**Appendix**

across given habitats could be attributed to some reasons including food

*Birds - Challenges and Opportunities for Business, Conservation and Research*

**4.2 Species composition and similarities between different habitat types**

suggests that miombo woodlands harbor unique avifauna species. Some avian species are observed to occur in more than one habitat type indicating that avian species are not habitat specialists. In this study, such patterns were observed; some species existed in more than 4 habitat types suggesting areas visited they provide

similar resource abundance, types, and habitat heterogeneity.

abate current human disturbance in the WMAs of Ruvuma region.

We thank the District Game Officers of Namtumbo and Tunduru as well as Community Based Conservation Training Centre (CBCTC) staff for their assistance and positive cooperation they have rendered for the success of this project. We thank the Village Game Scouts (VGSs) and all WMA leaders for their guidance during data collection. Furthermore, we recognize the materials and technical support offered by

The presence of higher species composition and similarities among habitat types

Therefore, under no intervention strategies, the Ruvuma Landscape will result in a marked loss of avian richness and diversity. This suggests that measures that will reduce land clearance for agriculture need to be promptly implemented to reduce the ecological impacts on avifauna. Wildlife management areas should involve adjacent communities that are the key stakeholders of the habitats and species biodiversity conservation. Such measures can enhance the resilience of wildlife management areas and complement the goals of community-based conservation measures [27, 28]. Unfortunately, any proposed measures may be challenged by increasing human pressure due to agricultural intensification needs as well as a rapidly changing climate that may be beyond the WMA's management control. Examining the links of these threats to avian biodiversity and addressing such in an urgent manner is likely to

The richness and diversity imply a variety of taxa that exist in an area, many taxa should, therefore, survive in habitats that have a variety of favorable conditions and resources such as the presence of food, nesting areas, shade and water that might contribute to higher species richness and diversity. Therefore, low species diversity in the farmland might be contributed by the insufficient supply of food as well as insufficient cover for birds to hide against predators, lack of shade to hide from diurnal temperature [12, 26] low food supply compared to forests and woodlands. Suggesting that farmlands have reached maximum disturbance, as in lower farmlands heterogeneous vegetation offer foods and shelter for birds encouraging higher diversity and abundance [8]. Thus the granivores which are largely seed eaters such as the bronze mannikin, southern cordon-bleu, and red-billed quelea were dominant in farmlands than in other habitats because farmlands were rich in seed types vegetation, in line with the findings of others [12, 26]. Furthermore, for similar reasons, the abundance of the granivores species was also higher in open miombo where grassland patches are dominant than in forest areas. Birds that preferred mixed habitat of tree-covered vegetation and open areas chose forest and woodlands but are not water-bound and avoided farmlands such as red-throated twinspot, pygmy kingfisher and red-capped robin-chat, they co-existed in riverine forest and woodland, together with birds that prefer evergreen or lowland forest, dense deciduous thickets, or other dense woodlands such as black-throated

requirement as well as heat tolerance [25].

wattle-eye and the African broadbill.

**Acknowledgements**

**80**



**No. English name Species name Habitat type Dense miombo woodland**

41 Flappet lark *Mirafra*

42 Pale-billed hornbill

43 Red-throated twinspot

44 Gray-headed kingfisher

45 Jameson's frefinch

46 Red-necked francolin

48 African golden oriole

49 Black-faced waxbill

50 Whiterumped swift

51 Yellowbreasted apalis

52 Blackthroated wattle-eye

53 African firefinch

54 Green woodhoopoe

55 Spotted flycatcher

56 Orangebreasted bush-shrike

57 White-backed duck

58 Whitebrowed sparrowweaver

59 Yellowfronted canary

61 Kurrichane thrush

62 African gray hornbill

63 Böhm's spinetail

**83**

*rufocinnamomea*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97332*

*Lophoceros pallidirostris*

*Hypargos niveoguttatus*

*Halcyon leucocephala*

*Lagonosticta rhodopareia*

*Estrilda erythronotos*

*Lagonosticta rubricata*

*Phoeniculus purpureus*

*Chlorophoneus sulfureopectus*

*Thalassornis leuconotus*

*Plocepasser mahali*

*Crithagra mozambica*

*Lophoceros nasutus*

**Farmland Open**

*Avifauna in Relation to Habitat Disturbance in Wildlife Management Areas of the Ruvuma…*

