidate. It is possible that clay illuviation may be acting in this process, as observed in Argisol by Marcolan and Anghinoni [24]. When soils are prepared there is a breakdown of aggregates, and an increase in soil clay dispersion [25].

Still regarding the development of the root system in Latosols, the practices employed in the management system described by Serafim et al. [10] also contributed to the coffee root growth, even in young (<3 years) roots [7], which are responsible for rapid water absorption and increased nutrient acquisition [26] (**Figure 4**).

The better distribution of the coffee root system in Latosol with high levels of gibbsite was promoted not only by the employed management system but also by the good distribution of well-connected pore diameters typical of this soil class (**Figures 4** and **9**). In kaolinitic Latosol, the system promoted the relief of the denser original structure, formed by thin and elongated pores promoted by the kaolinite mineral [27, 28], due to deep revolving associated with the addition of organic matter and gypsum, which favored concentrated root growth up to 0.80 m, but with regular root expansion with 500 mm length to 1 m depth (**Figure 4**) [7].

#### *Coffee - Production and Research*

A well-distributed coffee root system along the soil profile, as observed in **Figure 4**, enhances the use of stored water available at greater depths (>0.80 m). Serafim et al. [19] and Silva et al. [29] reported the possibility of more efficient water absorption, minimizing the effects of water stresses to which these plants are subjected when cultivated in soils from the Cerrado biome, without harming crop yields [21]. Thus, knowledge about the distribution of coffee root system, as well as the probable changes in soil structure is the result of the interaction between the management system and the edaphoclimatic conditions that are intrinsic to Latosols.

### **2.2 Coffee intercropped with Brachiaria**

The proper management of soil corrections and conditioning, dose adjustments and phosphorus use by the system, as well as balance in nutrient supply and leaf analysis for monitoring coffee nutrition are the main challenges of modern and competitive coffee cultivation for better use of available water in the soil–plant system [30]. Therefore, it is necessary to build soil fertility for sustainable coffee production in order to obtain increased nutrient use efficiency, increased fertilizer recovery rate, reduced biennial bearing and higher yield.

Coffee cultivation intercropped with *Brachiaria* (*Urochloa* sp.) improves the soil profile fertility. With vegetative intensification, the root system of the main crop naturally tends to deepen, accessing more water and nutrients, incorporating more carbon into the soil and improving its physical and biological quality [31]. In general, Brachiaria species have been considered prominent options for the production of plant residues to be incorporated in the soil or in its surface in no-tillage system, due to the good dry mass production and the high C/N ratio [32, 33]. In the intercropping system with coffee in low fertility soils, this behavior should also contribute to the increase of the soil organic matter (SOM) and consequently its cation exchange capacity (CEC), indirectly increasing the soil nutrients. *Urochloa ruziziensis* stands out among the species of Brachiaria, and is preferred by coffee growers because of its single flowering and well-developed root system with excellent field results [34].

The part of the coffee root system responsible for the absorption of water and nutrients, the thinnest roots, usually deepens to a depth of 40 cm [5] (**Figures 5** and **6**).

**31**

**Figure 7.**

**Figure 6.**

*Soil Management and Water-Use Efficiency in Brazilian Coffee Crops*

After a few years of planting under sufficient fertilizer application, some soil-moving nutrients such as nitrogen (N), potassium (K), sulfur (S) and boron (B) can leach beyond these absorbing roots. Thus, intercropping with deep-rooted plants practically all year round returns these nutrients to the surface of the soil–plant system. Therefore, managing between rows that collaborate with the proper management of soil fertility will certainly provide higher yields of coffee crop [35] due to the higher nutritional

In addition, Brachiaria presents a root system that complements the efficiency of soil fertility use in the intercropping with the coffee as they explore depths of up to

