*3.1.5 How is this recent discovery relevant to beekeepers?*

These storage behaviour efficiencies will have important implications for the long term survival of honeybee colonies. The data from the above experiment show that bees from some colonies exhibit efficient selective storage strategies and that bees from other colonies do not. These strategies have the potential to directly or indirectly separate toxins and pathogens with the hive. If beekeepers can determine which bees exhibit more effective storage strategies they will be able to select colonies that exhibit such preferred traits.

The DR experiments above and the in the following section were conducted using non-invasive, state of the art 'High Tech' Science. They have shown behaviour that is not apparent to the naked eye because humans cannot visually detect different sugar concentrations in honey comb cells. The next section will describe a simple method for beekeepers to select bees/Queens from one colony in preference over bees from another colony. This simple method will place beekeepers at the forefront of protecting their colonies at the grassroots level by improving honeybee husbandry.

#### *3.1.6 A simple selection method for the modern beekeeper*

The DR experiment above, indicated that honey bees show preferences when storing food and importantly, when feeding other bees via trophallaxis. As a secondary effect, some honeybees might also 'preferentially' spread pathogens/medication, which is contained in nectar/syrup, to other bees within their hive. The experiment below demonstrates that bees from certain colonies show 'preferences' while feeding other bees and that bees from other hives do not. The simple method, developed during the experiment for assessing food and pathogen transmission in bees, will help beekeepers to select and breed bees that have a higher propensity for spreading damaging pathogen or if required for spreading invaluable medication within a hive. This will help place beekeepers in a position to select more efficient bees and use their own breeding programs to help mitigate global bee declines, at the grass roots level.

#### *3.1.7 Testing and selecting bees*

To test whether bees show preference when feeding other bees, a simple segregation cup was developed, **Figure 10**.

Collection cups have been used previously to study bees [66] however this new system is the first system to segregate bees within the cup. Segregating bees within the cup enables one group of bees to interact bees from another section and prevents them from interacting with bees from a third section. The mode of

#### **Figure 10.**

*(a)A segregation cup featuring the unique 'T' piece (yellow arrow) which separates three groups of bees. (b) The 'T' piece allows trophallaxis between bees in upper chamber and lower chambers (green arrows) and prevents all contact between bees in the two lower chambers (red cross) [65].*

segregation is provided by the unique 'T' piece shown in **Figure 10**. The 'T' piece is inserted in the cup before the bees are collected. The horizontal portion of the 'T' piece is a 3 mm mesh and the vertical portion is solid Perspex. For a full description of the new segregation cup system see [65].

The segregation cup system enables beekeepers to collect one, two or three different groups of bees. **Figure 10** shows a schematic diagram of bees from hive 2 (H2) in the top section and bees from hive 1 (H1) and hive 2 (H2) in the bottom sections. The top section has a syrup feeder which means that the bees in the bottom sections can only receive food from bees in the top section through the mesh via trophallaxis. Bees that do not receive food from the top group commence starving within a few hours.

This simple system quickly demonstrates to the beekeeper which bees the top group prefers to feed via trophallaxis. The group of bees in the section that does not starve are the preferred bees.

#### *3.1.8 Selecting bees for improved treatment*

The recent finding that lithium chloride could be used as a medication added to syrup to treat Varroa destructor infestations [67] would be a good example of improved treatment by utilising better distribution of medication within the hive.

The new segregation cup system showed that when bees from H2 were placed in the top section, they had a significant trophallactic preference for H2 bees and tended to ignore H1 bees which subsequently starved. However, when bees from H1 were placed in the top section, they did not show a trophallactic preference. Bees from H1 fed both bottom section groups equally and bees from both H1 and H2 in the bottom sections survived for as long as the bees in the top section.

It has been established that, due to bees drifting in an apiary, there are commonly bees from other hives present in all hives. In fact, there can be as many as 38% at any given time [68].

As gauged by the level of H1 bee mortality [65], H2 foragers preferentially fed H2 bees over H1 bees. H1 type bees showed fewer preferences and will feed more

**165**

*Diagnostic Radioentomology*

those with H1 type bees.

quent colonies.

