**3. Results**

anthropogenic activities, the area currently has farmlands and patches of wooded

Five sites of 200 m x 200 m were established in each WMA, making a total of 25 sites. We selected different habitat types for each of the five sites, namely miombo

Each site was sampled using three complementary methods to maximize the sample size. First, in each habitat type, avifauna counts were carried out using the point transects technique [6, 19]. This method consists of standing at a particular point or walking slowly across the site back and forth several times, to detect cryptic and skulking species in the area. These counts were repeated for 3 days, based on results from our pilot study, and the numbers for each site were averaged. A 20 minute counting period was used at each site, and the starting time (between 6:30 and 10:30 h) was rotated among the sites to reduce bias. Avifauna was identified by

Secondly, the transect method was used. Three transects 40 km in length each were established in every WMA using existing roads. The locations of all transects were based on accessibility and were sampled using a vehicle driven at a speed of 20 km/hr. or less that stopped for each individual or group of birds encountered [21]. Two observers sighted and recorded all avifauna on either side of the vehicle

Thirdly, mist-netting was used to the targeted cryptic, understory, and lower canopy avian species. Nets were erected and checked every 15 min in the early morning (between 6:30–10:30 h) and late afternoon (between 16:00–18:00 h). The total number of each species caught, and the associated habitat type was recorded. Each bird was marked with a drop of red permanent spray paints at the base of its toes on the right tarsi for verification, if recaptured, to avoid double

The biodiversity indices in different habitats or within these WMAs were obtained following Magurran [23]. This index uses three biodiversity indices including, diversity, richness, and abundance. A non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis test was used to assess whether there were significant differences in mean species abundance among five WMAs, and across each habitat type [24]. Differences in mean bird numbers between habitats in each WMA were tested using Mann–Whitney tests to assess whether the number of species was significantly lower in humanencroached habitat (farmland), i.e., farmland, compared to riverine forest, and dense and open miombo woodland habitats. Statistical tests were computed using the software package PAST [24]. For all these analyses, farmland habitat in this study represented human encroachment into protected areas and was used to compare with other habitat types found in the WMAs. We further calculated the Jaccard similarity index (Ji) between different habitat types to determine the level of simi-

Jaccard similarity coefficient Jð Þ; J ¼ A*=*ð Þ A þ B þ C (1)

woodland (open and dense), farmland, swamps, and riverine forest.

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both sight and call, and numbers were recorded [20].

and notes on habitat type were also taken [21].

larities in species composition using the formulae [24]:

with scattered trees and grazing land.

**2.2 Sampling design**

**2.3 Avifauna survey**

counting [22].

**74**

**2.4 Statistical analysis**

### **3.1 Avian species diversity, distribution, and richness**

A total of 156 avian species representing 18 orders and 61 families were recorded in the five WMAs. The overall avian species Shannon diversity (H0 ) for all the habitat types ranged from 2.28–4.08, except for dense miombo woodland which had H<sup>0</sup> = 1.69 (**Table 1**). Riverine forest habitat had higher species richness (n = 101 species), representing almost 45% of the total recorded individuals (**Table 1**). Avian species diversity was highest in riverine forest and lowest in dense miombo woodlands (**Table 1**; **Figure 2**). The Shannon Index of diversity revealed that species evenness for the five habitats surveyed was relatively low ranging from 0.29–0.59 (**Table 1**).

Values bearing different letters within column are significantly different (p < 0.05) and values with similar letters within column are not significantly


#### **Table 1.**

*Avian species diversity, abundance, and evenness in different habitats of WMAs in Ruvuma landscape (*� *standard error).*

**Figure 2.** *Avian species diversity in different habitats.*

different (p > 0.05; **Table 2**). Dense miombo woodland, farm and swamp exhibited higher number of birds per point count than in open miombo woodland and riverine forest implying that the avian species were more scattered in open miombo woodlands and riverine forests.

