*3.3.1 Discovering the flora and phenology in surrounding areas*

With eDNA analysis, we can better understand the flora of the areas around the hives. This method could only identify plant DNAs that were visited by bees. Furthermore, this method may not show a correlation between the amount of DNA and the volume of existing plants. Despite these disadvantages, honey eDNA analysis is a effective tool to verify the general trends of honey origins.

#### *3.3.2 Honeybees are experts at flower hunting*

Bees are much better at finding flowers than humans. Occasionally, plant species that humans are incapable of identifying may be found in the DNA of honey. In the honey produced near Mt. Fuji, the DNA of several types of plants which were not identified in and around the production area were detected. One of them, *Gaultheria pyroloides,* distributes in the alpine area of Mt. Fuji, which was more than 8 km away in terms of horizontal distance and 1500 m in vertical distance from the beehives. This simple result provides two possibilities that this plant grows at low attitudes or the bees fly over a distance of more than 8 km. It is a new scientific discovery in any case.

#### *3.3.3 Importance of woody plants as a source for honey*

It is typically thought that honeybees mainly use grassland plants. This may be because we usually observe only house flowers near the ground. The honey made by our bees contains a lot of woody plants, and we can also see such examples in previous studies showing that woody plants are more prominent as nectar plants than previously thought [50].


**75**

**Type** *Pterospermum heterophyllum*

*Prunus* sp.4

*Rosa* sp. Rosaceae spp.2

Myrtaceae spp.1

Asteraceae

1

spp.2

*Weinmannia*

6997

spp.

*Acer* sp. *Picrasma* 

*quassioides*

Anacardiaceae

spp.1

Fabaceae spp.1

*Prunus* sp.2 *Prunus* sp.3 *Populus* sp. *Lysiloma sabicu*

Monimiaceae

5039

spp.

*Melicytus* spp.

Asteraceae

1

1468

13

4763

2920

145

183

1818

1310

spp.3

4766

3147

457

2 13 6403

6199

> 3

3 5511

89

4678

688 461 461

1174

2483

6184

4733 5237

1174

2483

6184

4733

7

35

10 10

5

5

2

1 8

1971

6440

339

675

373

890

285

400

6540

22

1

1082 2

1107

2

1 1

1396

9395

6972

1

2786

2013

110

1

7202

460

583

1275

6905

4859

392

3

5

11

20

16

13

18

1 5092 6039 7856

3

14

**Monofloral**

**Mixed**

> 10,169

4

*Application of Environmental DNA: Honey Bee behavior and Ecosystems for Sustainable…*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92717*

#### *Modern Beekeeping - Bases for Sustainable Production*


#### *Application of Environmental DNA: Honey Bee behavior and Ecosystems for Sustainable… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92717*

*Modern Beekeeping - Bases for Sustainable Production*

**74**

**Type** Labeling name

Manuka

*Phellodendron* 

*Fagopyrum* 

*esculentum*

(*Leptospermum* 

*amurense*

*scoparium*)

New

Tokyo,

Tokyo,

India

Romania

Switzerland

Okayama,

Saitama,

Kyoto,

Tokyo,

Okayama,

Mexico

Switzerland

Switzerland

Japan

Japan

Japan

Japan

Japan

Zealand

Asteraceae

34,767

66,624

54,573

1 13,640

63,643

40,622

18,815

18,583

20,915

14,749

596

877

3971

273

497

371

7853

38,068

2642

15

49

spp.1

*Robinia* 

3

*pseudoacacia*

*Quercus* sp. *Toxicodendron*

sp.

Rosaceae spp.1

*Actinidia* sp. *Persoonia* spp.

*Wisteria* 

*floribunda*

Fabaceae spp.3

*Prunus* sp.1 Lauraceae spp.

*Aesculus* 

*turbinata*

*Dalbergia* sp. *Cryptocarya* sp.

*Prosopis* sp.

13,117

10,885

1236

790

3 1

278

3279

1846

2

490

122

645

14,680 1 1

57

12,754

4491

15,956

5396

8330

7245

2

1

2

301

1759

1499

2

246

2342

648 14,884

27

3

4

27,832

1560

18,107

387 15

12

3438

5863

3205

23,550

8569

21

9

840

589

2014

2422

865

6

4070

577

28,172

106

467

4634

3321

1725

2803

28,530

324

1

72

1

2413

1 187

54

8

890

1223

9

3753

28,996

9758

2059

1439

3558

2784

2121

2809

35,956

208

1600

2

21

3

Japan

Japan

and Country

Specific name

**Monofloral** *Robinia pseudoacacia*

*Aesculus* 

—

Forest

Alpine

plant

*turbinata*

**Mixed**


*of DNA. Based on data from IDEA Consultants, Inc.*

**77**

*Application of Environmental DNA: Honey Bee behavior and Ecosystems for Sustainable…*

