**3. Results and discussion**

## **3.1 Indigenous post-harvest handling of maize by women farmers**

The post-harvest management of maize can be discussed under the following subheadings: Storage, processing grading/sorting/packaging, transportation/loading and unloading and marketing of Maize as contained in the **Table 1**.

#### *3.1.1 Storage of maize*

The analysis of level of women participation in the post-harvest operations as presented in **Table 1** shows that 16.07, 36.91, 42.26 and 4.76% of the women maize farmers rated their participation in storage of maize as low, moderate, high and no participation respectively. Drying and storage of maize grains have always been considered as part of the domestic activities normally performed by women. This is an indication that women farmers in Kogi State participated highly in the post-harvest operations of maize. This result is in consonance with that of [16] who reported that 42.2% of women actively engaged in drying and storage of maize in five agro-climatic zones of rural Punjab, India. The construction of the storage facilities are mostly done by men. Although, women sometimes hire the men and youth in helping them construct the crib as shown in **Figure 1**. This construction of crib in the study area is in line with the report of [2] that carried out a study on gender post-harvest activities in Zambia, that the male support their female counterpart in constructing the storage facilities.

Effectiveness of the preservation of maize, like that of other cereal grains and food legume, is largely hinged on the ecological conditions of storage; the physical, chemical and biological features of the grain; the period of storage; and the type and the features of the storage facilities. Maize can be stored for a long period of time in the raw form. Its shelf life is largely anchored on the prevailing weather conditions (temperature and humidity) and other factors like the moisture, pests in the stored maize and diseases. Hence, it is worthy of note that proper post-harvest management of maize involve consideration of the above factors in order to improve the shelf life of maize. The recommended quality of maize is highly dependent on control harvesting strategies employed.

Maize harvesting is done by separating the cob from its main stalk. The appropriate period of harvesting maize is when the stalk is dried and moisture of grain as about 20–17% [17]. Maize that is harvested dry contains 15–20% moisture at the time of harvesting. After harvesting, the husks are removed from the cob. Then shelling is done to separate the grants from the rest of the cob. In many village settings, the shelling is done by hand, or by rubbing the cob over a roughened piece of metal. However, the use of mechanical shellers for maize is fairly wide spread in West Africa, and adopting the mechanical method for shelling their maize.


**Table 1.**

*Distribution of maize farmers according to the level of women participation in the post-harvest operations of maize (n = 165).*

**135**

local customs.

**Figure 1.**

*Women Participation in Post-Harvest Processing of Maize Using Indigenous Technologies…*

In order to reduce the moisture content of maize, it has to be dried to 10–11% moisture content before storing it [18]. Some have advocated drying it to moisture of 13–14% [19]. However, the former seem to increase the shelf life of stored maize because the dryer the maize, the better it is stored. For proper drying of maize, it may be left spread on a mat or any platform over several days; it could also be taken to the drying machine which blows hot air over the grains. After it must have been dried to the desired moisture content, the maize grains can then be stored in silos (metal or earthened) or in bags over a long period of time without deterioration. However, if the grains have not been thoroughly dried, they will deteriorate and

In many rural parts of West Africa, maize is not shelled before being stored. Instead it is stored on the cob, with or without the husk [7]. Quite frequently, the maize is hung over domestic fireplaces where the fire helps make it dry, keep it dry and discourage weevil attack. More commonly, the maize is stored in large circular cribs or bins, built of bamboo and palm material, on raised platforms. Fires are occasionally built underneath the bins to promote drying and to control insect pests in the stored cobs. In these methods, shelling is done only just before the maize is to be utilized or taken to market. Factors that governed the design of storage structures included: tribal inheritance, availability of local building materials, social, economic and cultural standards of the people and

Even though farmers have adopted some innovations in post-harvest management of their crops, farmers continue to be glued to their indigenous post-production practices because of their effectiveness and reliability over time. For example, farmers in the eastern part of Kogi State do not use industrial dryer on the corn that are meant for the next planting season as they believe it will destroy the viability of planting. Instead, they prefer the indigenous way of storing it on cobs local silos or cribs, basket or hung near fire [14]. Effective management during the post-harvest period, rather than the level of sophistication of any given technology, is the key in

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88517*

become mouldy during storage.