**miombo woodland**

*Pternistis afer* 0 6 3 8 0 17 0.006

*Oriolus auratus* 0 2 14 0 0 16 0.005

*Apus caffer* 0 3 0 12 0 15 0.005

*Apalis flavida* 0 0 3 12 0 15 0.005

*Platysteira peltata* 0 0 0 14 0 14 0.005

*Muscicapa striata* 0 0 12 1 0 13 0.004

*Turdus libonyana* 0 0 9 2 0 11 0.004

*Neafrapus boehmi* 0 0 0 10 0 10 0.003

60 African darter *Anhinga rufa* 0 0 0 0 11 11 0.004

47 Yellow bishop *Euplectes capensis* 0 0 8 9 0 17 0.006

**Riverine forest**

0 2 10 6 0 18 0.006

0 0 2 16 0 18 0.006

0 0 0 18 0 18 0.006

0 0 15 2 0 17 0.006

2 2 5 8 0 17 0.006

0 15 0 0 0 15 0.005

0 6 4 3 0 13 0.004

0 0 13 0 0 13 0.004

0 0 8 5 0 13 0.004

0 0 0 0 12 12 0.004

0 0 12 0 0 12 0.004

0 0 12 0 0 12 0.004

0 2 3 5 0 10 0.003

**Swamp areas**

**Grand Total**

**Ratio**

crowned tchagra


*Avifauna in Relation to Habitat Disturbance in Wildlife Management Areas of the Ruvuma… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97332*

**No. English name Species name Habitat type Dense miombo woodland**

*Birds - Challenges and Opportunities for Business, Conservation and Research*

18 Little greenbul

20 Blackcrowned tchagra

21 Lesser striped swallow

22 Wire-tailed swallow

23 Rufous-naped lark

24 Brownheaded parrot

25 Lesser blueeared starling

26 Black-backed puffback

27 Black-headed oriole

28 Collared sunbird

29 Mosque swallow

30 Pied kingfisher

31 Mottled spinetail

32 Purplecrested turaco

33 Pennantwinged nightjar

34 Rattling cisticola

35 Tropical boubou

36 White-headed black chat

37 African paradiseflycatcher

38 Gray-headed bush-shrike

39 African palmswift

40 Browncrowned tchagra

**82**

19 African jacana *Actophilornis*

*africanus*

*Cecropis abyssinica*

*Poicephalus cryptoxanthus*

*Lamprotornis chloropterus*

*Hedydipna collaris*

*Cecropis senegalensis*

*Telacanthura ussheri*

*Gallirex porphyreolophus*

> *Caprimulgus vexillarius*

*Laniarius aethiopicus*

*Myrmecocichla arnotti*

*Terpsiphone viridis*

*Malaconotus blanchoti*

**Farmland Open**

**miombo woodland**

*Eurillas virens* 0 0 2 36 0 38 0.013

*Tchagra senegalus* 0 4 26 5 0 35 0.012

*Hirundo smithii* 0 34 0 0 0 34 0.011

*Mirafra africana* 0 0 32 0 0 32 0.011

*Dryoscopus cubla* 0 0 10 16 0 26 0.009

*Riolus larvatus* 0 1 18 6 0 25 0.008

*Ceryle rudis* 0 0 0 6 18 24 0.008

*Cisticola chiniana* 4 0 0 17 0 21 0.007

*Cypsiurus parvus* 0 19 0 0 0 19 0.006

*Tchagra australis* 0 4 7 7 0 18 0.006

**Riverine forest**

0 0 0 2 33 35 0.012

0 13 0 21 0 34 0.011

2 0 25 2 0 29 0.010

0 0 25 3 0 28 0.009

1 0 9 15 0 25 0.008

0 6 12 6 0 24 0.008

0 0 0 23 0 23 0.008

0 0 15 8 0 23 0.008

0 0 19 2 0 21 0.007

0 0 7 14 0 21 0.007

0 0 17 4 0 21 0.007

0 3 12 5 0 20 0.007

0 0 6 13 0 19 0.006

**Swamp areas**

**Grand Total**

**No. English name Species name Habitat type Dense miombo woodland**

> *Uraeginthus bengalus*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97332*

*Merops hirundineus*

*Bycanistes bucinator*

*Phylloscopus trochilus*

*Campethera abingoni*

*Calamonastes stierlingi*

> *Vanellus senegallus*

*Ceblepyris pectoralis*

*Chlorocichla flaviventris*

*Dendropicos fuscescens*

*Glaucidium perlatum*

88 Red-cheeked cordon-bleu

89 Southern gray-headed sparrow

90 Swallowtailed beeeater

91 Trumpeter hornbill

92 White-crested helmetshrike

93 Willow warbler

94 Common hoopoe

97 Common sandpiper

98 Golden-tailed woodpecker

99 Little sparrowhawk

100 Pale (East coast) batis

101 Pygmy kingfisher

102 Red-chested cuckoo

103 Miombo wren warbler

104 Wattled lapwing

105 White-bellied sunbird

106 Whitebreasted cuckoo-shrike

107 Yellow-bellied greenbul

108 Cardinal woodpecker

111 Lilac-breasted roller

112 Pearl-spotted owlet

**85**

**Farmland Open**

*Avifauna in Relation to Habitat Disturbance in Wildlife Management Areas of the Ruvuma…*

