Introductory Chapter: Sources, Health Impact, and Environment Effect of Hydrocarbons

*Muharrem Ince and Olcay Kaplan Ince*

### **1. Introduction**

Pollution control and environmental protection have become a worldwide issue of concern. The aliphatic hydrocarbons (AHs), aromatic hydrocarbons (ArHs) such as benzene and toluene, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), including benzo[*a*]anthracene, benzo[ghi]pyrilene, and benzo[*a*]pyrene, are persistent organic pollutants (POPs) for ecosystem. These hazardous pollutants are risky because of mutagenic, carcinogenic, immunotoxic, and teratogenic effects. These components threaten all life forms ranging from microorganisms to humans when they are released into the environment especially via human activities. The aim of this study is to provide up-to-date information on the various hydrocarbons present in the environment, routes of exposure, and their adverse impact on environment and human health. There are two major categories that contain hydrocarbons; these are aliphatic and aromatic compounds (**Figure 1**). While aromatic hydrocarbons contain at least one benzene ring, the other group called as nonaromatic or aliphatic does not contain it. The basic structure that forms aromatic hydrocarbons is the benzene ring. On the other hand, petroleum hydrocarbons (PHCs) comprised of carbon and hydrogen atoms which are organic compounds. They have varying structural configurations with physical and chemical characteristics. They can be broadly classified as gasoline range organics (GROs) and diesel range organics (DROs). The first group that is called GROs comprises monoaromatic hydrocarbons including toluene, benzene, and ethylbenzene. This category has short-chain alkanes ranging from 6 to 10 C. The second group that is called DROs has longer C-chain alkanes from 10 to 40 C, and this category contains hydrophobic chemicals including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) [1, 2]. These compounds, in contaminated ecosystem, are considered to be one of the most stable hydrocarbon forms. The PAH molecular weight is the main factor to determine their origin's level in earth. There are two PAH sources: natural and anthropogenic. Both sources are important and remarkable. Because of natural and anthropogenic activities, these pollutants are irregularly distributed throughout various levels and locations to all over the world. Various studies have revealed that PAHs have carcinogenic, teratogenic, and mutagenic effect on human health [3, 4]. The main skeleton of these compounds, classified as organic pollutants, consists of two or more benzene rings. The extensive nonpolar contaminants are detected in petrochemical products including coal, oil, and tar. Another significant source of hydrocarbons is also incomplete combustion [5–8]. According to researchers, because of ecotoxicological risks and potential sources, 26 AHs and 16 PAHs causing concerns for ecosystem are categorized as carcinogen or mutagen by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). These ecotoxicological compounds include benzo[*a*]pyrene, benz[*a*]anthracene, etc.

**Figure 1.** *Hydrocarbon classification [42].*

The USEPA mentioned that there are 126 major pollutants in the environment, 25 of them were threatening and 5 were extremely dangerous for the environment. For example, some health institutions including the USEPA and International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) mentioned that benzo[*a*]pyrene that is a member of PAHs is carcinogenic for animals and humans [7, 9–11].

### **2. Sources of hydrocarbons**

The major hydrocarbon sources are petroleum and petroleum combustion; however, their emission sources can be classified as phytogenic (natural), petrogenic, and pyrogenic. To recognize pollutant type and migration, circumstances play a key role for their origin [12]. Hydrocarbons can enter to the environment via dispersion, evaporation, dissolution, adsorption, and other processes including petroleum and petroleum combustion [13, 14]. Petrogenic sources generally pollute groundwater and threaten the environment because petrogenic source products including lubricants and fuels leak from the tanks and release into the environment [15]. The USEPA specified 16 priority PAHs in a petroleum source, namely, alkylated naphthalene, dibenzothiophene, fluorene, phenanthrene, and chrysene series [16]. The pyrogenic PAHs are produced during the fuel combustion because there are suitable conditions that are high temperature and absence of oxygen. Also, pyrolysis of fat and incomplete combustion besides power plants are the most prominent hydrocarbon sources [17]. Hydrocarbons and their derivatives are a significant environmental concern due to their extensive use and toxic mechanism action, and these products are highly available in aquatic medium [18, 19]. Industrial activities and chemical plants produce PAHs, and they are considered as petrogenic and natural PAH sources [20]. During fat pyrolysis and incomplete combustion processes, anthropogenic emissions of PAHs are released into the environment [7, 8]. On the other hand, PAH sources were classified as natural, industrial, domestic, agricultural, and mobile by Ravindra et al. [21]. Hydrocarbons are usually generated by various sources including wildfires, oil seepages, volcanic activities, and other sources. Moreover, these natural hydrocarbons are mainly produced during organic material chemical conversions in microorganisms, fungi, plants, sediments, etc. [16, 22–24].

### **3. Health threat and environmental impact assessment**

Recent studies have recognized the effects of toxicity, mutagenicity, and carcinogenicity of hydrocarbons. Increasing contamination level of these pollutants

**3**

**Figure 2.**

*Environmental impact assessment stages.*

*Introductory Chapter: Sources, Health Impact, and Environment Effect of Hydrocarbons*

in environment especially in aquatic media is a significant environmental concern because they are used frequently and show environmental toxic effects [25–28]. The USEPA and World Health Organization (WHO) classified PAHs and total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPHs) as POP groups in marine and coastal environment [29, 30]. The most of PAHs have been banned by health authorities due to their long halflife, wide distribution, and high bioaccumulation in the food chain, as well as their potential for toxicity to humans, because these compounds are highly lipid soluble and these toxic chemicals can bioaccumulate from environment to the gastrointestinal tract of mammals [25, 31]. When animals and humans are exposed to hydrocarbons, it is probable that they have various health problems because they are vulnerable and endangered against these components. Research on some hydrocarbons including benzo[*a*]pyrene, pyrene, and benzo[*a*]anthracene have revealed that these compounds have carcinogenic and mutagenic effect [7, 8, 11, 32, 33]. During certain time frameworks and under given conditions, assessment of environmental impact is a very important systematic process. To measure the actual or potential impacts including psychosocial, physical, microbiological, and chemical hazard on the health case of humans or environment has a vital role [34–36]. After the obtained series of critical data from monitoring studies, quantitative environmental impact assessment (EIA) can be made. To provide better view for evaluating POP exposure and their adverse health effect on environment and human requires critical data obtained from the environment [37–39]. The EIA has several key stages, and it covers the risk level of all types of ecosystems. These stages are summarized in **Figure 2**. The EIA includes all activities which attempt to analyze and evaluate the effects of

human stresses on natural and anthropogenic environments [36, 40–43].

The main aim of this study is to provide contemporary information on a variety of hydrocarbons present in the environment, exposure routes, and their adverse effects on ecosystem. Hydrocarbon sources, human health impact, and effect on the environment have been thoroughly investigated and presented. In light of this information, generated by natural or anthropogenic sources, hydrocarbons' mutagenic, teratogenic, and carcinogenic characteristics have caused serious concerns

**4. Conclusion and future perspectives**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89039*

*Introductory Chapter: Sources, Health Impact, and Environment Effect of Hydrocarbons DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89039*

#### **Figure 2.**

*Hydrocarbon Pollution and Its Effect on the Environment*

PAHs is carcinogenic for animals and humans [7, 9–11].

sions in microorganisms, fungi, plants, sediments, etc. [16, 22–24].