The overall mean abundance of avifauna in the WMAs differed significantly (Kruskal-Wallis test, *χ <sup>2</sup>* = 50.13, df = 4, P = 0.03). Kimbanda had the highest mean abundance of species followed by Kisungule (**Figure 3**). There was a significant difference in the mean abundance of avifauna across the five habitats (Kruskal-Wallis test, *χ <sup>2</sup>* = 13.18, df = 4, P = 0.010). Mean abundance of species was significantly higher in farmland than in dense miombo (Mann–Whitney tests, U = 19, P < 0.0001), open miombo woodland (U = 66.5, P < 0.0003), riverine forest (U = 157, P < 0.019) and swamps (U = 93.5, P < 0.004) (**Figure 3**).

The distribution of the 2970 avifauna species recorded in the five habitat types is given in (**Table 1** above; **Figure 4**). Some species were found in more than one habitat type, a total of six species with bronze mannikin (*Lonchura cucullata*) the most abundant (**Figure 5**). Tawny-flanked prinia (*Prinia subflava*), blue-spotted wood dove (*Turtur afer*), common bulbul (*Pycnonotus barbatus*), violet-backed starling (*Cinnyricinclus leucogaster*), and Jameson's firefinch (*Lagonosticta rhodopareia*) were observed in four habitat types, except swamp habitat (see **Figure 5**; Appendix **Table A1**). Southern cordon-bleu (*Uraeginthus bengalus*) was observed in three habitat types and was the second most abundant species recorded


#### **Table 2.**

*Average number of birds per point count in different habitats.*

during this study (**Figure 5**). Other species including pied crow (*Corvus albus*), brown-headed parrot (*Poicephalus cryptoxanthus*)*,* and red-necked francolin (*Pternistis afer*) were observed in three habitat types (see Appendix **Table A1**) whereas black-faced waxbill (*Estrilda erythronotos*) and African pied wagtail

*Distribution of avian species in different habitats within WMAs of the Ruvuma landscape in southern*

*Avifauna species observed foraging in different habitats. Definition of abbreviation used (Demiwo = dense miombo woodland, riverfore = riverine forest, farmland = farmland habitat, opemiwo = open miombo*

*Avifauna in Relation to Habitat Disturbance in Wildlife Management Areas of the Ruvuma…*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97332*

(*Motacilla aguimp*), were observed only in farmland areas.

**Figure 4.**

*woodland).*

**Figure 5.**

*Tanzania.*

**77**

**Figure 3.** *Avian abundance in different habitats of wildlife management areas in southern Tanzania.*

*Avifauna in Relation to Habitat Disturbance in Wildlife Management Areas of the Ruvuma… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97332*

**Figure 4.**

different (p > 0.05; **Table 2**). Dense miombo woodland, farm and swamp exhibited higher number of birds per point count than in open miombo woodland and riverine forest implying that the avian species were more scattered in open miombo

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The overall mean abundance of avifauna in the WMAs differed significantly

abundance of species followed by Kisungule (**Figure 3**). There was a significant difference in the mean abundance of avifauna across the five habitats (Kruskal-

cantly higher in farmland than in dense miombo (Mann–Whitney tests, U = 19, P < 0.0001), open miombo woodland (U = 66.5, P < 0.0003), riverine forest (U = 157, P < 0.019) and swamps (U = 93.5, P < 0.004) (**Figure 3**).

given in (**Table 1** above; **Figure 4**). Some species were found in more than one habitat type, a total of six species with bronze mannikin (*Lonchura cucullata*) the most abundant (**Figure 5**). Tawny-flanked prinia (*Prinia subflava*), blue-spotted wood dove (*Turtur afer*), common bulbul (*Pycnonotus barbatus*), violet-backed starling (*Cinnyricinclus leucogaster*), and Jameson's firefinch (*Lagonosticta rhodopareia*) were observed in four habitat types, except swamp habitat (see **Figure 5**; Appendix **Table A1**). Southern cordon-bleu (*Uraeginthus bengalus*) was observed in three habitat types and was the second most abundant species recorded

**Habitats Average bird count** Dense miombo woodland 6.18a Farm 6.11a Open miombo woodland 3.71b Riverine forest 3.45b swamp 6.48a

The distribution of the 2970 avifauna species recorded in the five habitat types is

*<sup>2</sup>* = 50.13, df = 4, P = 0.03). Kimbanda had the highest mean

*<sup>2</sup>* = 13.18, df = 4, P = 0.010). Mean abundance of species was signifi-

woodlands and riverine forests.