**miombo woodland**

*Passer diffusus* 0 0 6 0 0 6 0.002

*Prionops plumatus* 0 0 6 0 0 6 0.002

*Upupa epops* 0 0 0 5 0 5 0.002

*Actitis hypoleucos* 0 0 0 3 2 5 0.002

*Accipiter minullus* 0 0 4 1 0 5 0.002

*Batis soror* 0 0 2 3 0 5 0.002

*Ispidina picta* 0 0 0 3 2 5 0.002

*Cuculus solitarius* 0 0 0 5 0 5 0.002

*Cinnyris talatala* 0 0 3 2 0 5 0.002

*Coracias caudatus* 0 0 2 2 0 4 0.001

109 African pipit *Anthus richardi* 0 0 3 0 2 5 0.002 110 Hamerkop *Scopus umbretta* 0 0 0 4 0 4 0.001

95 Black cuckoo *Cuculus clamosus* 0 0 0 5 0 5 0.002 96 Black kite *Milvus migrans* 0 2 3 0 0 5 0.002

**Riverine forest**

0 0 0 6 0 6 0.002

0 0 6 0 0 6 0.002

0 0 0 6 0 6 0.002

0 0 6 0 0 6 0.002

0 0 4 1 0 5 0.002

0 0 5 0 0 5 0.002

0 0 0 3 2 5 0.002

0 0 5 0 0 5 0.002

0 0 2 3 0 5 0.002

1 0 3 0 0 4 0.001

0 0 4 0 0 4 0.001

**Swamp areas**

**Grand Total**


**No. English name Species name Habitat type Dense miombo woodland Farmland Open miombo woodland Riverine forest Swamp areas Grand Total Ratio** 88 Red-cheeked cordon-bleu *Uraeginthus bengalus* 0 0 0 6 0 6 0.002 89 Southern gray-headed sparrow *Passer diffusus* 0 0 6 0 0 6 0.002 90 Swallowtailed beeeater *Merops hirundineus* 0 0 6 0 0 6 0.002 91 Trumpeter hornbill *Bycanistes bucinator* 0 0 0 6 0 6 0.002 92 White-crested helmetshrike *Prionops plumatus* 0 0 6 0 0 6 0.002 93 Willow warbler *Phylloscopus trochilus* 0 0 6 0 0 6 0.002 94 Common hoopoe *Upupa epops* 0 0 0 5 0 5 0.002 95 Black cuckoo *Cuculus clamosus* 0 0 0 5 0 5 0.002 96 Black kite *Milvus migrans* 0 2 3 0 0 5 0.002 97 Common sandpiper *Actitis hypoleucos* 0 0 0 3 2 5 0.002 98 Golden-tailed woodpecker *Campethera abingoni* 0 0 4 1 0 5 0.002 99 Little sparrowhawk *Accipiter minullus* 0 0 4 1 0 5 0.002 100 Pale (East coast) batis *Batis soror* 0 0 2 3 0 5 0.002 101 Pygmy kingfisher *Ispidina picta* 0 0 0 3 2 5 0.002 102 Red-chested cuckoo *Cuculus solitarius* 0 0 0 5 0 5 0.002 103 Miombo wren warbler *Calamonastes stierlingi* 0 0 5 0 0 5 0.002 104 Wattled lapwing *Vanellus senegallus* 0 0 0 3 2 5 0.002 105 White-bellied sunbird *Cinnyris talatala* 0 0 3 2 0 5 0.002 106 Whitebreasted cuckoo-shrike *Ceblepyris pectoralis* 0 0 5 0 0 5 0.002 107 Yellow-bellied greenbul *Chlorocichla flaviventris* 0 0 2 3 0 5 0.002 108 Cardinal woodpecker *Dendropicos fuscescens* 1 0 3 0 0 4 0.001 109 African pipit *Anthus richardi* 0 0 3 0 2 5 0.002 110 Hamerkop *Scopus umbretta* 0 0 0 4 0 4 0.001 111 Lilac-breasted roller *Coracias caudatus* 0 0 2 2 0 4 0.001

