*3.1.1 The interesting discovery*

Soon we discovered patterns that were previously unreported appearing on the honeycomb. Some colonies formed these patterns and some did not. **Video 3** (Flying through an apidea hive) and **Figure 8** show examples of these patterns.

Now, for these marking experiments, there are only two possible pathways that a cell can have only 50% sucrose solution or 70% sucrose solution in it. For a full description of these pathways see [52] and **Figure 9**.

#### **Figure 8.**

*A DR scan of a honey comb showing patchy distribution of cells containing honey with differing sugar concentrations. The marked 'green' cell patches contained only 70% sucrose syrup and the 'blue' unmarked cell patches contained only 50% sucrose syrup [52].*

#### **Figure 9.**

*A schematic diagram of the two possible pathways for either marked (green) or unmarked (blue) sucrose solutions to enter a cell unmixed [52].*

#### *3.1.2 Discussion and results*

The data from the experiment, showed significant differences in the green/blue/ mixed patch ratios. This implies possible behavioural influences on patch ratios. These behavioural influences are likely to be actions by bees making decisions on where to place honey of similar sugar concentrations. As in [53], it is likely that bees from some colonies deposit nectar according to contextual information, such as the location of other cells in the hive containing honey of similar sugar concentrations, and that bees from other colonies do not.

### *3.1.3 Some honeybee colonies are more efficient than others*

These behaviours are influencing the honey storage patterns and are probably based on achieving optimal storage strategies. In this experiment the data indicate, as do those of [54–56], that honeybee colonies show a preference for storing honey according to sugar concentrations in the nectar. Therefore, one optimal storage strategy would be for storer bees to return to cell patches containing cells with similar sugar concentrations until all the cells in those patches were full. This strategy would reduce search time and thus increase storing behaviour efficiency. The DR images in this study clearly show that honeybees are producing these similar sugar concentration cell patches [52].

#### *3.1.4 Can this behaviour help save the colony?*

Storing honey in cell patches has benefits other than for those of ripening honey. Nectar collected by honeybees from different foraging patches (either natural or agricultural patches) will have differing sugar concentrations simply because the plants in these patches are growing under different local ambient conditions. In light of the current trend in global colony losses, it is crucial to mention here that the nectar from these plants might also contain other differences in constituents such as lethal or sub-lethal levels of toxins from agrichemicals and other sources [57–59]. Honey storage strategies, like those shown in this experiment, would be based on information such as sensing the sugar concentrations in incoming nectar and that of the ripening honey in the cells. Although it is not clear whether honeybees can detect agrichemicals in nectar or honey, as was shown in this experiment, they might store toxin-containing nectars separately from toxin-free nectars indirectly by way of sensing the nectars' different sugar concentrations. This would be an effective way to prevent all the honey from being contaminated and it would

**163**

*3.1.7 Testing and selecting bees*

tion cup was developed, **Figure 10**.

*Diagnostic Radioentomology*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89005*

bees store food indiscriminately [52].

colonies that exhibit such preferred traits.

*3.1.5 How is this recent discovery relevant to beekeepers?*

*3.1.6 A simple selection method for the modern beekeeper*

reduce widespread toxin contamination in the hive and thus help prevent bee losses. The data from [60] also supports that honeybees store pollen with high levels of chlorothalonil separately in entombed cells which is a phenomenon similar to the

We should also consider that there are plants in several genera from at least 11 families [61, 62] that naturally produce nectar which contain constituents that have varying degrees of toxicity to bees and humans. There are also plants that produce toxic pollen [63, 64]. Forager bees bring these naturally occurring nectar and pollen back to the hive. In evolutionary terms, these naturally occurring toxins in pollen and nectar have provided the selective pressure for honeybees to improve their food storage strategies. Thus colonies that exhibit storage strategies which separate toxic from non-toxic food would have an evolutionary advantage over colonies whose

These storage behaviour efficiencies will have important implications for the long term survival of honeybee colonies. The data from the above experiment show that bees from some colonies exhibit efficient selective storage strategies and that bees from other colonies do not. These strategies have the potential to directly or indirectly separate toxins and pathogens with the hive. If beekeepers can determine which bees exhibit more effective storage strategies they will be able to select

The DR experiments above and the in the following section were conducted using non-invasive, state of the art 'High Tech' Science. They have shown behaviour that is not apparent to the naked eye because humans cannot visually detect different sugar concentrations in honey comb cells. The next section will describe a simple method for beekeepers to select bees/Queens from one colony in preference over bees from another colony. This simple method will place beekeepers at the forefront of protect-

ing their colonies at the grassroots level by improving honeybee husbandry.