**3. Health threat and environmental impact assessment**

Recent studies have recognized the effects of toxicity, mutagenicity, and carcinogenicity of hydrocarbons. Increasing contamination level of these pollutants

**2. Sources of hydrocarbons**

*Hydrocarbon classification [42].*

**Figure 1.**

The USEPA mentioned that there are 126 major pollutants in the environment, 25 of them were threatening and 5 were extremely dangerous for the environment. For example, some health institutions including the USEPA and International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) mentioned that benzo[*a*]pyrene that is a member of

The major hydrocarbon sources are petroleum and petroleum combustion; however, their emission sources can be classified as phytogenic (natural), petrogenic, and pyrogenic. To recognize pollutant type and migration, circumstances play a key role for their origin [12]. Hydrocarbons can enter to the environment via dispersion, evaporation, dissolution, adsorption, and other processes including petroleum and petroleum combustion [13, 14]. Petrogenic sources generally pollute groundwater and threaten the environment because petrogenic source products including lubricants and fuels leak from the tanks and release into the environment [15]. The USEPA specified 16 priority PAHs in a petroleum source, namely, alkylated naphthalene, dibenzothiophene, fluorene, phenanthrene, and chrysene series [16]. The pyrogenic PAHs are produced during the fuel combustion because there are suitable conditions that are high temperature and absence of oxygen. Also, pyrolysis of fat and incomplete combustion besides power plants are the most prominent hydrocarbon sources [17]. Hydrocarbons and their derivatives are a significant environmental concern due to their extensive use and toxic mechanism action, and these products are highly available in aquatic medium [18, 19]. Industrial activities and chemical plants produce PAHs, and they are considered as petrogenic and natural PAH sources [20]. During fat pyrolysis and incomplete combustion processes, anthropogenic emissions of PAHs are released into the environment [7, 8]. On the other hand, PAH sources were classified as natural, industrial, domestic, agricultural, and mobile by Ravindra et al. [21]. Hydrocarbons are usually generated by various sources including wildfires, oil seepages, volcanic activities, and other sources. Moreover, these natural hydrocarbons are mainly produced during organic material chemical conver-

**2**

*Environmental impact assessment stages.*

in environment especially in aquatic media is a significant environmental concern because they are used frequently and show environmental toxic effects [25–28]. The USEPA and World Health Organization (WHO) classified PAHs and total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPHs) as POP groups in marine and coastal environment [29, 30]. The most of PAHs have been banned by health authorities due to their long halflife, wide distribution, and high bioaccumulation in the food chain, as well as their potential for toxicity to humans, because these compounds are highly lipid soluble and these toxic chemicals can bioaccumulate from environment to the gastrointestinal tract of mammals [25, 31]. When animals and humans are exposed to hydrocarbons, it is probable that they have various health problems because they are vulnerable and endangered against these components. Research on some hydrocarbons including benzo[*a*]pyrene, pyrene, and benzo[*a*]anthracene have revealed that these compounds have carcinogenic and mutagenic effect [7, 8, 11, 32, 33]. During certain time frameworks and under given conditions, assessment of environmental impact is a very important systematic process. To measure the actual or potential impacts including psychosocial, physical, microbiological, and chemical hazard on the health case of humans or environment has a vital role [34–36]. After the obtained series of critical data from monitoring studies, quantitative environmental impact assessment (EIA) can be made. To provide better view for evaluating POP exposure and their adverse health effect on environment and human requires critical data obtained from the environment [37–39]. The EIA has several key stages, and it covers the risk level of all types of ecosystems. These stages are summarized in **Figure 2**. The EIA includes all activities which attempt to analyze and evaluate the effects of human stresses on natural and anthropogenic environments [36, 40–43].

### **4. Conclusion and future perspectives**

The main aim of this study is to provide contemporary information on a variety of hydrocarbons present in the environment, exposure routes, and their adverse effects on ecosystem. Hydrocarbon sources, human health impact, and effect on the environment have been thoroughly investigated and presented. In light of this information, generated by natural or anthropogenic sources, hydrocarbons' mutagenic, teratogenic, and carcinogenic characteristics have caused serious concerns

in today's environment; thus, various remediation techniques are needed to remove these hazardous chemicals from the environment. Therefore, some suggestions were presented as:


## **Author details**

Muharrem Ince1,3\* and Olcay Kaplan Ince2,3

1 Department of Chemistry and Chemical Processes, Tunceli Vocation School, Munzur University, Tunceli, Turkey

2 Faculty of Fine Arts, Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, Munzur University, Tunceli, Turkey

3 Munzur University Rare Earth Elements Application and Research Center, Tunceli, Turkey

\*Address all correspondence to: muharremince@munzur.edu.tr

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**5**

*Introductory Chapter: Sources, Health Impact, and Environment Effect of Hydrocarbons*

assessment. Journal of Food Science and

[9] Jin D, Jiang X, Jing X, Ou Z. Effects of concentration, head group, and structure of surfactants on the degradation of phenanthrene. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2007;**144**(1-2):215-221

[10] Bansal V, Kim KH. Review of PAH contamination in food products and their health hazards. Environment International. 2015;**84**:26-38

[11] Ince M, Kaplan OI. An overview the toxicology of benzo(*a*)pyrene as biomarker for human health: A mini-review. Novel Techniques in Nutrition and Food Science. 2019;**4**(2):NTNF.000580.2019

[12] Douglas GA, Emsbo Mattingly S, Stout SA, Uhler AD, McCarthy KJ. Chemical finger printing methods. In: Murphy BL, Morrison RD, editors. Introduction to Environmental Forensics. 2nd edition. New York, NY:

[13] Kim D, Kumfer BM, Anastasio C, Kennedy IM, Young TM. Environmental

hydrocarbons on soot and its effect on source identification. Chemosphere.

[14] Wang Z, Fingas M, Lambert P, Zeng G, Yang C, Hollebone B. Characterization and identification of the Detroit River mystery oil spill (2002). Journal of Chromatography. A.

Tsutsumi S, Ohno K, Yamada J, Kouno E, et al. Distribution of polycyclic aromatic

widespread input of petrogenic PAHs. Environmental Science and Technology.

Academic; 2007. pp. 311-454

aging of polycyclic aromatic

2009;**76**(8):1075-1081

2004;**1038**(1-2):201-214

2002;**36**(9):1907-1918

[15] Zakaria MP, Takada H,

hydrocarbons (PAHs) in rivers and estuaries in Malaysia: A

Technology. 2019;**56**:1287-1294

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89039*

[1] Kamath R, Rentz JA, Schnoor JL, Alvarez PJJ. Phytoremediation of hydrocarbon-contaminated soils: Principles and applications. Studies in Surface Science and Catalysis.

[2] Gkorezis P, Daghio M, Franzetti A,

Vangronsveld J. The interaction between plants and bacteria in the remediation of petroleum hydrocarbons: An

environmental perspective. Frontiers in

[3] Gan S, Lau EV, Ng HK. Remediation of soils contaminated with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Journal of Hazardous Materials.

Shasemzade R. Methods for treatment of PAH contaminated soils; review and comparison. In: 4th International Conference on Energy, Environment and Sustainable Development. Jamshoro, Pakistan; 2016

[5] Connell DW. Basic Concepts of Environmental Chemistry. Boca Raton:

liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry for determination of benzo[*a*]pyrene in grilled meat foods. Asian Journal of Chemistry.

2012;**24**(8):3391-3395

[6] Ince M, Yaman M. High performance

[7] Ince M, Kaplan Ince O, Yaman M. Optimization of an analytical method for determination of pyrene in smoked meat products. Food Analytical Methods. 2017;**10**:2060-2067

[8] Kaplan Ince O, Ince M. Using box– Behnken design approach to investigate benzo[*a*]anthracene formation in smoked cattle meat samples and its' risk

**References**

2004;**151**:447-478

Van Hamme JD, Sillen W,

Microbiology. 2016;**7**:1836

2009;**172**(2-3):532-549

CRC Press; 2005

[4] Gitipour S, Ghasemi S,

*Introductory Chapter: Sources, Health Impact, and Environment Effect of Hydrocarbons DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89039*

### **References**

*Hydrocarbon Pollution and Its Effect on the Environment*

carbons and share it for all researchers.

ment such as soil, water, and air.

leave behind any second pollutant.

were presented as:

in today's environment; thus, various remediation techniques are needed to remove these hazardous chemicals from the environment. Therefore, some suggestions

• All health authorities should develop standard methods for analysis of hydro-

• Researchers should develop more various remediation techniques available for hydrocarbons, and they should be applicable on every aspect of the environ-

• After the treatment process, developed remediation techniques should not

• Ecological risk assessment should be evaluated using the risk quotient.

these pollutants from entering the food chain and environment.