0 0 4 0 0 4 0.001

### *Avifauna in Relation to Habitat Disturbance in Wildlife Management Areas of the Ruvuma… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97332*

112 Pearl-spotted owlet

*Glaucidium perlatum*

**No. English name Species name Habitat type Dense miombo woodland**

*Birds - Challenges and Opportunities for Business, Conservation and Research*

*Campethera scriptoricauda*

> *Smithornis capensis*

*flavirostra*

*Chalcomitra amethystina*

> *Indicator indicator*

*Coracias spatulatus*

*Melaniparus rufiventris*

*Eurystomus glaucurus*

*Halcyon albiventris*

*Melierax metabates*

*Tychaedon quadrivirgata*

> *Bucorvus leadbeateri*

> *Tauraco livingstonii*

64 Common squacco heron

65 Coqui francolin

66 Shelley's sunbird

67 Reichenow's woodpecker

68 African broadbill

70 Green-capped eremomela

71 Striped kingfisher

72 Little beeeater

75 Senegal lapwing

76 Amethyst sunbird

77 Greater honeyguide

78 Racket-tailed roller

79 Red-faced cisticola

80 Rufousbellied tit

81 Broad-billed roller

82 Brownhooded kingfisher

83 Dark chantinggoshawk

84 Eastern bearded scrub-robin

85 Great white egret

86 Southern groundhornbill

87 Livingstone's turaco

**84**

69 Black crake *Zapornia*

**Farmland Open**

**miombo woodland**

*Ardeola ralloides* 0 0 0 0 10 10 0.003

*Peliperdix coqui* 0 0 10 0 0 10 0.003

*Cinnyris shelleyi* 0 0 3 7 0 10 0.003

*Eremomela scotops* 0 0 6 3 0 9 0.003

*Halcyon chelicuti* 0 0 7 2 0 9 0.003

*Merops pusillus* 0 0 6 2 0 8 0.003

*Vanellus lugubris* 0 0 8 0 0 8 0.003

*Cisticola erythrops* 0 0 0 4 3 7 0.002

73 Little swift *Apus affinis* 0 8 0 0 0 8 0.003 74 Pied wagtail *Motacilla aguimp* 0 8 0 0 0 8 0.003

**Riverine forest**

1 0 9 0 0 10 0.003

0 0 0 9 0 9 0.003

0 0 0 2 7 9 0.003

0 0 0 7 0 7 0.002

0 0 7 0 0 7 0.002

0 1 6 0 0 7 0.002

0 0 5 2 0 7 0.002

0 0 5 1 0 6 0.002

0 0 6 0 0 6 0.002

0 1 4 1 0 6 0.002

0 0 2 4 0 6 0.002

0 0 6 0 0 6 0.002

0 0 6 0 0 6 0.002

*Ardea alba* 0 0 0 0 6 6 0.002

**Swamp areas**

**Grand Total**

**No. English name Species name Habitat type Dense miombo woodland**

> *Himantopus himantopus*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97332*

*Crithagra sulphurata*

*Alopochen aegyptiaca*

*Emberiza flaviventris*

*Chalcomitra senegalensis*

*Turtur tympanistria*

*Glaucidium capense*

*Cisticola fulvicapilla*

*Streptopelia semitorquata*

> *Cinnyris pulchellus*

*Caprimulgus europaeus*

*olivacea*

*senegalensis*

*Salpornis salvadori*

*Halcyon senegalensis*

*List of avifauna species observed in different habitats of WMAs in Ruvuma.*

136 Black-winged stilt

137 Brimstone canary

138 Egyptian goose

140 Goldenbreasted bunting

141 Retz's helmet shrike

142 Scarletchested sunbird

143 Tambourine dove

144 African barred owlet

145 Piping cisticola

146 Red-eyed dove

147 Beautiful sunbird

149 Brown snakeeagle

150 European nightjar

154 Spectacled weaver

155 Spotted creeper

156 Woodland kingfisher

**Table A1.**

**87**

152 Olive sunbird *Cyanomitra*

153 Saddlebill *Ephippiorhynchus*

**Farmland Open**

*Avifauna in Relation to Habitat Disturbance in Wildlife Management Areas of the Ruvuma…*

