**4. Discussion and conclusion**

#### **4.1 Avian species diversity, distribution, and richness**

Farmland habitats were observed in all WMAs except in Mbarang'andu where we did not encounter cultivated areas inside the core WMA. Possibly due to the presence of an anti-poaching office established inside WMA by Tanzania Wildlife Management Authority (TAWA, formerly Wildlife Division). In our study, we predicted that there would be higher avian diversity, richness, and abundance in WMAs than in human-modified areas named here as farmlands. We found strong support for this prediction for the species diversity and richness of avifauna but not for abundance. This suggested that the differing occurrence of avifauna species

across given habitats could be attributed to some reasons including food requirement as well as heat tolerance [25].

the Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute (TAWIRI). This study was funded by the

*Avifauna in Relation to Habitat Disturbance in Wildlife Management Areas of the Ruvuma…*

**Farmland Open**

**miombo woodland**

*Quelea quelea* 0 15 115 0 0 130 0.044

*Prinia subflava* 18 27 38 34 0 117 0.039

*Estrilda astrild* 0 9 63 20 0 92 0.031

*Merops apiaster* 0 3 51 8 6 68 0.023

*Numida meleagris* 0 0 59 2 0 61 0.021

*Turtur afer* 5 7 26 11 0 49 0.016

*Treron calvus* 0 2 42 4 0 48 0.016

*Dicrurus adsimilis* 0 2 35 5 0 42 0.014

14 Pied crow *Corvus albus* 0 30 10 5 0 45 0.015

**Riverine forest**

56 222 56 72 0 406 0.137

3 85 123 0 0 211 0.071

5 1 37 33 0 76 0.026

0 21 51 0 0 72 0.024

2 4 45 17 0 68 0.023

0 0 0 0 62 62 0.021

0 0 12 26 0 38 0.013

0 0 6 32 0 38 0.013

**Swamp areas**

**Grand Total**

**Ratio**

WWF Tanzania grant to Geo Network Ltd. based at Dar es Salaam.

The authors have not declared any conflict of interests.

**No. English name Species name Habitat type Dense miombo woodland**

> *Spermestes cuculiata*

*Uraeginthus angolensis*

*Pycnonotus goiavier*

*Streptopelia capicola*

*Cinnyricinclus leucogaster*

*Dendrocygna viduata*

> *Turdoides jardineii*

*Camaroptera brevicaudata*

**Conflict of interest**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97332*

**Appendix**

1 Bronze mannikin

2 Southern (Bluebreasted) cordon-bleu

3 Red-billed quelea

4 Tawnyflanked prinia

5 Common waxbill

6 Common bulbul

7 Ring-necked dove

8 European bee-eater

9 Violet-backed starling

10 White-faced whistlingduck

11 Helmeted guineafowl

12 Blue-spotted wood-dove

13 African green-pigeon

15 Fork-tailed drongo

16 Arrowmarked babbler

17 Gray-backed (bleating) camaroptera

**81**

The richness and diversity imply a variety of taxa that exist in an area, many taxa should, therefore, survive in habitats that have a variety of favorable conditions and resources such as the presence of food, nesting areas, shade and water that might contribute to higher species richness and diversity. Therefore, low species diversity in the farmland might be contributed by the insufficient supply of food as well as insufficient cover for birds to hide against predators, lack of shade to hide from diurnal temperature [12, 26] low food supply compared to forests and woodlands. Suggesting that farmlands have reached maximum disturbance, as in lower farmlands heterogeneous vegetation offer foods and shelter for birds encouraging higher diversity and abundance [8]. Thus the granivores which are largely seed eaters such as the bronze mannikin, southern cordon-bleu, and red-billed quelea were dominant in farmlands than in other habitats because farmlands were rich in seed types vegetation, in line with the findings of others [12, 26]. Furthermore, for similar reasons, the abundance of the granivores species was also higher in open miombo where grassland patches are dominant than in forest areas. Birds that preferred mixed habitat of tree-covered vegetation and open areas chose forest and woodlands but are not water-bound and avoided farmlands such as red-throated twinspot, pygmy kingfisher and red-capped robin-chat, they co-existed in riverine forest and woodland, together with birds that prefer evergreen or lowland forest, dense deciduous thickets, or other dense woodlands such as black-throated wattle-eye and the African broadbill.

#### **4.2 Species composition and similarities between different habitat types**

The presence of higher species composition and similarities among habitat types suggests that miombo woodlands harbor unique avifauna species. Some avian species are observed to occur in more than one habitat type indicating that avian species are not habitat specialists. In this study, such patterns were observed; some species existed in more than 4 habitat types suggesting areas visited they provide similar resource abundance, types, and habitat heterogeneity.

Therefore, under no intervention strategies, the Ruvuma Landscape will result in a marked loss of avian richness and diversity. This suggests that measures that will reduce land clearance for agriculture need to be promptly implemented to reduce the ecological impacts on avifauna. Wildlife management areas should involve adjacent communities that are the key stakeholders of the habitats and species biodiversity conservation. Such measures can enhance the resilience of wildlife management areas and complement the goals of community-based conservation measures [27, 28]. Unfortunately, any proposed measures may be challenged by increasing human pressure due to agricultural intensification needs as well as a rapidly changing climate that may be beyond the WMA's management control. Examining the links of these threats to avian biodiversity and addressing such in an urgent manner is likely to abate current human disturbance in the WMAs of Ruvuma region.

### **Acknowledgements**

We thank the District Game Officers of Namtumbo and Tunduru as well as Community Based Conservation Training Centre (CBCTC) staff for their assistance and positive cooperation they have rendered for the success of this project. We thank the Village Game Scouts (VGSs) and all WMA leaders for their guidance during data collection. Furthermore, we recognize the materials and technical support offered by *Avifauna in Relation to Habitat Disturbance in Wildlife Management Areas of the Ruvuma… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97332*

the Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute (TAWIRI). This study was funded by the WWF Tanzania grant to Geo Network Ltd. based at Dar es Salaam.