• Techniques for removing hydrocarbons from the environment should be

developed, but it is important that preventive measures can be taken to prevent

**4**

**Author details**

Tunceli, Turkey

Muharrem Ince1,3\* and Olcay Kaplan Ince2,3

provided the original work is properly cited.

Munzur University, Tunceli, Turkey

University, Tunceli, Turkey

1 Department of Chemistry and Chemical Processes, Tunceli Vocation School,

2 Faculty of Fine Arts, Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, Munzur

3 Munzur University Rare Earth Elements Application and Research Center,

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

\*Address all correspondence to: muharremince@munzur.edu.tr

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[3] Gan S, Lau EV, Ng HK. Remediation of soils contaminated with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2009;**172**(2-3):532-549

[4] Gitipour S, Ghasemi S, Shasemzade R. Methods for treatment of PAH contaminated soils; review and comparison. In: 4th International Conference on Energy, Environment and Sustainable Development. Jamshoro, Pakistan; 2016

[5] Connell DW. Basic Concepts of Environmental Chemistry. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2005

[6] Ince M, Yaman M. High performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry for determination of benzo[*a*]pyrene in grilled meat foods. Asian Journal of Chemistry. 2012;**24**(8):3391-3395

[7] Ince M, Kaplan Ince O, Yaman M. Optimization of an analytical method for determination of pyrene in smoked meat products. Food Analytical Methods. 2017;**10**:2060-2067

[8] Kaplan Ince O, Ince M. Using box– Behnken design approach to investigate benzo[*a*]anthracene formation in smoked cattle meat samples and its' risk assessment. Journal of Food Science and Technology. 2019;**56**:1287-1294

[9] Jin D, Jiang X, Jing X, Ou Z. Effects of concentration, head group, and structure of surfactants on the degradation of phenanthrene. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2007;**144**(1-2):215-221

[10] Bansal V, Kim KH. Review of PAH contamination in food products and their health hazards. Environment International. 2015;**84**:26-38

[11] Ince M, Kaplan OI. An overview the toxicology of benzo(*a*)pyrene as biomarker for human health: A mini-review. Novel Techniques in Nutrition and Food Science. 2019;**4**(2):NTNF.000580.2019

[12] Douglas GA, Emsbo Mattingly S, Stout SA, Uhler AD, McCarthy KJ. Chemical finger printing methods. In: Murphy BL, Morrison RD, editors. Introduction to Environmental Forensics. 2nd edition. New York, NY: Academic; 2007. pp. 311-454

[13] Kim D, Kumfer BM, Anastasio C, Kennedy IM, Young TM. Environmental aging of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons on soot and its effect on source identification. Chemosphere. 2009;**76**(8):1075-1081

[14] Wang Z, Fingas M, Lambert P, Zeng G, Yang C, Hollebone B. Characterization and identification of the Detroit River mystery oil spill (2002). Journal of Chromatography. A. 2004;**1038**(1-2):201-214

[15] Zakaria MP, Takada H, Tsutsumi S, Ohno K, Yamada J, Kouno E, et al. Distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in rivers and estuaries in Malaysia: A widespread input of petrogenic PAHs. Environmental Science and Technology. 2002;**36**(9):1907-1918

[16] Stogiannidis E, Laane R. Source characterization of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by using their molecular indices: An overview of possibilities. In: Whitacre D, editor. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology (Continuation of Residue Reviews). Vol. 234. Springer, Cham; 2015

[17] Saber D, Mauro D, Sirivedhin T. Environmental forensics investigation in sediments near a former manufactured gas plant site. Environmental Forensics. 2006;**7**(1):65-75

[18] Hailwood M, King D, Leoz E, Maynard R, Menichini E, Moorcroft S, Pacyna J et al. Ambient Air Pollution by Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons PAH. Position Paper Annexes. 2001

[19] Wickramasinghe AP, Karunaratne DGGP, Sivakanesan R. PM10-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: Concentrations, source characterization and estimating their risk in urban, suburban and rural areas in Kandy, Sri Lanka. Atmospheric Environment. 2011;**45**(16):2642-2650

[20] Osman KT. Soils, Principles, Properties and Management. Netherlands: Springer; 2013

[21] Ravindra K, Mittal AK, Grieken R. Health risk assessment of urban suspended particulate matter with special reference to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: A review. Reviews on Environmental Health. 2001;**16**(3):169-190

[22] Boll ES, Christensen JH, Holm PE. Quantification and source identification of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in sediment, soil, and water spinach from Hanoi, Vietnam. Journal of Environmental Monitoring. 2008;**10**(2):261-269

[23] Bakhtiari AR, Zakaria MP, Yaziz MI, Lajis MNH, Bi X, Rahim MCA. Vertical

distribution and source identification of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in anoxic sediment cores of Chini Lake, Malaysia: Perylene as indicator of land plant-derived hydrocarbons. Applied Geochemistry. 2009;**24**(9):1777-1787

[24] Tobiszewski M, Namieśnik J. PAH diagnostic ratios for the identification of pollution emission sources. Environmental Pollution. 2012;**162**:110-119

[25] Haffner D, Schecter A. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs): A primer for practicing clinicians. Current Environmental Health Reports. 2014;**1**:123-131

[26] Long M, Bonefeld-Jørgensen EC. Dioxin-like activity in environmental and human samples from Greenland and Denmark. Chemosphere. 2012;**89**:919-928

[27] Tavakoly Sany SB, Hashim R, Rezayi M, Salleh A, Rahman MA, Safari O, et al. Human health risk of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from consumption of blood cockle and exposure to contaminated sediments and water along the Klang Strait, Malaysia. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 2014;**84**:268-279

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[29] Tavakoly Sany SB, Hashim R, Salleh A, Rezayi M, Mehdinia A, Safari O. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in coastal sediment of Klang Strait, Malaysia: Distribution pattern, risk assessment and sources. PLoS One. 2014;**9**(4):e94907

[30] WHO State of the science of endocrine disrupting chemicals 2012. United Nations Environment Programme and the World Health Organization. Geneva; 2013

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 cation in dimethylsulfoxideacetonitrile binary media. Molecules.

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Biotechnology. 2002;**20**(6):243-248

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study on the complex formation between tris (2-pyridyl) methylamine (tpm) with Fe+2, Fe+3, Cu+2 and Cr+3 cations in water, acetonitrile binary solutions using the conductometric method. International Journal of Electrochemical Science.

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Cs<sup>+</sup>

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[31] Ahmadzadeh S, Kassim A, Rezayi M, Rounaghi GH. Thermodynamic study of the complexation of p-isopropylcalix [6] arene with Cs<sup>+</sup> cation in dimethylsulfoxideacetonitrile binary media. Molecules. 2011;**16**:8130-8142

*Hydrocarbon Pollution and Its Effect on the Environment*

distribution and source identification of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in anoxic sediment cores of Chini Lake, Malaysia: Perylene as indicator of land plant-derived hydrocarbons. Applied Geochemistry. 2009;**24**(9):1777-1787

[24] Tobiszewski M, Namieśnik J. PAH diagnostic ratios for the identification of pollution emission sources. Environmental Pollution.