We found the DNA of the Varroa mite *Varroa destructor* in our honey throughout the seasons. Most of the time during the study period, we could not find the Varroa mite by visual inspection. In other words, the presence of parasites that humans

In general, the amount of DNA in a sample is correlated with the abundance of organisms. Therefore, by monitoring the amount of the DNA of the Varroa mite in honey, we can predict the level of parasite damage in advance and help as early

The presence of the DNA of aphids and scale insects in honey suggests that the honey is honeydew honey. Honeydew honey is made not from nectar, but honeydew refined by parasite insects on plants. It is widely produced as a specialty product in Germany and New Zealand. In Japan, honeydew honey was not detected until 2019. The bees we keep in the forest make dark honey in August when there are few flowers. We assumed that the honey would contain honeydew. Analysis of whole eukaryotes using the eDNA analysis revealed the presence of aphid DNA. This result suggests that honeydew honey is a constituent in our honey (**Table**

**3.4 Beekeeping using the eDNA technique can revitalize communities**

In the 2000s, urban beekeeping began to appear in various cities around the world [7, 51, 52]. In many cases, it does not aim to produce honey but is used as a means to revitalize the community and improve the quality of life. For example, beekeeping at the White House and the Paris Opera has a greater effect on appealing to the environmental friendliness of public venues than its value as a place for honey

On the other hand, it may be used as a simple method for monitoring the quality of the urban environment. In general, it is difficult for civilians to measure and monitor the quality of the living environment by professional and scientific methods. However, eDNA analysis can be the "litmus paper" or "canary" to assess the quality of the environment. It is possible to grasp the flora, phenology, and the safety of the surrounding environment by combining with the analysis of substances that affect health such as pesticides. Such activities can be expected to

In an apartment house in Tokyo, beekeeping began on the green space on the roof. Residents gathered every week to enjoy harvested honey in a rooftop green area that was rarely used before. In urban areas of Japan, the lack of connections between residents has become a major social concern nowadays, but in this house, a sense of cooperation was born, thanks to the opportunities brought about by beekeeping. Residents planted seasonal flowers in the green spaces managed by each house, cooperated to repel hornets, and voluntarily cleaned the communal space. As a result, residents' autonomy and governance improved. It is also said to have

Kasumigaseki in Tokyo's Chiyoda Ward is the administrative center of Japan, where central government ministries are concentrated. An NGO has been beekeep

ing for several years on the library rooftop in Hibiya Park adjacent to the Ministry of the Environment [53]. Here, government officials, corporate employees, and

**2**).


*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92717*

countermeasures.

production.

*3.4.1 Urban beekeeping is spreading*

*3.4.2 Honeybees as an indicator of urban biodiversity*

improve citizens' environmental literacy.

increased the real estate value.

*3.3.4 What does the DNA of animal origin in honey indicate?*

cannot find can be examined by the eDNA analysis.

#### *Modern Beekeeping - Bases for Sustainable Production*

*Application of Environmental DNA: Honey Bee behavior and Ecosystems for Sustainable… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92717*

#### *3.3.4 What does the DNA of animal origin in honey indicate?*

We found the DNA of the Varroa mite *Varroa destructor* in our honey throughout the seasons. Most of the time during the study period, we could not find the Varroa mite by visual inspection. In other words, the presence of parasites that humans cannot find can be examined by the eDNA analysis.

In general, the amount of DNA in a sample is correlated with the abundance of organisms. Therefore, by monitoring the amount of the DNA of the Varroa mite in honey, we can predict the level of parasite damage in advance and help as early countermeasures.

The presence of the DNA of aphids and scale insects in honey suggests that the honey is honeydew honey. Honeydew honey is made not from nectar, but honeydew refined by parasite insects on plants. It is widely produced as a specialty product in Germany and New Zealand. In Japan, honeydew honey was not detected until 2019. The bees we keep in the forest make dark honey in August when there are few flowers. We assumed that the honey would contain honeydew. Analysis of whole eukaryotes using the eDNA analysis revealed the presence of aphid DNA. This result suggests that honeydew honey is a constituent in our honey (**Table 2**).