The DR experiment above, indicated that honey bees show preferences when storing food and importantly, when feeding other bees via trophallaxis. As a secondary effect, some honeybees might also 'preferentially' spread pathogens/medication, which is contained in nectar/syrup, to other bees within their hive. The experiment below demonstrates that bees from certain colonies show 'preferences' while feeding other bees and that bees from other hives do not. The simple method, developed during the experiment for assessing food and pathogen transmission in bees, will help beekeepers to select and breed bees that have a higher propensity for spreading damaging pathogen or if required for spreading invaluable medication within a hive. This will help place beekeepers in a position to select more efficient bees and use their own breeding programs to help mitigate global bee declines, at the grass roots level.

To test whether bees show preference when feeding other bees, a simple segrega-

Collection cups have been used previously to study bees [66] however this new system is the first system to segregate bees within the cup. Segregating bees within the cup enables one group of bees to interact bees from another section and prevents them from interacting with bees from a third section. The mode of

patchy honey storage pattern behaviour shown in this experiment.

#### *Diagnostic Radioentomology DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89005*

*Modern Beekeeping - Bases for Sustainable Production*

*3.1.2 Discussion and results*

*sucrose solutions to enter a cell unmixed [52].*

**Figure 9.**

and that bees from other colonies do not.

*3.1.4 Can this behaviour help save the colony?*

*3.1.3 Some honeybee colonies are more efficient than others*

The data from the experiment, showed significant differences in the green/blue/ mixed patch ratios. This implies possible behavioural influences on patch ratios. These behavioural influences are likely to be actions by bees making decisions on where to place honey of similar sugar concentrations. As in [53], it is likely that bees from some colonies deposit nectar according to contextual information, such as the location of other cells in the hive containing honey of similar sugar concentrations,

*A schematic diagram of the two possible pathways for either marked (green) or unmarked (blue)* 

These behaviours are influencing the honey storage patterns and are probably based

Storing honey in cell patches has benefits other than for those of ripening honey. Nectar collected by honeybees from different foraging patches (either natural or agricultural patches) will have differing sugar concentrations simply because the plants in these patches are growing under different local ambient conditions. In light of the current trend in global colony losses, it is crucial to mention here that the nectar from these plants might also contain other differences in constituents such as lethal or sub-lethal levels of toxins from agrichemicals and other sources [57–59]. Honey storage strategies, like those shown in this experiment, would be based on information such as sensing the sugar concentrations in incoming nectar and that of the ripening honey in the cells. Although it is not clear whether honeybees can detect agrichemicals in nectar or honey, as was shown in this experiment, they might store toxin-containing nectars separately from toxin-free nectars indirectly by way of sensing the nectars' different sugar concentrations. This would be an effective way to prevent all the honey from being contaminated and it would

on achieving optimal storage strategies. In this experiment the data indicate, as do those of [54–56], that honeybee colonies show a preference for storing honey according to sugar concentrations in the nectar. Therefore, one optimal storage strategy would be for storer bees to return to cell patches containing cells with similar sugar concentrations until all the cells in those patches were full. This strategy would reduce search time and thus increase storing behaviour efficiency. The DR images in this study clearly show that honeybees are producing these similar sugar concentration cell patches [52].

**162**

reduce widespread toxin contamination in the hive and thus help prevent bee losses. The data from [60] also supports that honeybees store pollen with high levels of chlorothalonil separately in entombed cells which is a phenomenon similar to the patchy honey storage pattern behaviour shown in this experiment.

We should also consider that there are plants in several genera from at least 11 families [61, 62] that naturally produce nectar which contain constituents that have varying degrees of toxicity to bees and humans. There are also plants that produce toxic pollen [63, 64]. Forager bees bring these naturally occurring nectar and pollen back to the hive. In evolutionary terms, these naturally occurring toxins in pollen and nectar have provided the selective pressure for honeybees to improve their food storage strategies. Thus colonies that exhibit storage strategies which separate toxic from non-toxic food would have an evolutionary advantage over colonies whose bees store food indiscriminately [52].