In coffee cultivation intercropped with Brachiaria, plant residues are recycled and used as nutrients for coffee nutrition. The amount and regularity of plant residue addition is more important than the synchronization between release and nutrient demand by coffee because the increase in organic matter content over the years. Brachiaria is more efficient than the coffee tree to extract the phosphorus from the soil, which will be available gradually with the decomposition/mineralization of the straw in the canopy projection. Over the years, the grass also incorporates this nutrient in depth as its root system develops in a larger volume of soil (**Figure 7**). It is possible to estimate three plant cuts per cycle, with 5 tons of dry matter per hectare in each field based on Brachiaria average productivity data [37] and

*Root system (A) and aerial part (B) of productive coffee, with good management of soil fertility construction* 

*Root system of Brachiaria (Urochloa ruziziensis) pasture. (A) Detail of trench opening; (B) frontal view of Brachiaria roots; (C) view of Brachiaria roots from within the trench; (D) measurement of Brachiaria root* 

*in association with Brachiaria. Photo: Paulo T. G. Guimarães.*

*system depth up to 4.9 m soil depth. Source: Revista Cafeicultura [36].*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89558*

efficiency of the system production.

nearly 5 m (**Figure 7**).

#### **Figure 5.**

*Density of coffee roots as a function of the sampling site, below the canopy, below the fertilizer range, and in the center of the row. Source: Adapted from Motta et al. [5].*

### *Soil Management and Water-Use Efficiency in Brazilian Coffee Crops DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89558*

After a few years of planting under sufficient fertilizer application, some soil-moving nutrients such as nitrogen (N), potassium (K), sulfur (S) and boron (B) can leach beyond these absorbing roots. Thus, intercropping with deep-rooted plants practically all year round returns these nutrients to the surface of the soil–plant system. Therefore, managing between rows that collaborate with the proper management of soil fertility will certainly provide higher yields of coffee crop [35] due to the higher nutritional efficiency of the system production.

In addition, Brachiaria presents a root system that complements the efficiency of soil fertility use in the intercropping with the coffee as they explore depths of up to nearly 5 m (**Figure 7**).

In coffee cultivation intercropped with Brachiaria, plant residues are recycled and used as nutrients for coffee nutrition. The amount and regularity of plant residue addition is more important than the synchronization between release and nutrient demand by coffee because the increase in organic matter content over the years.

Brachiaria is more efficient than the coffee tree to extract the phosphorus from the soil, which will be available gradually with the decomposition/mineralization of the straw in the canopy projection. Over the years, the grass also incorporates this nutrient in depth as its root system develops in a larger volume of soil (**Figure 7**).

It is possible to estimate three plant cuts per cycle, with 5 tons of dry matter per hectare in each field based on Brachiaria average productivity data [37] and

#### **Figure 6.**

*Coffee - Production and Research*

**2.2 Coffee intercropped with Brachiaria**

recovery rate, reduced biennial bearing and higher yield.

Latosols.

lent field results [34].

A well-distributed coffee root system along the soil profile, as observed in **Figure 4**, enhances the use of stored water available at greater depths (>0.80 m). Serafim et al. [19] and Silva et al. [29] reported the possibility of more efficient water absorption, minimizing the effects of water stresses to which these plants are subjected when cultivated in soils from the Cerrado biome, without harming crop yields [21]. Thus, knowledge about the distribution of coffee root system, as well as the probable changes in soil structure is the result of the interaction between the management system and the edaphoclimatic conditions that are intrinsic to

The proper management of soil corrections and conditioning, dose adjustments and phosphorus use by the system, as well as balance in nutrient supply and leaf analysis for monitoring coffee nutrition are the main challenges of modern and competitive coffee cultivation for better use of available water in the soil–plant system [30]. Therefore, it is necessary to build soil fertility for sustainable coffee production in order to obtain increased nutrient use efficiency, increased fertilizer

Coffee cultivation intercropped with *Brachiaria* (*Urochloa* sp.) improves the soil profile fertility. With vegetative intensification, the root system of the main crop naturally tends to deepen, accessing more water and nutrients, incorporating more carbon into the soil and improving its physical and biological quality [31]. In general, Brachiaria species have been considered prominent options for the production of plant residues to be incorporated in the soil or in its surface in no-tillage system, due to the good dry mass production and the high C/N ratio [32, 33]. In the intercropping system with coffee in low fertility soils, this behavior should also contribute to the increase of the soil organic matter (SOM) and consequently its cation exchange capacity (CEC), indirectly increasing the soil nutrients. *Urochloa ruziziensis* stands out among the species of Brachiaria, and is preferred by coffee growers because of its single flowering and well-developed root system with excel-

The part of the coffee root system responsible for the absorption of water and nutri-

ents, the thinnest roots, usually deepens to a depth of 40 cm [5] (**Figures 5** and **6**).

