Meet the editor

Dr. Tania Spohr finished her PhD in Morphological Sciences at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, when she was honored with the prize FAPERJ 30 Years because her PhD thesis was considered the best thesis in her field in the state of Rio de Janeiro in 2009. Her PhD thesis also won the Carlos Chagas Filho Award because it was considered the best PhD thesis of the Morphological Sciences Graduate Program in UFRJ in that year.

Presently, she is a research associate scientist at the Instituto Estadual do Cérebro Paulo Niemeyer in Rio de Janeiro. Her research interest covers the areas of glial cells (healthy and pathological). She has more than 20 research articles published and five book chapters.

Contents

**Section 1**

*by Juan A. Orellana*

*and Vivaldo Moura-Neto*

**Section 2**

*and Sura Wanessa Santos Rocha*

*by Allison Soung and Robyn S. Klein*

**Preface III**

Neuroscience **1**

**Chapter 1 3**

**Chapter 2 15**

**Chapter 3 35**

**Chapter 4 63**

Neuropathology **79**

**Chapter 5 81**

**Chapter 6 109**

Astrocytic S100B, Blood-Brain Barrier and Neurodegenerative Diseases

*by Anuradha Krishnan, Hao Wu and Venkat Venkataraman*

*by Juliana de Mattos Coelho-Aguiar, Carla Pires Veríssimo, Deiziane Viana da Silva Costa, Beatriz Bastos de Moraes Thomasi,* 

*by Ana Karolina Santana Nunes, Haniel Soares Fernandes* 

*Ana Carina Bon Frauches, Fabiana Pereira Ribeiro, Ana Lucia Tavares Gomes, Gerly Anne de Castro Brito* 

The Enteric Glial Network Acts in the Maintenance of Intestinal

Involvement of Astrocytes in the Process of Metabolic Syndrome

Astrocytes and Inflammatory Processes in Alzheimer's Disease

*Martin Aldasoro, Jose M. Vila, Constanza Aldasoro and Adrián Jordá*

*by Soraya L. Valles, Federico Burguet, Antonio Iradi,* 

Astrocytes: Initiators of and Responders to Inflammation

Synaptic Functions of Astroglial Hemichannels

Homeostasis and in Intestinal Disorders

## Contents


**Chapter 7 131** Astrocytes in Pathogenesis of Multiple Sclerosis and Potential Translation into Clinic *by Izrael Michal, Slutsky Shalom Guy and Revel Michel*

Preface

It was the German pathologist Rudolf Virchow who described glial cells for the first time. In 1846, he analyzed postmortem human tissues, and considered those cells to be merely a "glue" having only a passive supporting role. Nowadays, glial cells are considered more than passive components and have become active partners with neurons. Thus, they seem to be much more actively involved in brain function than was formerly thought. Glial cells comprise microglia, oligodendrocytes, and astrocytes in the central nervous system, and Schwann cells, satellite cells, and enteric glial cells in the peripheral nervous system. It is already well established that neuron– glia interactions control several processes of brain development such as neurogenesis, myelination, synapse formation, neuronal migration, proliferation, differentiation, and even neuronal signaling. In all these processes astrocytes have important roles: neurotransmitter clearance, ion buffering, and neuronal trophic support by secreting

members of the epidermal growth factor family, transforming growth factor, neuregulin, fibroblast growth factor, nerve growth factor, and ciliary neurotrophic factor, for instance. Moreover, astrocytes are also involved in other functions, such as

Despite all the roles of glial cells in a healthy nervous system, they are also involved in neurological disorders or diseases. In response to injury and diseases, glial cells suffer a process termed astrogliosis that induces proliferation, progressive cell hypertrophy, progressive alteration in molecular expression, and scar formation. Studies have demonstrated that the malfunction of glial cells plays a pivotal role in several neurodegenerative diseases, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Parkinson's

development of several neurological diseases, there is an increase in the inflammation

synapse development, blood–brain barrier formation, and neurogenesis.

disease, Alzheimer's disease (AD), and multiple sclerosis (MS). During the

process that is related to the progression and worsening of the symptoms.

pathological conditions such as metabolic syndrome.

In this book, we will highlight the role played by glial cells in the central and peripheral nervous systems in healthy and unhealthy individuals by giving particular attention to the enteric nervous system (ENS). Among all processes involved, we will specifically discuss the importance of ENS in the control of gut homeostasis, in the interaction with the immune system, and its participation in

In particular, the relevance of astrocytes will be explored during synaptic transmission and regulation of plasticity by releasing gliotransmitters.

Ultimately, we will highlight the influence of astrocytes during the development of a number of neurodegenerative diseases, such as MS and AD. We will focus on how the serum levels of the astrocytic protein S100B can be used as a biomarker for clinical decisions for the onset and progression of neurodegenerative diseases.

**Tania Spohr**

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Instituto Estadual do Cérebro Paulo Niemeyer,