[25] Haffner D, Schecter A. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs): A primer for practicing clinicians. Current Environmental Health Reports.

Jørgensen EC. Dioxin-like activity in environmental and human samples from Greenland and Denmark. Chemosphere. 2012;**89**:919-928

[27] Tavakoly Sany SB, Hashim R, Rezayi M, Salleh A, Rahman MA, Safari O, et al. Human health risk of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from consumption of blood cockle and exposure to contaminated sediments and water along the Klang Strait, Malaysia. Marine Pollution Bulletin.

[28] U.S.EPA. EPA's Reanalysis of Key Issues Related to Dioxin Toxicity and Response to NAS Comments. Vol. 1.

[29] Tavakoly Sany SB, Hashim R, Salleh A, Rezayi M, Mehdinia A, Safari O. Polycyclic aromatic

hydrocarbons in coastal sediment of Klang Strait, Malaysia: Distribution pattern, risk assessment and sources.

PLoS One. 2014;**9**(4):e94907

[30] WHO State of the science of endocrine disrupting chemicals 2012. United Nations Environment Programme and the World Health Organization. Geneva; 2013

2012;**162**:110-119

2014;**1**:123-131

2014;**84**:268-279

Washington, DC; 2012

[26] Long M, Bonefeld-

[16] Stogiannidis E, Laane R. Source characterization of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by using their molecular indices: An overview of possibilities. In: Whitacre D, editor. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology (Continuation of Residue Reviews). Vol. 234. Springer, Cham; 2015

[17] Saber D, Mauro D, Sirivedhin T. Environmental forensics investigation in sediments near a former manufactured gas plant site. Environmental Forensics.

[18] Hailwood M, King D, Leoz E,

Moorcroft S, Pacyna J et al. Ambient Air Pollution by Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons PAH. Position Paper

Karunaratne DGGP, Sivakanesan R. PM10-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: Concentrations, source characterization and estimating their risk in urban, suburban and rural areas in Kandy, Sri Lanka. Atmospheric Environment. 2011;**45**(16):2642-2650

[20] Osman KT. Soils, Principles, Properties and Management. Netherlands: Springer; 2013

[22] Boll ES, Christensen JH,

2008;**10**(2):261-269

Holm PE. Quantification and source identification of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in sediment, soil, and water spinach from Hanoi, Vietnam. Journal of Environmental Monitoring.

[23] Bakhtiari AR, Zakaria MP, Yaziz MI, Lajis MNH, Bi X, Rahim MCA. Vertical

[21] Ravindra K, Mittal AK, Grieken R. Health risk assessment of urban suspended particulate matter with special reference to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: A review. Reviews on Environmental Health. 2001;**16**(3):169-190

Maynard R, Menichini E,

[19] Wickramasinghe AP,

2006;**7**(1):65-75

Annexes. 2001

**6**

[32] Liu K, Han W, Pan WP, Riley JT. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) emissions from a coal-fired pilot FBC system. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2001;**84**(2-3):175-188

[33] Samanta SK, Singh OV, Jain RK. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: Environmental pollution and bioremediation. Trends in Biotechnology. 2002;**20**(6):243-248

[34] Rezayi M, Heng LY, Abdi MM, Noran NM, Esmaeili C. A thermodynamic study on the complex formation between tris (2-pyridyl) methylamine (tpm) with Fe+2, Fe+3, Cu+2 and Cr+3 cations in water, acetonitrile binary solutions using the conductometric method. International Journal of Electrochemical Science. 2013;**8**:6922-6932

[35] Saadati N, Abdullah MP, Zakaria Z, Tavakoly Sany SB, Rezayi M, Hassonizadeh H. Limit of detection and limit of quantification development procedures for organochlorine pesticides analysis in water and sediment matrices. Chemistry Central Journal. 2013;**7**:1-10

[36] Tavakoly Sany SB, Hashim R, Rezayi M, Salleh A, Safari O. A review of strategies to monitor water and sediment quality for a sustainability assessment of marine environment. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2014;**21**:813-821

[37] Law RJ, Bersuder P, Barry J, Deaville R, Reid RJ, Jepson PD. Chlorobiphenyls in the blubber of harbour porpoises (*Phocoena phocoena*) from the UK: Levels and trends

1991-2005. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 2010;**60**:470-473

[38] Rezayi M, Karazhian R, Abdollahi Y, Narimani L, Sany SBT, Ahmadzadeh S, et al. Titanium (III) cation selective electrode based on synthesized tris(2pyridyl) methylamine ionophore and its application in water samples. Scientific Reports. 2014;**4**:4664

[39] Tavakoly Sany SB, Salleh A, Sulaiman AH, Sasekumar A, Tehrani G, Rezayi M. Distribution characteristics and ecological risk of heavy metals in surface sediments of West Port, Malaysia. Environmental Protection Engineering. 2012;**38**:139-155

[40] Jazani RK, Tehrani GM, Hashim R. TPH-PAH contamination and benthic health in the surface sediments of Bandar-E-imam Khomeini-Northwest of the Persian Gulf. International Journal of Innovative Science, Engineering and Technology. 2013;**2**:213-225

[41] Tehrani GM, Sany SBT, Hashim R, Salleh A. Predictive environmental impact assessment of total petroleum hydrocarbons in petrochemical wastewater effluent and surface sediment. Environment and Earth Science. 2016;**75**:177

[42] Gitipour S, Sorial GA, Ghasemi S, Bazyari M. Treatment technologies for PAH-contaminated sites: A critical review. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 2018;**190**:546

[43] EHSC Environmental risk assessment. Environment, Health and Safety Committee [EHSC] of the Royal Society of Chemistry. 2008

**9**

**Chapter 2**

**Abstract**

*and Varun Rawat*

Source and Control of

Hydrocarbon Pollution

*Manish Srivastava, Anamika Srivastava, Anjali Yadav* 

**Keywords:** aromatic hydrocarbons, organic and inorganic pollutants,

ecules such as asphaltenes, resins, and naptheno-aromatics.

Contamination of hydrocarbon occurs due to toxic organic substances, petroleum, and pesticides which is a serious concern for the environment. Contamination caused by petroleum hydrocarbon is a matter of worry because these are harmful for various life forms. Crude oil contamination is common due to its extensive use and its related dumping process and accidental spills. Complex mixture of a large range of high and low molecular weight hydrocarbons makes up the petroleum. The complex mixture of petroleum consists of saturated and branched alkanes, alkenes, and homo- and heterocyclic naphthenes; aromatics consisting of heteroatoms such as heavy metal complexes and N, S, and O; hydrocarbon consisting of different functional groups such as ethers, carboxylic acids, etc.; and large aromatic mol-

Heavy metals are present in crude oil, and its heavy metal content is associated with porphyrins which is the pyrrolic structure. Lube oil waxes, light oil, asphaltenes, naphtha, diesel, kerosene, etc. are the several fractions in which the petroleum is refined. Light ends is the term that is used for the light fractions which

bioremediation, chemical remediation

**1. Introduction**

Hydrocarbon contamination is of great worry because of their widespread effect on all forms of life. Pollution caused by increasing the use of crude oil is ordinary because of its extensive application and its related transport and dumping problems. Crude oil contains a complex mixture of aliphatic, aromatic, and heterocyclic compounds. Soil naturally consists of heavy metals, and due to human action like refining of oil and use of pesticides, their concentration in soil is rising. Several areas have such high heavy metal and metalloid concentration that surrounding natural ecosystem has been badly affected. The reason is that heavy metals and metalloids limit microbe's activity rendering it unsuitable for hydrocarbon degradation, thus reducing its effectiveness. Environmental remediation is thus extremely necessary and involves with the elimination of pollutants from soil, air, and water. In the last several decades, different methods have been employed and applied for the cleanup of our environment which includes mechanical, chemical, and biochemical remediation methods. The hydrocarbon pollution consists of many aspects like oil spills, fossil fuels, organic pollutants like aromatics, etc. that are discussed below.