(Kruskal-Wallis test, *χ*

Wallis test, *χ*

**Table 2.**

**Figure 3.**

**76**

*Average number of birds per point count in different habitats.*

*Avian abundance in different habitats of wildlife management areas in southern Tanzania.*

*Avifauna species observed foraging in different habitats. Definition of abbreviation used (Demiwo = dense miombo woodland, riverfore = riverine forest, farmland = farmland habitat, opemiwo = open miombo woodland).*

during this study (**Figure 5**). Other species including pied crow (*Corvus albus*), brown-headed parrot (*Poicephalus cryptoxanthus*)*,* and red-necked francolin (*Pternistis afer*) were observed in three habitat types (see Appendix **Table A1**) whereas black-faced waxbill (*Estrilda erythronotos*) and African pied wagtail (*Motacilla aguimp*), were observed only in farmland areas.

## *Birds - Challenges and Opportunities for Business, Conservation and Research*

Cryptic species like African broadbill (*Smithornis capensis*) and red-capped robin-chat (*Cossypha natalensis*) and understory bird species including red-throated twinspot (*Hypargos niveoguttatus*) were observed only in the riverine forest using mist-nets and point count methods (Appendix **Table A1**). Palearctic migrants including European nightjar (*Caprimulgus europaeus*), European swift (*Apus apus*)*,* and European bee-eater (*Merops apiaster*) were also recorded. Trumpeter hornbill (*Bycanistes bucinator*) is a bird of conservation status that was observed during the study in forest patches.

### **3.2 Species composition and similarities between different habitat types**

We found strong contrast in species composition among habitat types (**Table 3**). The highest species similarities were between open woodland vs. Riverine forest (41%), Farmland vs. Open woodland (24%) and Farmland vs. Riverine forest (21%)


#### **Table 3.**

*Jaccard species composition similarity index (J) between habitat types of the WMAs in Ruvuma landscape, in southern Tanzania. In this table the similarity presented in percentage (%).*

> while dense woodland vs. Swamp areas had no similarity in composition (0%), Open woodland vs. Swamp area (1%) and Farmland vs. Swamp area (2%; **Table 3**). The Jaccard similarity indices among various pairs of habitat types compared

*Cluster analysis of different habitat types based on bird species composition (presence/absence). Definition of abbreviation used (Demiwo = dense miombo woodland, riverfore = riverine forest, farmland = farmland*

*Avifauna in Relation to Habitat Disturbance in Wildlife Management Areas of the Ruvuma…*

From the results, avian species adapted to open miombo woodlands and those adapted to riverine forest were very closely related and far from avian species adapted to swamps (**Figure 7**). Avian species adapted to swamps were separated from all other avian species adapted other habitats (**Figure 7**). Indeed, this entails a need for conservation of swamps to avoid local distinction of swamp adapted

Farmland habitats were observed in all WMAs except in Mbarang'andu where we did not encounter cultivated areas inside the core WMA. Possibly due to the presence of an anti-poaching office established inside WMA by Tanzania Wildlife Management Authority (TAWA, formerly Wildlife Division). In our study, we predicted that there would be higher avian diversity, richness, and abundance in WMAs than in human-modified areas named here as farmlands. We found strong support for this prediction for the species diversity and richness of avifauna but not for abundance. This suggested that the differing occurrence of avifauna species

(**Table 3**; **Figure 6**).