*Maize cobs stored in a typical crib in Bassa, Kogi State.*

reaching the desired objectives.

*Women Participation in Post-Harvest Processing of Maize Using Indigenous Technologies… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88517*

**Figure 1.** *Maize cobs stored in a typical crib in Bassa, Kogi State.*

*Maize - Production and Use*

*3.1.1 Storage of maize*

terpart in constructing the storage facilities.

control harvesting strategies employed.

**Post-harvest operations Low (1)** 

*The figures in parenthesis represent percentages (%).*

shelling their maize.

*Field Survey, 2014. Note: multiple responses.*

The analysis of level of women participation in the post-harvest operations as presented in **Table 1** shows that 16.07, 36.91, 42.26 and 4.76% of the women maize farmers rated their participation in storage of maize as low, moderate, high and no participation respectively. Drying and storage of maize grains have always been considered as part of the domestic activities normally performed by women. This is an indication that women farmers in Kogi State participated highly in the post-harvest operations of maize. This result is in consonance with that of [16] who reported that 42.2% of women actively engaged in drying and storage of maize in five agro-climatic zones of rural Punjab, India. The construction of the storage facilities are mostly done by men. Although, women sometimes hire the men and youth in helping them construct the crib as shown in **Figure 1**. This construction of crib in the study area is in line with the report of [2] that carried out a study on gender post-harvest activities in Zambia, that the male support their female coun-

Effectiveness of the preservation of maize, like that of other cereal grains and food legume, is largely hinged on the ecological conditions of storage; the physical, chemical and biological features of the grain; the period of storage; and the type and the features of the storage facilities. Maize can be stored for a long period of time in the raw form. Its shelf life is largely anchored on the prevailing weather conditions (temperature and humidity) and other factors like the moisture, pests in the stored maize and diseases. Hence, it is worthy of note that proper post-harvest management of maize involve consideration of the above factors in order to improve the shelf life of maize. The recommended quality of maize is highly dependent on

Maize harvesting is done by separating the cob from its main stalk. The appropriate period of harvesting maize is when the stalk is dried and moisture of grain as about 20–17% [17]. Maize that is harvested dry contains 15–20% moisture at the time of harvesting. After harvesting, the husks are removed from the cob. Then shelling is done to separate the grants from the rest of the cob. In many village settings, the shelling is done by hand, or by rubbing the cob over a roughened piece of metal. However, the use of mechanical shellers for maize is fairly wide spread in West Africa, and adopting the mechanical method for

**Freq.**

Storage 27 (16.07) 62 (36.91) 71 (42.26) 8 (4.76) Processing 60 (35.71) 47 (27.98) 28 (16.67) 33 (19.64) Grading/sorting/packaging 54 (32.14) 29 (17.26) 39 (23.21) 46 (27.38) Transportation/loading and unloading 67 (39.88) 45 (26.79) 34 (20.24) 22 (13.10) Marketing 32 (19.05) 46 (27.38) 70 (41.67) 20 (11.91)

*Distribution of maize farmers according to the level of women participation in the post-harvest operations of* 

**Moderate (2) Freq.**

**High (3) Freq.**

**No participation (0)**

**134**

**Table 1.**

*maize (n = 165).*

In order to reduce the moisture content of maize, it has to be dried to 10–11% moisture content before storing it [18]. Some have advocated drying it to moisture of 13–14% [19]. However, the former seem to increase the shelf life of stored maize because the dryer the maize, the better it is stored. For proper drying of maize, it may be left spread on a mat or any platform over several days; it could also be taken to the drying machine which blows hot air over the grains. After it must have been dried to the desired moisture content, the maize grains can then be stored in silos (metal or earthened) or in bags over a long period of time without deterioration. However, if the grains have not been thoroughly dried, they will deteriorate and become mouldy during storage.

In many rural parts of West Africa, maize is not shelled before being stored. Instead it is stored on the cob, with or without the husk [7]. Quite frequently, the maize is hung over domestic fireplaces where the fire helps make it dry, keep it dry and discourage weevil attack. More commonly, the maize is stored in large circular cribs or bins, built of bamboo and palm material, on raised platforms. Fires are occasionally built underneath the bins to promote drying and to control insect pests in the stored cobs. In these methods, shelling is done only just before the maize is to be utilized or taken to market. Factors that governed the design of storage structures included: tribal inheritance, availability of local building materials, social, economic and cultural standards of the people and local customs.