### **Chapter 2**

## Source and Control of Hydrocarbon Pollution

*Manish Srivastava, Anamika Srivastava, Anjali Yadav and Varun Rawat*

### **Abstract**

Hydrocarbon contamination is of great worry because of their widespread effect on all forms of life. Pollution caused by increasing the use of crude oil is ordinary because of its extensive application and its related transport and dumping problems. Crude oil contains a complex mixture of aliphatic, aromatic, and heterocyclic compounds. Soil naturally consists of heavy metals, and due to human action like refining of oil and use of pesticides, their concentration in soil is rising. Several areas have such high heavy metal and metalloid concentration that surrounding natural ecosystem has been badly affected. The reason is that heavy metals and metalloids limit microbe's activity rendering it unsuitable for hydrocarbon degradation, thus reducing its effectiveness. Environmental remediation is thus extremely necessary and involves with the elimination of pollutants from soil, air, and water. In the last several decades, different methods have been employed and applied for the cleanup of our environment which includes mechanical, chemical, and biochemical remediation methods. The hydrocarbon pollution consists of many aspects like oil spills, fossil fuels, organic pollutants like aromatics, etc. that are discussed below.

**Keywords:** aromatic hydrocarbons, organic and inorganic pollutants, bioremediation, chemical remediation

### **1. Introduction**

Contamination of hydrocarbon occurs due to toxic organic substances, petroleum, and pesticides which is a serious concern for the environment. Contamination caused by petroleum hydrocarbon is a matter of worry because these are harmful for various life forms. Crude oil contamination is common due to its extensive use and its related dumping process and accidental spills. Complex mixture of a large range of high and low molecular weight hydrocarbons makes up the petroleum. The complex mixture of petroleum consists of saturated and branched alkanes, alkenes, and homo- and heterocyclic naphthenes; aromatics consisting of heteroatoms such as heavy metal complexes and N, S, and O; hydrocarbon consisting of different functional groups such as ethers, carboxylic acids, etc.; and large aromatic molecules such as asphaltenes, resins, and naptheno-aromatics.

Heavy metals are present in crude oil, and its heavy metal content is associated with porphyrins which is the pyrrolic structure. Lube oil waxes, light oil, asphaltenes, naphtha, diesel, kerosene, etc. are the several fractions in which the petroleum is refined. Light ends is the term that is used for the light fractions which are distilled at atmospheric pressure, and heavy ends is used for heavy fractions such as asphaltenes and lube oil. Due to different hydrocarbon compositions of light and heavy ends of petroleum, light ends consists of a lower percentage of aromatic compounds and lower molecular weight saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons, while heavier ends consists of higher molecular weight saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons, aromatic compounds with high molecular weight, and organometallic compounds. This part is relatively affluent in metals and nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen-containing compounds [1].

Concentration of heavy metal is rising in the soil as a consequence of human action. There is a large impact of higher heavy metal and metalloid concentration in some areas [2].

### **2. Hydrocarbon pollution**

This is caused mainly by accidents on oil platforms and ships used for hydrocarbon transportation but also by discharging water into the sea which is used to wash tanks of tanker vessels. Crude oil and petroleum products form a waterproof film on water that prevents the oxygen exchange between environment and water causing damages to plants, animals, and human beings. Nowadays during transport overseas, "double-hulled" tankers are used to avoid leaks in case of accidents. Best international practices are adopted with regard to oil platforms to face or eventually adequately deal with any type of inconvenience.

#### **3. Organic pollutants**

With the onset of industrialization, the use and buildup of organic compounds have increased. Major sources which are responsible for organic contaminants are anthropogenic activities including the use of fuels, solvents, and pesticides. Various organic compounds are harmful and are related to health concerns globally.

Diverse sources are responsible for the generation of hydrocarbons in sediments which are categorized below [3, 4]:


Organic pollutant is responsible for environmental and health-related problems; hence bioremediation provides an efficient explanation to this problem [5].

#### **3.1 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)**

PAHs are considered to be ubiquitous contaminants. There are 100 diverse compounds of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons present. PAHs are seldom used for the industrial purpose, but only few are used for the manufacturing of pesticides, dyes,

**11**

**Table 1.**

*Source and Control of Hydrocarbon Pollution DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86487*

**3.2 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)**

are released from disposal and spillage [10].

**Table 1** Microorganisms studied.

Phenanthrene, PAH *Pseudomonas* sp., *Pycnoporus* 

2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene

Hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX)

Polychlorinated biphenyl

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH)

(PCB)

(TNT)

and plastics and for the production of medicines. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are produced on partial burning of organic matters [5]. PAHs due to carcinogenic and mutagenic nature are highly poisonous to organisms. The degradation of PAHs is predominantly slow with high molecular weights because due to low hydrophobicity and water solubility it has a tendency to accumulate in sediments [6]. PAHs have been classified as a priority pollutant by the USEPA which has classified 16 individual PAHs as pollutants due to its poisonous, carcinogenic, and mutagenic nature [7].

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) due to carcinogenicity, toxicity, and slow biodegradation in the nature are well thought-out to be the worst pollutants [8] of commercial PCBs of about hundreds of thousands of metric tons are persevere in aquatic sediments [9]. In adhesives and lubricants, dielectric fluids in flame retardants, transformers, hydraulic fluids, and plasticizers, PCBs are widely used. PCBs

**3.3 Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs)**

Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) are still present in deep sediment layers which are deposited decades ago. Toward biotic and abiotic degradation processes, PCDD/Fs are often well-thought-out to be recalcitrant [11]. PCDD/Fs are the most notorious pollutants present in nature [12].

**Pollutants Organisms Function References**

Atrazine *Pseudomonas* sp. (ADP) Biodegradation Newcombe and

Chlorpyrifos *Enterobacter* strain B-14 Biodegradation Singh et al. [15] Dibenzothiophene (DBT) *Rhizobium meliloti* Biodegradation Frassinetti

PAHs *Clostridium acetobutylicum* Biodegradation Zhang and

*sanguineus*, *Coriolus versicolor*, *Pleurotus ostreatus*, *Fomitopsis palustris*, *Daedalea elegans*

*Agrobacterium*, *Bacillus*, *Burkholderia*, *Pseudomonas*, and *Sphingomonas*

*Rhodococcus erythropolis*

TA421

*Microorganisms studied or bioremediation function.*

*Methanococcus* sp. Biotransformation Boopathy and

*Acetobacterium paludosum* Biodegradation Sherburne

*Rhizobium* sp. Damaj and

Fungi Atagana [23]

Kulpa [13]

Crowley [14]

et al. [16]

et al. [17]

Hughes [18]

Ahmad [22]

Biodegradation Arun et al. [19]

Biodegradation Aitken et al. [20]

Biodegradation Chung et al. [21]

*Source and Control of Hydrocarbon Pollution DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86487*

*Hydrocarbon Pollution and Its Effect on the Environment*

adequately deal with any type of inconvenience.

oxygen-containing compounds [1].