*Density of coffee roots as a function of the sampling site, below the canopy, below the fertilizer range, and in the* 

**30**

**Figure 5.**

*center of the row. Source: Adapted from Motta et al. [5].*

*Root system (A) and aerial part (B) of productive coffee, with good management of soil fertility construction in association with Brachiaria. Photo: Paulo T. G. Guimarães.*

#### **Figure 7.**

*Root system of Brachiaria (Urochloa ruziziensis) pasture. (A) Detail of trench opening; (B) frontal view of Brachiaria roots; (C) view of Brachiaria roots from within the trench; (D) measurement of Brachiaria root system depth up to 4.9 m soil depth. Source: Revista Cafeicultura [36].*

#### *Coffee - Production and Research*

proportional adjustment of its soil exploration area in consortium with the coffee tree (up to 30% of the area). The nutritional contents in dry matter for each coffee brush operation are: 75 kg of N; 20.6 kg P2O5; 193 kg of K2O; 24.4 kg of CaO; 20.8 kg of MgO; 3.5 kg of S-SO4; 90 g of B; 55 g of Cu; 1 kg of Fe; 475 g of Mn, and 400 g of Zn [34]. For the availability of these nutrients in the crop cycle, it is necessary to mineralize the dry matter, which depends on the presence of water, temperature and microorganisms in the soil, since some nutrients, such as N and P, are partially released over a period of 3 years [38].

Despite the many advantages presented by the cultivation of Brachiaria between coffee lines, there may be some disadvantages, especially if the coffee grower

#### **Figure 8.**

*Appropriate management of rows of coffee plants with Brachiaria after mowing. Photo: Geraldo C. Oliveira.*

#### **Figure 9.**

*Pore distribution of (A) gibbsitic Acrustox and (B) kaolinitic Haplustox, both with the multi-practice conservation management system for coffee cultivation at 0.20–0.34, 0.80–0.94 and 1.50–1.64 m depth. The pore diameter was extract of soil water retention curve by double van Genuchten model. Pore size <0.01 μm corresponds to >3500 kPa by WP4-T psychrometer [2]. The blue spheres represent the pore diameters. Source: From authors.*

**33**

*Soil Management and Water-Use Efficiency in Brazilian Coffee Crops*

handles it incorrectly. Under conditions of severe water deficit, there may be competition for water and nutrients, harming the crop of commercial interest [39]. There may also be competition for nutrients and light and it is recommended to provide adequate and balanced coffee nutrition, as well as to maintain a strip of about 0.40 m on each side of the coffee trees, free from competing plants, and covered by

**3. Porosity, water retention and availability in soils cultivated with** 

The presence of an ideal pore network with a wide range of diameters is one of the key factors for high crop yields, especially those most demanding for water, such as coffee [21, 40]. Soil pore diameter and distribution interfere with drainage ratios, available water content, ion adsorption, root growth, aeration and temperature, acting directly on physical-water phenomena, being an indicator of soil quality

Since soil mineral composition influences pore shape, length and connectivity, soils of oxide mineralogy, such as the very weathered Cerrado Latosols, tend to have a very strong, well-connected microgranular structure with large pore formation. There is formation of thinner and elongated pores [2, 27, 28, 43–45], which has