Even though farmers have adopted some innovations in post-harvest management of their crops, farmers continue to be glued to their indigenous post-production practices because of their effectiveness and reliability over time. For example, farmers in the eastern part of Kogi State do not use industrial dryer on the corn that are meant for the next planting season as they believe it will destroy the viability of planting. Instead, they prefer the indigenous way of storing it on cobs local silos or cribs, basket or hung near fire [14]. Effective management during the post-harvest period, rather than the level of sophistication of any given technology, is the key in reaching the desired objectives.

#### *3.1.2 Processing of maize*

Spoilage of harvested maize is prevented wholly or partly either by appropriate storage or by processing it into various storable products. Maize is consumed in many forms in different parts of the world, from maize grits, maize porridge, polenta and corn bread to popcorn and products such as maize flakes [11]. With respect to processing of maize as indicated in **Table 1**, it was found that 35.71, 27.98, 16.67 and 19.64% of the women maize farmers said their participation in processing of maize into consumable and marketable forms was low, moderate, high and no participation respectively. This result is in agreement with a study by [2, 16] that processing activities was low among women in Punjab, India and Malawi. Processing activities in this study is associated with those of both primary and secondary transformation of maize into consumable forms. This primary processing includes threshing, winnowing, cleaning, soaking, dehulling, grinding, while the secondary processing are activities involves changing maize into forms ready for the table. They are activities such as boiling, steaming, roasting, frying, crushing, blending, cooking and baking. Primary processing of maize is very essential in the study area as maize flour is highly demanded for across all the agro-ecological zones of the State.

Traditional methods of processing maize into flour using pestle and mortar, grinding stones and manually operated mills vary in detail depending on culture and geography [10]. The principles however, are the same in Kogi State, Nigeria. Maize processing essentially begins with soaking the grain and then grinding it between stones or pounding it in a mortar and pestle arrangement. During pounding or grinding the bran is removed. The grain is winnowed at intervals to remove the bran from the kernels. The dehulled grain is then pulverized into flour by further grinding or pounding. Processing of maize into desirable end products usually involves primary processing (cleaning, grading, soaking dehulling, grinding and sieving) and secondary processing (blending, cooking, frying and baking).

In most West African countries, maize is commonly used to make local beer (*Burukutu*). For example, malt is gotten from maize grains left to germinate for 4–5 days [10]. The malt is then exposed to the sun to stop germination. The grains are lightly crushed in a mortar or on a grinding stone. The malt is cooked and the extract is strained off, cooled and allowed to stand, after 3 days of fermentation it is ready to be drunk as beer. In some part of Nigeria like in the East of Kogi State, millet is mostly mixed with maize for the above process of brewing except that yeast is added and left for some few hours instead of fermentation for 3 days. Threshing is mostly done by farmers beating the maize cobs in mortar using a pestle or beating the cobs with a stick while they are still spread on the floor or rocky areas covered with sack. Using improved method of threshing, the maize in its cobs could be conveyed to the shelling machine (Thresher/Sheller) of which very few of them were available at the time of this study or further processing including dehulling and grinding machine. **Figure 2** depict a typical mortar and pestle for threshing maize, while **Figure 3** shows women dehulling and grinding maize grains. Winnowing and sun drying can be carried out before dehulling and grinding. **Figure 4** illustrates woman winnowing and sun drying maize.

Cornflakes are a hydrothermically treated maize product of world-wide popularity. They owe their success to their high nutrient value combined with low caloric content and good digestibility. Flaking is a process consisting of cooking fragments of cereal kernel, to a certain consistency, pressing the cooked mass between rollers to form flakes, and toasting the flakes at an appropriate temperature.