**2. Hydrocarbon pollution**

**3. Organic pollutants**

which are categorized below [3, 4]:

• Anthropogenic sources

• Partial burning of fuels

• Fires of forest and grass

**3.1 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)**

• Petroleum inputs

some areas [2].

are distilled at atmospheric pressure, and heavy ends is used for heavy fractions such as asphaltenes and lube oil. Due to different hydrocarbon compositions of light and heavy ends of petroleum, light ends consists of a lower percentage of aromatic compounds and lower molecular weight saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons, while heavier ends consists of higher molecular weight saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons, aromatic compounds with high molecular weight, and organometallic compounds. This part is relatively affluent in metals and nitrogen, sulfur, and

Concentration of heavy metal is rising in the soil as a consequence of human action. There is a large impact of higher heavy metal and metalloid concentration in

This is caused mainly by accidents on oil platforms and ships used for hydrocarbon transportation but also by discharging water into the sea which is used to wash tanks of tanker vessels. Crude oil and petroleum products form a waterproof film on water that prevents the oxygen exchange between environment and water causing damages to plants, animals, and human beings. Nowadays during transport overseas, "double-hulled" tankers are used to avoid leaks in case of accidents. Best international practices are adopted with regard to oil platforms to face or eventually

With the onset of industrialization, the use and buildup of organic compounds have increased. Major sources which are responsible for organic contaminants are anthropogenic activities including the use of fuels, solvents, and pesticides. Various

Diverse sources are responsible for the generation of hydrocarbons in sediments

Organic pollutant is responsible for environmental and health-related problems;

PAHs are considered to be ubiquitous contaminants. There are 100 diverse compounds of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons present. PAHs are seldom used for the industrial purpose, but only few are used for the manufacturing of pesticides, dyes,

organic compounds are harmful and are related to health concerns globally.

• Biosynthesis of hydrocarbons by marine or terrestrial organisms

• Diffusing from the petroleum source rocks, reservoirs, or mantle

hence bioremediation provides an efficient explanation to this problem [5].

**10**

and plastics and for the production of medicines. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are produced on partial burning of organic matters [5]. PAHs due to carcinogenic and mutagenic nature are highly poisonous to organisms. The degradation of PAHs is predominantly slow with high molecular weights because due to low hydrophobicity and water solubility it has a tendency to accumulate in sediments [6]. PAHs have been classified as a priority pollutant by the USEPA which has classified 16 individual PAHs as pollutants due to its poisonous, carcinogenic, and mutagenic nature [7].

### **3.2 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)**

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) due to carcinogenicity, toxicity, and slow biodegradation in the nature are well thought-out to be the worst pollutants [8] of commercial PCBs of about hundreds of thousands of metric tons are persevere in aquatic sediments [9]. In adhesives and lubricants, dielectric fluids in flame retardants, transformers, hydraulic fluids, and plasticizers, PCBs are widely used. PCBs are released from disposal and spillage [10].

### **3.3 Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs)**

Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) are still present in deep sediment layers which are deposited decades ago. Toward biotic and abiotic degradation processes, PCDD/Fs are often well-thought-out to be recalcitrant [11]. PCDD/Fs are the most notorious pollutants present in nature [12].


**Table 1** Microorganisms studied.

#### **Table 1.**

*Microorganisms studied or bioremediation function.*

### **4. Inorganic pollutants**

Human sources are mainly responsible for the heavy metal contamination, but contamination due to natural and biological processes are also common which includes:


Cellular binding sites of microbes are responsible for the absorption of heavy metals. By various mechanisms, heavy metals can be complexed with extracellular polymers of microbes. Organic contaminants can be mineralized by these microorganisms and convert into metabolic intermediates which can be utilized as primary substrates for growth of the cell. Heavy metals can be eliminated from the metal-polluted soil by microbes which can change the heavy metal oxidation state by immobilizing them [24]. Research on bioremediation of heavy metals by microbes has not been carried out extensively due to metal adsorption and incomplete knowledge of the genetics of the microbes.

### **5. Sources and effects of hydrocarbon-contaminated wastewater effluents**

Numerous sources such as pesticides, petroleum, or different harmful organic substances which are discharged into the water streams as effluents are responsible for the hydrocarbon pollution into the wastewater. Water contaminated with hydrocarbons is known to be carcinogenic, neurotoxin, and mutagenic to flora and fauna [25]. Contaminated lands, oil spillage, pesticides, automobile oils, and urban stormwater discharges are the major causes for the hydrocarbon contamination.

Oil spill is one of the major sources of hydrocarbon contamination. Oil spills caused mainly by accidents on oil platforms and ships are needed for transportation of hydrocarbon but also by disposal of water into the sea which is used to wash tanks of tanker vessels [2]. Underground oil storage tanks and leaking pipelines are also responsible for oil spilling in water [26, 27].

Increase use of vehicles and automobiles leads to increase in utilization of automobile oil, which is the major cause of hydrocarbon contamination in water. This type of contamination occurs when oil from the car drops onto the ground and leaks; it could be washed into water streams by runoffs [28].

Pesticides are another source of hydrocarbon contamination in water. Pesticides include herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides. Only small amount of pesticide is able to achieve the target, while the major proportion stays in the soil, and it can be washed away by the rain in the water stream [29]. Herbicides, out of all the pesticides, are most hazardous because it is directly applied on the soil in order to kill the weed and can be washed away during rainfall into the water streams.

Another source of hydrocarbon contamination in water is the land where some type of industrial action is being carried out. These lands contaminated by hydrocarbons or toxic organic compounds are washed due to rainfall into the water steams, thus causing pollution [30].

**13**

*Source and Control of Hydrocarbon Pollution DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86487*

One of the main sources of hydrocarbon pollution is the discharge of urban stormwater. In urban communities, car parks and roads are frequently polluted by gasoline and oil from the vehicles, and during rainfall, these pollutants are washed

Wastewater contaminated by hydrocarbons has an adverse effect in nature, animals, human beings, and plants. Lack of oxygen, decrease in crop yield, and effects on aquatic plants are various effects of hydrocarbon contamination in nature. There would be decrease in the crop yield and available food for household due to inappropriate crop's growth when the farmland is irrigated by water contaminated with hydrocarbon [32, 33]. Soil fertility can be decreased to an extent due to the presence of oil in water due to the reason that most of the vital nutrients are no longer accessible for crop consumption which results in the decrease of the crop yield. The reduction in the yield of crop results in the decrease of the farmer's earnings [34, 35]. Oxygen shortage is another environmental effect of hydrocarbon contamination. The main source of oxygen in nature is the economic trees which rely on rainfall or on the water steams for their growth. Oil spills can inhibit root penetration due to hydrocarbons which can block the pores of the soil, thereby removing water and air [36]. This results in the death of such plant or distortion in the growth and hence causes oxygen shortage for human utilization [37]. Hydrocarbon contamination in water avoids the penetration of light into the water and the exchange of gases for consumption by aquatic plants. This leads to the death of the plant because plant becomes incapable to photosynthesize and hence can affect the food chain. Plants consume the pollutants from the contaminated water which can be passed to

Polycyclic hydrocarbons are toxic and found to have serious effects on human beings. The immune system, liver, respiratory system, reproductive system, circulatory system, kidney, etc. are the organs which are affected due to the hydrocarbon ingestion [33]. Individual's susceptibility and level of exposure are the factors on which the degree of damage depends [2]. Cancer risk and hormonal problems that can disturb developmental and reproductive processes are the other effects of

Discharge of wastewater contaminated with hydrocarbon into the water streams poses risk to animals through absorption, breathing, and ingestion. Sea birds are the most exposed to the hydrocarbon pollutant because it spends majority of its time near the water bodies [42]. There is unusual decrease in the temperature due to the destruction of the protective layer of the feathers in sea birds as a result of the presence of oil in water [43]. Scavengers such as ravens and vultures are also in danger when they consume preys and contaminated fish [44]. Water contaminated with hydrocarbon is consumed through gills of the fish during the respiration and accumulates in the gall bladder, liver, and stomach, and thus the fish becomes

Polluted land or water systems have become a serious concern for human health. Over the past few decades, several methods have been developed and applied for the cleanups. The degradation either biological or chemical of petroleum which is a complex mixture of chemical substances is difficult because different treatments are required for different classes of compounds. Hence, remediation of oil-containing environment is not easy. Remediation strategies are decided after knowing the oil composition and physicochemical nature of the polluted site. Physical and chemical properties and pH of the polluted water/soil are the different factors on

into water streams and hence can contaminate them [30, 31].

humans and animals through the food chain [38].

unhealthy for human utilization [45].