139 Fiscal shrike *Lanius collaris* 0 2 0 0 0 2 0.001

148 Black coucal *Centropus grillii* 0 0 0 1 0 1 0.000

151 Gray heron *Ardea cinerea* 0 0 0 0 1 1 0.000

Grand Total 105 580 1338 759 188 2970

*Circaetus cinereus* 0 0 0 1 0 1 0.000

*Ploceus ocularis* 0 0 1 0 0 1 0.000

**miombo woodland**

*Prionops retzii* 0 0 0 2 0 2 0.001

**Riverine forest**

0 0 0 2 0 2 0.001

0 0 2 0 0 2 0.001

0 0 0 0 2 2 0.001

2 0 0 0 0 2 0.001

0 0 0 2 0 2 0.001

0 0 0 2 0 2 0.001

0 0 1 0 0 1 0.000

0 0 3 0 0 3 0.001

0 0 0 3 0 3 0.001

0 1 0 0 0 1 0.000

0 0 1 0 0 1 0.000

0 0 0 1 0 1 0.000

0 0 0 0 1 1 0.000

0 0 0 1 0 1 0.000

0 0 0 1 0 1 0.000

**Swamp areas**

**Grand Total**



148 Black coucal *Centropus grillii* 0 0 0 1 0 1 0.000

151 Gray heron *Ardea cinerea* 0 0 0 0 1 1 0.000

Grand Total 105 580 1338 759 188 2970

*Circaetus cinereus* 0 0 0 1 0 1 0.000

*Ploceus ocularis* 0 0 1 0 0 1 0.000

0 0 1 0 0 1 0.000

0 0 0 1 0 1 0.000

0 0 0 0 1 1 0.000

0 0 0 1 0 1 0.000

0 0 0 1 0 1 0.000

*Avifauna in Relation to Habitat Disturbance in Wildlife Management Areas of the Ruvuma… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97332*

#### **Table A1.**

149 Brown snakeeagle

150 European nightjar

154 Spectacled weaver

155 Spotted creeper

156 Woodland kingfisher

152 Olive sunbird *Cyanomitra*

153 Saddlebill *Ephippiorhynchus*

**No. English name Species name Habitat type Dense miombo woodland**

*Birds - Challenges and Opportunities for Business, Conservation and Research*

*Cossypha natalensis*

*Centropus superciliosus*

*Campephaga flava*

*Trachyphonus vaillantii*

*Lophoceros alboterminatus*

*hagedash*

*Coturnix delegorguei*

*Campethera scriptoricauda*

*Anomalospiza imberbis*

> *Pogoniulus pusillus*

> *Anaplectes rubriceps*

*Crithagra striatipectus*

*Cercotrichas leucophrys*

*Ardea melanocephala*

113 Red-capped robin-chat

114 Whitebrowed coucal

115 Whitebrowed robinchat

116 Black cuckooshrike

117 Böhm's beeeater

119 Cabanis's bunting

120 Crested barbet

121 Crowned hornbill

122 European swift

123 African fish eagle

125 Harlequin quail

126 Namaqua dove

127 Specklethroated woodpecker

128 Parasitic weaver

129 Red-fronted tinkerbird

130 Red-headed weaver

131 Speckled mousebird

132 Stripebreasted seedeater

133 Whitebrowed scrub-robin

134 Wood sandpiper

**86**

135 Black-headed heron

124 Hadada ibis *Bostrychia*

**Farmland Open**

**miombo woodland**

*Cossypha heuglini* 0 0 0 4 0 4 0.001

*Merops boehmi* 0 0 0 3 0 3 0.001

*Emberiza cabanisi* 0 2 1 0 0 3 0.001

*Apus apus* 0 0 0 3 0 3 0.001

*Haliaeetus vocifer* 0 0 0 1 2 3 0.001

*Oena capensis* 3 0 0 0 0 3 0.001

*Colius striatus* 0 0 0 3 0 3 0.001

*Tringa glareola* 0 0 0 0 3 3 0.001

118 Brubru *Nilaus afer* 0 0 3 0 0 3 0.001

**Riverine forest**

0 0 0 4 0 4 0.001

0 0 2 2 0 4 0.001

0 0 1 2 0 3 0.001

0 0 1 2 0 3 0.001

0 3 0 0 0 3 0.001

0 0 0 0 3 3 0.001

0 0 0 3 0 3 0.001

0 0 3 0 0 3 0.001

0 0 3 0 0 3 0.001

0 0 0 3 0 3 0.001

0 0 3 0 0 3 0.001

0 0 3 0 0 3 0.001

0 0 1 2 0 3 0.001

0 1 0 1 0 2 0.001

**Swamp areas**

**Grand Total**

**Ratio**

*List of avifauna species observed in different habitats of WMAs in Ruvuma.*

*Caprimulgus europaeus*

*olivacea*

*senegalensis*

*Salpornis salvadori*

*Halcyon senegalensis*

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