**137**

**Figure 2.**

**Figure 3.**

*Women Participation in Post-Harvest Processing of Maize Using Indigenous Technologies…*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88517*

*Mortar and pestle for threshing maize grains from the cobs.*

*3.1.3 Sorting, grading and packaging of maize*

*Women dehulling and grinding maize grains.*

In terms of sorting, grading and packaging of maize in the study area as shown

in **Table 1**, 32.14, 17.26, 23.21 and 27.38% rated their participation to be low, moderate, high and no participation respectively. This result indicates that the participation of women farmers in Kogi State in the grading/sorting/packaging of maize was rated low. Sorting and grading are done during threshing of maize whereby, maize grains are winnowed with the lighter grains separated in as it is thrown from the container into the air taking into cognizance the direction of the wind; and bad grains can also be separated from the good ones by hand picking the bad grains as shown in **Figure 3**. However, packaging is done by putting the grains into woollen or polythene bags, while labelling is done by using chalk or ink inscribed on the bag with any sign or words for identification. Indigenous

*Women Participation in Post-Harvest Processing of Maize Using Indigenous Technologies… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88517*

**Figure 2.** *Mortar and pestle for threshing maize grains from the cobs.*

*Maize - Production and Use*

*3.1.2 Processing of maize*

of the State.

and baking).

woman winnowing and sun drying maize.

Spoilage of harvested maize is prevented wholly or partly either by appropriate storage or by processing it into various storable products. Maize is consumed in many forms in different parts of the world, from maize grits, maize porridge, polenta and corn bread to popcorn and products such as maize flakes [11]. With respect to processing of maize as indicated in **Table 1**, it was found that 35.71, 27.98, 16.67 and 19.64% of the women maize farmers said their participation in processing of maize into consumable and marketable forms was low, moderate, high and no participation respectively. This result is in agreement with a study by [2, 16] that processing activities was low among women in Punjab, India and Malawi. Processing activities in this study is associated with those of both primary and secondary transformation of maize into consumable forms. This primary processing includes threshing, winnowing, cleaning, soaking, dehulling, grinding, while the secondary processing are activities involves changing maize into forms ready for the table. They are activities such as boiling, steaming, roasting, frying, crushing, blending, cooking and baking. Primary processing of maize is very essential in the study area as maize flour is highly demanded for across all the agro-ecological zones

Traditional methods of processing maize into flour using pestle and mortar, grinding stones and manually operated mills vary in detail depending on culture and geography [10]. The principles however, are the same in Kogi State, Nigeria. Maize processing essentially begins with soaking the grain and then grinding it between stones or pounding it in a mortar and pestle arrangement. During pounding or grinding the bran is removed. The grain is winnowed at intervals to remove the bran from the kernels. The dehulled grain is then pulverized into flour by further grinding or pounding. Processing of maize into desirable end products usually involves primary processing (cleaning, grading, soaking dehulling, grinding and sieving) and secondary processing (blending, cooking, frying

In most West African countries, maize is commonly used to make local beer (*Burukutu*). For example, malt is gotten from maize grains left to germinate for 4–5 days [10]. The malt is then exposed to the sun to stop germination. The grains are lightly crushed in a mortar or on a grinding stone. The malt is cooked and the extract is strained off, cooled and allowed to stand, after 3 days of fermentation it is ready to be drunk as beer. In some part of Nigeria like in the East of Kogi State, millet is mostly mixed with maize for the above process of brewing except that yeast is added and left for some few hours instead of fermentation for 3 days. Threshing is mostly done by farmers beating the maize cobs in mortar using a pestle or beating the cobs with a stick while they are still spread on the floor or rocky areas covered with sack. Using improved method of threshing, the maize in its cobs could be conveyed to the shelling machine (Thresher/Sheller) of which very few of them were available at the time of this study or further processing including dehulling and grinding machine. **Figure 2** depict a typical mortar and pestle for threshing maize, while **Figure 3** shows women dehulling and grinding maize grains. Winnowing and sun drying can be carried out before dehulling and grinding. **Figure 4** illustrates

Cornflakes are a hydrothermically treated maize product of world-wide popularity. They owe their success to their high nutrient value combined with low caloric content and good digestibility. Flaking is a process consisting of cooking fragments of cereal kernel, to a certain consistency, pressing the cooked mass between rollers

to form flakes, and toasting the flakes at an appropriate temperature.

**136**

**Figure 3.** *Women dehulling and grinding maize grains.*