**6. Remediation**

effluents polluted by hydrocarbons on human beings [39–41].

#### *Source and Control of Hydrocarbon Pollution DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86487*

*Hydrocarbon Pollution and Its Effect on the Environment*

Human sources are mainly responsible for the heavy metal contamination, but contamination due to natural and biological processes are also common which

Cellular binding sites of microbes are responsible for the absorption of heavy metals. By various mechanisms, heavy metals can be complexed with extracellular polymers of microbes. Organic contaminants can be mineralized by these microorganisms and convert into metabolic intermediates which can be utilized as primary substrates for growth of the cell. Heavy metals can be eliminated from the metal-polluted soil by microbes which can change the heavy metal oxidation state by immobilizing them [24]. Research on bioremediation of heavy metals by microbes has not been carried out extensively due to metal adsorption and incom-

**5. Sources and effects of hydrocarbon-contaminated wastewater** 

Numerous sources such as pesticides, petroleum, or different harmful organic substances which are discharged into the water streams as effluents are responsible for the hydrocarbon pollution into the wastewater. Water contaminated with hydrocarbons is known to be carcinogenic, neurotoxin, and mutagenic to flora and fauna [25]. Contaminated lands, oil spillage, pesticides, automobile oils, and urban stormwater discharges are the major causes for the hydrocarbon contamination. Oil spill is one of the major sources of hydrocarbon contamination. Oil spills caused mainly by accidents on oil platforms and ships are needed for transportation of hydrocarbon but also by disposal of water into the sea which is used to wash tanks of tanker vessels [2]. Underground oil storage tanks and leaking pipelines are

Increase use of vehicles and automobiles leads to increase in utilization of automobile oil, which is the major cause of hydrocarbon contamination in water. This type of contamination occurs when oil from the car drops onto the ground and

Another source of hydrocarbon contamination in water is the land where some type of industrial action is being carried out. These lands contaminated by hydrocarbons or toxic organic compounds are washed due to rainfall into the water

Pesticides are another source of hydrocarbon contamination in water. Pesticides include herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides. Only small amount of pesticide is able to achieve the target, while the major proportion stays in the soil, and it can be washed away by the rain in the water stream [29]. Herbicides, out of all the pesticides, are most hazardous because it is directly applied on the soil in order to kill the

**4. Inorganic pollutants**

1.Mineral weathering over time.

2.Erosion and volcanic actions.

3.Forest fires and biogenic resource.

4.Vegetation causes release of particles.

plete knowledge of the genetics of the microbes.

also responsible for oil spilling in water [26, 27].

steams, thus causing pollution [30].

leaks; it could be washed into water streams by runoffs [28].

weed and can be washed away during rainfall into the water streams.

includes:

**effluents**

**12**

One of the main sources of hydrocarbon pollution is the discharge of urban stormwater. In urban communities, car parks and roads are frequently polluted by gasoline and oil from the vehicles, and during rainfall, these pollutants are washed into water streams and hence can contaminate them [30, 31].

Wastewater contaminated by hydrocarbons has an adverse effect in nature, animals, human beings, and plants. Lack of oxygen, decrease in crop yield, and effects on aquatic plants are various effects of hydrocarbon contamination in nature. There would be decrease in the crop yield and available food for household due to inappropriate crop's growth when the farmland is irrigated by water contaminated with hydrocarbon [32, 33]. Soil fertility can be decreased to an extent due to the presence of oil in water due to the reason that most of the vital nutrients are no longer accessible for crop consumption which results in the decrease of the crop yield. The reduction in the yield of crop results in the decrease of the farmer's earnings [34, 35].

Oxygen shortage is another environmental effect of hydrocarbon contamination. The main source of oxygen in nature is the economic trees which rely on rainfall or on the water steams for their growth. Oil spills can inhibit root penetration due to hydrocarbons which can block the pores of the soil, thereby removing water and air [36]. This results in the death of such plant or distortion in the growth and hence causes oxygen shortage for human utilization [37]. Hydrocarbon contamination in water avoids the penetration of light into the water and the exchange of gases for consumption by aquatic plants. This leads to the death of the plant because plant becomes incapable to photosynthesize and hence can affect the food chain. Plants consume the pollutants from the contaminated water which can be passed to humans and animals through the food chain [38].

Polycyclic hydrocarbons are toxic and found to have serious effects on human beings. The immune system, liver, respiratory system, reproductive system, circulatory system, kidney, etc. are the organs which are affected due to the hydrocarbon ingestion [33]. Individual's susceptibility and level of exposure are the factors on which the degree of damage depends [2]. Cancer risk and hormonal problems that can disturb developmental and reproductive processes are the other effects of effluents polluted by hydrocarbons on human beings [39–41].

Discharge of wastewater contaminated with hydrocarbon into the water streams poses risk to animals through absorption, breathing, and ingestion. Sea birds are the most exposed to the hydrocarbon pollutant because it spends majority of its time near the water bodies [42]. There is unusual decrease in the temperature due to the destruction of the protective layer of the feathers in sea birds as a result of the presence of oil in water [43]. Scavengers such as ravens and vultures are also in danger when they consume preys and contaminated fish [44]. Water contaminated with hydrocarbon is consumed through gills of the fish during the respiration and accumulates in the gall bladder, liver, and stomach, and thus the fish becomes unhealthy for human utilization [45].

### **6. Remediation**

Polluted land or water systems have become a serious concern for human health. Over the past few decades, several methods have been developed and applied for the cleanups. The degradation either biological or chemical of petroleum which is a complex mixture of chemical substances is difficult because different treatments are required for different classes of compounds. Hence, remediation of oil-containing environment is not easy. Remediation strategies are decided after knowing the oil composition and physicochemical nature of the polluted site. Physical and chemical properties and pH of the polluted water/soil are the different factors on

which the crude oil degradation depends. Oil-producing wells are generally situated near seashore, so due to this reason, water is contaminated mostly by oil spills during oil production operation. Oil spills are controlled by biological and chemical methods. Out of these two methods, chemical method is more frequently used. Bioremediation is gaining worldwide attention.

### **7. Remediation techniques for hydrocarbons**

Contamination due to petroleum is widespread in the environment and contaminates surface and groundwater [46]. Several operations in petroleum exploration, leaking of underground storage tanks, and its production and transportation are responsible for affecting the environment [47]. Contamination causes threat to human health and safety and can affect nature by contaminating surface and groundwater [46].

Efforts are made both nationally and internationally in order to remediate the pollution caused by hydrocarbon contamination which can cause environmental and health risk. There are three methods involved in the remediation of sites contaminated due to hydrocarbon [2, 48]:


#### **7.1 Phytoremediation**

Phytoremediation is the process which involves the use of plants for the degradation, extraction, and elimination of the contaminants from the air, water, and soil [40, 49–51]. It includes various mechanisms which can lead to degradation of contaminants, dissipation, immobilization, and accumulation [52, 53]. Various phytoremediation applications with examples are systematically given in **Table 2**.