**4. Discussion and conclusion**

*habitat, opemiwo = open miombo woodland).*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97332*

**4.1 Avian species diversity, distribution, and richness**

species.

**79**

**Figure 7.**

#### **Figure 6.**

*Plotted trend line to show species composition similarities between habitat types of the WMAs in Ruvuma landscape, in southern Tanzania. Definition of abbreviation used (dw vs. sw = dense woodland vs. swamp area; dw vs. fm = dense woodland vs. farmland; dw vs. ow = dense woodland vs. open woodland; dw vs. rf = dense woodland vs. riverine forest; fm vs.ow = farmland vs. open woodland; fm vs. rf = farmland vs. riverine forest; fm vs. sw = farmland vs. swamp area; ow vs. rf = open woodland vs. riverine forest; ow vs. sw = open woodland vs. swamp area; rf vs. sw = riverine forest vs. swamp area).*

*Avifauna in Relation to Habitat Disturbance in Wildlife Management Areas of the Ruvuma… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97332*

**Figure 7.**

Cryptic species like African broadbill (*Smithornis capensis*) and red-capped robin-chat (*Cossypha natalensis*) and understory bird species including red-throated twinspot (*Hypargos niveoguttatus*) were observed only in the riverine forest using mist-nets and point count methods (Appendix **Table A1**). Palearctic migrants including European nightjar (*Caprimulgus europaeus*), European swift (*Apus apus*)*,* and European bee-eater (*Merops apiaster*) were also recorded. Trumpeter hornbill (*Bycanistes bucinator*) is a bird of conservation status that was observed during the

*Birds - Challenges and Opportunities for Business, Conservation and Research*

**3.2 Species composition and similarities between different habitat types**

We found strong contrast in species composition among habitat types (**Table 3**). The highest species similarities were between open woodland vs. Riverine forest (41%), Farmland vs. Open woodland (24%) and Farmland vs. Riverine forest (21%)

**Habitat types Dense woodland Open woodland Farmland Riverine Swamp area**

*Jaccard species composition similarity index (J) between habitat types of the WMAs in Ruvuma landscape, in*

*Plotted trend line to show species composition similarities between habitat types of the WMAs in Ruvuma landscape, in southern Tanzania. Definition of abbreviation used (dw vs. sw = dense woodland vs. swamp area; dw vs. fm = dense woodland vs. farmland; dw vs. ow = dense woodland vs. open woodland; dw vs. rf = dense woodland vs. riverine forest; fm vs.ow = farmland vs. open woodland; fm vs. rf = farmland vs. riverine forest; fm vs. sw = farmland vs. swamp area; ow vs. rf = open woodland vs. riverine forest; ow vs. sw = open woodland*

*vs. swamp area; rf vs. sw = riverine forest vs. swamp area).*

*southern Tanzania. In this table the similarity presented in percentage (%).*

**Open woodland** 11 **— —— — Farmland** 15 24 **—— — Riverine forest** 8 41 21 **— — Swamp area** 0 1 25 **—**

**— — —— —**

study in forest patches.

**Table 3.**

**Figure 6.**

**78**

*Cluster analysis of different habitat types based on bird species composition (presence/absence). Definition of abbreviation used (Demiwo = dense miombo woodland, riverfore = riverine forest, farmland = farmland habitat, opemiwo = open miombo woodland).*

while dense woodland vs. Swamp areas had no similarity in composition (0%), Open woodland vs. Swamp area (1%) and Farmland vs. Swamp area (2%; **Table 3**). The Jaccard similarity indices among various pairs of habitat types compared (**Table 3**; **Figure 6**).

From the results, avian species adapted to open miombo woodlands and those adapted to riverine forest were very closely related and far from avian species adapted to swamps (**Figure 7**). Avian species adapted to swamps were separated from all other avian species adapted other habitats (**Figure 7**). Indeed, this entails a need for conservation of swamps to avoid local distinction of swamp adapted species.