When used in some production process such as food, fiber or energy, some structural change must occur, modifying the distribution and connection of their pore networks and, consequently, promoting changes in the soil air-water dynamics. In this sense, conservation agriculture [13] has as its principle the physical and chemical improvements of the root environment, by reducing soil tillage and maintaining living or dead surface cover. Thus, it minimizes the compressive and erosive processes, in addition to the oxidation of organic material, promoting the

With these simple conservationist measures, coupled with the chemical corrections of acidic Latosols, improvements in the physical environment are expected, favored by the good development of the coffee roots, particularly by the reduction of restrictive impediments to the vertical growth of its roots and access to stored

Thus, the conservationist soil management system described by Serafim et al. [10] promoted changes in water retention in very weathered Latosols. According to Carducci et al. [2], the system was able to alter pore scaling such that it increased in the layer of 0–0.20-0.34 m the volume of large macropores (>147 μm) in kaolinitic Latosol and increased the intermediate diameters (73–2.9 μm), which are pores responsible for the gradual release of water to plants [43, 46]. There was also no limitation to aeration in soils (>147 μm: ≈ 15%), because the values were within the

According to Carducci et al. [2, 47, 48], genetically weathered Latosols present a large amount of interconnected structural pores, which facilitate drainage. Textural pores (including cryptopores) are responsible for water retention of high energy

Coffee cultivation intercropped with Brachiaria is one of the practices of building soil fertility in profile for greater sustainability of coffee growing. The addition of this grass to the cultivation system is necessary for greater use of water and soil nutrients, which also allows the suppression of other difficult to control weeds, presenting several benefits for better coffee development and productivity and

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89558*

residues from Brachiaria (**Figure 8**).

consequently greater profitability.

implications on the water content available to plants.

acceptable range for gas exchange maintenance (**Figure 9**).

vertical growth of the root system of crops.

water [6–8, 29] (**Figure 9**).

**coffee**

[41–43].

*Soil Management and Water-Use Efficiency in Brazilian Coffee Crops DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89558*

*Coffee - Production and Research*

released over a period of 3 years [38].

proportional adjustment of its soil exploration area in consortium with the coffee tree (up to 30% of the area). The nutritional contents in dry matter for each coffee brush operation are: 75 kg of N; 20.6 kg P2O5; 193 kg of K2O; 24.4 kg of CaO; 20.8 kg of MgO; 3.5 kg of S-SO4; 90 g of B; 55 g of Cu; 1 kg of Fe; 475 g of Mn, and 400 g of Zn [34]. For the availability of these nutrients in the crop cycle, it is necessary to mineralize the dry matter, which depends on the presence of water, temperature and microorganisms in the soil, since some nutrients, such as N and P, are partially

Despite the many advantages presented by the cultivation of Brachiaria between

coffee lines, there may be some disadvantages, especially if the coffee grower

*Appropriate management of rows of coffee plants with Brachiaria after mowing. Photo: Geraldo C. Oliveira.*

*Pore distribution of (A) gibbsitic Acrustox and (B) kaolinitic Haplustox, both with the multi-practice conservation management system for coffee cultivation at 0.20–0.34, 0.80–0.94 and 1.50–1.64 m depth. The pore diameter was extract of soil water retention curve by double van Genuchten model. Pore size <0.01 μm corresponds to >3500 kPa by WP4-T psychrometer [2]. The blue spheres represent the pore diameters. Source:* 

**32**

**Figure 9.**

*From authors.*

**Figure 8.**

handles it incorrectly. Under conditions of severe water deficit, there may be competition for water and nutrients, harming the crop of commercial interest [39]. There may also be competition for nutrients and light and it is recommended to provide adequate and balanced coffee nutrition, as well as to maintain a strip of about 0.40 m on each side of the coffee trees, free from competing plants, and covered by residues from Brachiaria (**Figure 8**).

Coffee cultivation intercropped with Brachiaria is one of the practices of building soil fertility in profile for greater sustainability of coffee growing. The addition of this grass to the cultivation system is necessary for greater use of water and soil nutrients, which also allows the suppression of other difficult to control weeds, presenting several benefits for better coffee development and productivity and consequently greater profitability.