#### **3.4 Beekeeping using the eDNA technique can revitalize communities**

#### *3.4.1 Urban beekeeping is spreading*

*Modern Beekeeping - Bases for Sustainable Production*

1

**76**

**Type** *Lopezia* 

*langmaniae*

*Argemone* 

*mexicana*

*Filipendula* 

3850

> 11

> 2

254

3680

92

63

6

3583 159

11

549

824

1561

*vulgaris*

*Cornus* 

*controversa*

*Kerria japonica*

*Podocarpus* sp.

*Leucaena* 

3387

*leucocephala*

*Asparagus* sp. *Phellodendron* 

*amurense*

Asteraceae

20

1158

80

spp.4

Number of

31

11

16

31

21

36

36

38

42

31

30

23

45

25

detected

species

Presence of

N.D.

N.D.

N.D.

1st

1st

1st *A result of eDNA analysis of honey sold at Supermarkets. All honey contained DNA from multiple plant species. Of the 11 samples sold as single flower honey, 4 actually had the highest amount* 

1st

2nd

2nd

2nd

3rd

—

—

N.D.

labeling species

**Table 1.** *of DNA. Based on data from IDEA Consultants, Inc.*

1676

48

100

4

1549

379

1692

46

614 1

1

4

1346

1926

2

3430

**Monofloral**

**Mixed**

4747 4092

318

In the 2000s, urban beekeeping began to appear in various cities around the world [7, 51, 52]. In many cases, it does not aim to produce honey but is used as a means to revitalize the community and improve the quality of life. For example, beekeeping at the White House and the Paris Opera has a greater effect on appealing to the environmental friendliness of public venues than its value as a place for honey production.

#### *3.4.2 Honeybees as an indicator of urban biodiversity*

On the other hand, it may be used as a simple method for monitoring the quality of the urban environment. In general, it is difficult for civilians to measure and monitor the quality of the living environment by professional and scientific methods. However, eDNA analysis can be the "litmus paper" or "canary" to assess the quality of the environment. It is possible to grasp the flora, phenology, and the safety of the surrounding environment by combining with the analysis of substances that affect health such as pesticides. Such activities can be expected to improve citizens' environmental literacy.

In an apartment house in Tokyo, beekeeping began on the green space on the roof. Residents gathered every week to enjoy harvested honey in a rooftop green area that was rarely used before. In urban areas of Japan, the lack of connections between residents has become a major social concern nowadays, but in this house, a sense of cooperation was born, thanks to the opportunities brought about by beekeeping. Residents planted seasonal flowers in the green spaces managed by each house, cooperated to repel hornets, and voluntarily cleaned the communal space. As a result, residents' autonomy and governance improved. It is also said to have increased the real estate value.

Kasumigaseki in Tokyo's Chiyoda Ward is the administrative center of Japan, where central government ministries are concentrated. An NGO has been beekeeping for several years on the library rooftop in Hibiya Park adjacent to the Ministry of the Environment [53]. Here, government officials, corporate employees, and


#### *Modern Beekeeping - Bases for Sustainable Production*

**Table**

**79**

**Author details**

Tomonori Matsuzawa1,2\*, Ryo Kohsaka

provided the original work is properly cited.

1

1 Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

2 Biodiversity Research Center, IDEA Consultants, Inc., Yokohama, Japan

\*Address all correspondence to: mtomonor@ideacon.co.jp

and Yuta Uchiyama

1

*Application of Environmental DNA: Honey Bee behavior and Ecosystems for Sustainable…*

local residents cooperate to improve environmental literacy through beekeeping. They conducted eDNA analysis as one of the methods to assess the biodiversity of

The analysis showed that urban areas also have diverse sources of honey, and some bees flew to the imperial palace, where public access is prohibited. These characteristic results have enough momentum to stimulate the curiosity of the

This work was supported by IDEA Consultants, Inc. I am grateful to Tomoyasu Shirako and Shigeru Tabata. This work was funded by the JSPS KAKENHI Grant

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92717*

participating citizens and enhance future activities.

the city.

**Acknowledgements**

Numbers JP20K12398.

 *Eukaryotic DNA contained in honey. A list of eukaryotes other than honeybee in DNA. These data are derived from honey that we produce ourselves. There were several types of mites, such as Varroa, aphids, and multiple molds. Clam species, does not live near our apiary, was also detected. Based on data from IDEA Consultants, Inc.* *Application of Environmental DNA: Honey Bee behavior and Ecosystems for Sustainable… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92717*

local residents cooperate to improve environmental literacy through beekeeping. They conducted eDNA analysis as one of the methods to assess the biodiversity of the city.

The analysis showed that urban areas also have diverse sources of honey, and some bees flew to the imperial palace, where public access is prohibited. These characteristic results have enough momentum to stimulate the curiosity of the participating citizens and enhance future activities.