**4. Conclusions**

globally.

colony health/survival over H1 type bees.

their hive management knowledge.

and colony health at the grass roots level.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89005*

*3.1.9 Selecting bees for improved health*

bees within the hive trophallactically. Therefore, beekeepers can choose to breed from H1 'type' bees that will spread medication in syrup via trophallaxis to more bees within the hive. After breeding these colonies, beekeepers can then assess

In light of the current trend in global colony losses, it is crucial to mention here that nowadays, nectar brought in by forager bees might also contain constituents such as lethal or sub-lethal levels of toxins from agrichemicals or pathogens [9]. Although it is not clear whether honeybees can detect agrichemicals or pathogens in nectar, H2 type bees would pass on toxins/pathogens that are in nectar preferentially via trophallaxis. This would be an effective way to prevent up to 38% of bees [68] receiving toxins/pathogens and it would reduce widespread contamination in the hive and thus help prevent bee losses. In addition, there are plants in several genera from at least 11 families [61, 62] that naturally produce nectar which contain constituents that have varying degrees of toxicity to bees. Foragers bring these naturally occurring nectars back to the hive. Thus colonies containing H2 type bees that show more preference would have an evolutionary advantage over bees such as

During times when the environment is less conducive to colony health, such as when agrichemicals are used on crops or when EFB, AFB and Nosema are prevalent, H2 type bees would bring these back in the nectar and spread them within the hive via trophallaxis with less efficiency than H1 type bees because H2 type bees show preferences for H2 bees only. H1 type bees show fewer preferences and are likely to feed all bees within the colony via trophallaxis. This behaviour will spread the incoming nectar more rapidly throughout the colony. The new segregation cup system can test for this behaviour and beekeepers can select H2 type bees for better

It is important to mention that on some occasions beekeepers might select H1 type bees and on other occasions they might want to select H2 type bees. The new segregation cup system can enable beekeepers to make these choices. Once the choice is made, beekeepers can then develop their own breeding programs by breeding queens from those colonies to propagate the desired behaviours in subse-

This chapter described new DR methods and how they can help beekeepers make informed choices. The chapter detailed how current knowledge can be studied in novel ways non-invasively and how DR methods brought to light unexpected new knowledge that is beneficial to the preservation of honeybees

of the art technology. DR methods helped to discover a new species, previously undescribed bee behaviour and a new selection system to help beekeepers improve

DR is an applied science that has a direct impact on modern beekeeping. Although it is very high tech, it also provides links to new methods which help beekeepers make their own informed decisions to improve bee husbandry methods

Descriptions and examples were given to describe DR at the cutting edge of state

whether there are also greater survival rates with those colonies.

*Modern Beekeeping - Bases for Sustainable Production*

of the new segregation cup system see [65].

*prevents all contact between bees in the two lower chambers (red cross) [65].*

within a few hours.

**Figure 10.**

starve are the preferred bees.

38% at any given time [68].

*3.1.8 Selecting bees for improved treatment*

segregation is provided by the unique 'T' piece shown in **Figure 10**. The 'T' piece is inserted in the cup before the bees are collected. The horizontal portion of the 'T' piece is a 3 mm mesh and the vertical portion is solid Perspex. For a full description

*(a)A segregation cup featuring the unique 'T' piece (yellow arrow) which separates three groups of bees. (b) The 'T' piece allows trophallaxis between bees in upper chamber and lower chambers (green arrows) and* 

The segregation cup system enables beekeepers to collect one, two or three different groups of bees. **Figure 10** shows a schematic diagram of bees from hive 2 (H2) in the top section and bees from hive 1 (H1) and hive 2 (H2) in the bottom sections. The top section has a syrup feeder which means that the bees in the bottom sections can only receive food from bees in the top section through the mesh via trophallaxis. Bees that do not receive food from the top group commence starving

This simple system quickly demonstrates to the beekeeper which bees the top group prefers to feed via trophallaxis. The group of bees in the section that does not

The recent finding that lithium chloride could be used as a medication added to syrup to treat Varroa destructor infestations [67] would be a good example of improved treatment by utilising better distribution of medication within the hive. The new segregation cup system showed that when bees from H2 were placed in the top section, they had a significant trophallactic preference for H2 bees and tended to ignore H1 bees which subsequently starved. However, when bees from H1 were placed in the top section, they did not show a trophallactic preference. Bees from H1 fed both bottom section groups equally and bees from both H1 and H2 in

It has been established that, due to bees drifting in an apiary, there are commonly bees from other hives present in all hives. In fact, there can be as many as

As gauged by the level of H1 bee mortality [65], H2 foragers preferentially fed H2 bees over H1 bees. H1 type bees showed fewer preferences and will feed more

the bottom sections survived for as long as the bees in the top section.

**164**

bees within the hive trophallactically. Therefore, beekeepers can choose to breed from H1 'type' bees that will spread medication in syrup via trophallaxis to more bees within the hive. After breeding these colonies, beekeepers can then assess whether there are also greater survival rates with those colonies.
