Preface

Inhibitory control (including response-inhibition and interference-control) is a critical neurocognitive skill for navigating cognitive, social, and emotional challenges. It rapidly increases during the preschool period and is important for early cognitive development, as it is a crucial component of executive functioning, self-regulation, and impulsivity. Inhibitory control (IC) involves the ability to suppress automatic but incorrect responses or to resist interference from distracting stimuli, to reduce a non-target's impact on ongoing information processing. Deficits in IC are a hallmark of psychopathology. Reduced inhibitory control may manifest itself at a *motor level* (e.g. hyperactivity); an *attentional level* (distractibility and difficulty paying attention); and at a *behavioral level* (e.g. impulsive conducts).

Inhibitory control training (ICT) is a novel intervention in which participants learn to associate appetitive cues with inhibition of behavior. Indeed, it can be conceptualized as the ability to stop, change, or delay a behavioral response.

It is a promising approach in the treatment of appetitive behavior, considered as the active, goal-seeking, and exploratory phase of behavior that precedes the more stereotyped consummatory act. Upon reaching the goal, appetitive behavior normally ceases. In some cases, this does not happen.

This book aims to bring together knowledge on the topic, considering research, clinical trials, and the forensic field of intervention. Authors offer original contributions to develop new perspectives in the field of inhibitory control training research thanks to the originality of their ideas, theories, research, scientific results, and discussions.

The first chapter is on the fundamental question of the nature of inhibitory control during the early childhood years, considering the impact of culture and environment on its development. Authors investigate a relevant issue that is the improvement of the capacity to monitor and control thoughts and behaviors by means of ICT. Research on the effects of musical education on executive functions development has generated increasing interest across the scientific community. The second chapter deals with the effects of musical training on inhibitory control in adolescence. The scientific community pays attention also to the link between addiction, developmental deficit, and the appearance of neurocognitive-behavioral dysfunctions. The third chapter investigates inter-individual variations within the addiction group in respect to neurobiological mechanisms of addiction and the risk associated with a limited response inhibition. Authors detail response inhibition theories and methods, summarizing cognitive training intervention in the context of addictive behaviors as well as brain stimulation and neurofeedback techniques. The fourth chapter investigates a relevant issue that is how to improve deductive reasoning abilities thanks to a metacognitive training procedure on executive functions in secondary school students suffering from binge drinking. The fifth chapter outlines alterations of executive functions and inhibitory control following (and aggravated) by conditions of individual and social vulnerability. Authors discuss a critical thinking skills intervention, BrainWise, which is designed to teach

inhibitory and self-regulation skills to children, youth, and adults. The last chapter focuses on executive determinants of aggressive behavior and its manifestations. Inhibitory control dysfunctions have implications for refining and targeting training and rehabilitation programs aimed at reducing aggressive behavior. Authors propose the possibility of intervening in terms of ICT. The chapter reviews studies that highlight the relevance of initiating a shift of paradigm from a oneperson-cerebral functioning model to a social interactive-cerebral functioning model of impulsive aggression.

Considering the above, this book can be considered a fruitful synopsis of perspectives, methods, empirical evidences, and international references. Moreover, it represents an extraordinary opportunity to outline new horizons on ICT clinical applications.

> *No man is free who is not master of himself.*  (Epictetus)

> > *Control is the source of strategic power.* (Noam Chomsky)

> > > **1**

**Chapter 1**

**Abstract**

training programs.

**1. Introduction**

Early Childhood

A View from the Start: A Review

of Inhibitory Control Training in

Young children's capacity to monitor and control their thoughts and behaviors is influenced largely by inhibitory control, which grows rapidly during this age due to brain maturation. This capacity has important implications for children's development, including academic and social outcomes, and has been shown to be influenced by culture and exposure to adverse life events such as poverty. Research suggests that this capacity, importantly, may be largely trainable, with appropriate

During the childhood years and into adolescence, the brain grows tremendously, causing a significant change in cognitive capacities. In later years of childhood and adolescence, many of the neurological changes correspond with advancements in perspective taking and reasoning; however, evidence from the early childhood years suggests that these changes more closely align with advancements in inhibitory control and executive functions more broadly [1, 2]. However, there are distinct developmental changes which inform our understanding of inhibitory control and which merit further discussion. Regardless, these developmental changes have profound impacts on children's development overall, including academic and social outcomes. It is important to recognize, however, that children's capacities to inhibit a prepotent response have been shown to vary by culture, as well as exposure to early adverse life events, and therefore a consideration of environment should be included when attempting to conduct research in this area or when making important policy or curriculum decisions. Nevertheless, research which utilizes inhibitory control (IC) training specifically within the early childhood ages demonstrates positive results, with more intensive training yielding more promising results.

**Keywords:** early childhood, executive function, cross-cultural, low-income

**2. Nature of inhibitory control during the early childhood years**

Research has consistently demonstrated that the preschool years are a developmental time during which children experience profound growth in their ability to inhibit an unwanted response [3]. Younger preschool-age children are more likely to perseverate in their errors across multiple trials [4] by repeating a maladaptive

*Erin Ruth Baker, Qingyang Liu and Rong Huang*

**Sara Palermo, PhD and Massimo Bartoli, MSc** Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Italy

## **Chapter 1**