#### *7.1.1 Mechanisms of phytoremediation*

Contaminated land and water are remediated more feasibly by using plants involving a variety of pollutant attenuation mechanisms than physical and chemical remediation techniques [54–58]. Plants due to their sedentary nature had developed various abilities for dealing with hazardous compounds. Plants serve as solar-driven pumping and filtering systems as they take up pollutants from the soil through the roots which is transported to various parts of the plant by the help of plant tissues where they can be volatilized, metabolized, or sequestered [57, 59]. Different types of mechanisms are used by the plant for removing the pollutants from the soil. They consist of biophysical and biochemical processes such as adsorption, translocation, and transport, as well as mineralization and transformation by plant enzymes are the mechanisms of phytoremediation [8]. Halogenated substances like TCE are degraded by plants using oxidative degradation pathways, and it includes plant-specific dehalogenases. After the death of the plant, the dehalogenase activity is still maintained [60]. Laccases, P450 monooxygenases, nitroreductases, dioxygenases, phosphatases, peroxidases, dehalogenases, and nitrilases are various contaminant-degrading enzymes which are present in plants [61–63]. The basic physiological mechanisms involved in phytoremediation in higher plants and related microorganisms, such as

**15**

evapotranspiration.

*Source and Control of Hydrocarbon Pollution DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86487*

> landfill leachate, land application of wastewater

> Soil, sediments, land application of wastewater

Phytostabilization Soil, sediments Metals (Pb, Cd, Zn, As, Cu,

Phytotransformation Soil, groundwater,

Phytoextraction Soil, brown fields,

Rhizofiltration Groundwater,

**Table 2.**

sediments

water and wastewater in lagoons or created wetlands

*Application of phytoremediation with examples.*

Rhizosphere bioremediation

**Application Media Contaminants Typical plants**

Herbicides, aromatics, chlorinated aliphatics, nutrients, ammunition waste

Organic contaminants (pesticides, aromatics, and polynuclear aromatic

Cr, Se, U), hydrophobic organics (PAHs, PCNBs, dioxins, furans, pentachlorophenol, DDT,

Metals (Pb, Cd, Zn, Ni, Cu) with EDTA addition for Pb selenium (volatilization)

Metals (Pb, Cd, Zn, Ni, Cu), radionuclides (137Cs, 90 Sr, U), hydrophobic organics

hydrocarbons)

dieldrin)

Phreatophyte trees (popular, willow, cottonwood, aspen) Grasses (rye, Bermuda, sorghum, fescue) Legumes

Phenolic releasers (mulberry, apple,

Phreatophyte trees to transpire large amounts of water for hydraulic

Grasses with fibrous roots to stabilize

Dense root systems are needed to sorb/bind contaminants

Aquatic plants: emergents (bulrush, cattail, coontail, pondweed, arrowroot, duckweed); submergents (algae, stonewort, parrot's feather, Eurasian watermilfoil, hydrilla)

Grasses with fibrous roots (rye, fescue, Bermuda) for contaminants

Phreatophyte trees for 0.10 ft Aquatic plants for sediments

(clover, alfalfa, cowpeas)

Osage orange)

0.3 ft deep

control

soil erosion

Sunflowers Indian mustard Rape seed plants Barley Hops Crucifers Serpentine plants Nettles Dandelions

mineral nutrition, photosynthesis, transpiration, and metabolism. The root of the plant is responsible for the uptake of the organic and inorganic compounds from the soil, and it can bind and stabilize substance on its external surfaces on interaction with microorganism in the rhizosphere. Uptake or release of molecules occurs through exchanging gases from the aerial plant's parts with the atmosphere [64]. For addressing different contaminants in different substrates, six phytotechnologies have

1.For organic contaminants, phytotransformation is ideal in all substrates.

3.Phytostabilization is used in soil for organic and inorganic pollutants.

4.Phytoextraction is useful in substrates containing inorganic pollutants.

2.Rhizosphere bioremediation is used in soil containing organic contaminants.

6.Hydraulic flow can be controlled in the contaminated environment by using

been recognized by Interstate Technology and Regulatory Cooperation:

5.Phytovolatilization is used for volatile substances.

*Source and Control of Hydrocarbon Pollution DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86487*

*Hydrocarbon Pollution and Its Effect on the Environment*

Bioremediation is gaining worldwide attention.

contaminated due to hydrocarbon [2, 48]:

groundwater [46].

1.Phytoremediation

3.Chemical remediation

*7.1.1 Mechanisms of phytoremediation*

2.Bioremediation

**7.1 Phytoremediation**

**7. Remediation techniques for hydrocarbons**

which the crude oil degradation depends. Oil-producing wells are generally situated near seashore, so due to this reason, water is contaminated mostly by oil spills during oil production operation. Oil spills are controlled by biological and chemical methods. Out of these two methods, chemical method is more frequently used.

Contamination due to petroleum is widespread in the environment and contaminates surface and groundwater [46]. Several operations in petroleum exploration, leaking of underground storage tanks, and its production and transportation are responsible for affecting the environment [47]. Contamination causes threat to human health and safety and can affect nature by contaminating surface and

Efforts are made both nationally and internationally in order to remediate the pollution caused by hydrocarbon contamination which can cause environmental and health risk. There are three methods involved in the remediation of sites

Phytoremediation is the process which involves the use of plants for the degradation, extraction, and elimination of the contaminants from the air, water, and soil [40, 49–51]. It includes various mechanisms which can lead to degradation of contaminants, dissipation, immobilization, and accumulation [52, 53]. Various phytoremediation applications with examples are systematically given in **Table 2**.

Contaminated land and water are remediated more feasibly by using plants involving a variety of pollutant attenuation mechanisms than physical and chemical remediation techniques [54–58]. Plants due to their sedentary nature had developed various abilities for dealing with hazardous compounds. Plants serve as solar-driven pumping and filtering systems as they take up pollutants from the soil through the roots which is transported to various parts of the plant by the help of plant tissues where they can be volatilized, metabolized, or sequestered [57, 59]. Different types of mechanisms are used by the plant for removing the pollutants from the soil. They consist of biophysical and biochemical processes such as adsorption, translocation, and transport, as well as mineralization and transformation by plant enzymes are the mechanisms of phytoremediation [8]. Halogenated substances like TCE are degraded by plants using oxidative degradation pathways, and it includes plant-specific dehalogenases. After the death of the plant, the dehalogenase activity is still maintained [60]. Laccases, P450 monooxygenases, nitroreductases, dioxygenases, phosphatases, peroxidases, dehalogenases, and nitrilases are various contaminant-degrading enzymes which are present in plants [61–63]. The basic physiological mechanisms involved in phytoremediation in higher plants and related microorganisms, such as

**14**


**Table 2.**

*Application of phytoremediation with examples.*

mineral nutrition, photosynthesis, transpiration, and metabolism. The root of the plant is responsible for the uptake of the organic and inorganic compounds from the soil, and it can bind and stabilize substance on its external surfaces on interaction with microorganism in the rhizosphere. Uptake or release of molecules occurs through exchanging gases from the aerial plant's parts with the atmosphere [64]. For addressing different contaminants in different substrates, six phytotechnologies have been recognized by Interstate Technology and Regulatory Cooperation:


#### **7.2 Bioremediation**

Bioremediation is a cost-efficient method used for the treatment of soil polluted with oil and wastes of petroleum consisting of biodegradable hydrocarbons and indigenous microbes.

The management of suitable levels of nutrient fertilizer addition, moisture control to optimize soil degradation by microorganisms, aeration and mixing, and pH amendment are required for the process of land treatment [65].

Enzymes attack on some inorganic compounds and on most of the organic compounds through the activities of living organisms. Bioremediation is the technique which involves the productive use of the biodegradative process for the elimination or detoxification of pollutants from the environment.

Oil spill causes contamination of soil which is considered as the chief worldwide concern. Pollution of soil due to petroleum causes a serious effect to human being, affects the groundwater, decreases the agricultural production of the soil, and causes economic loss and ecological problems. Plants, animals, microorganisms, and humans are affected by the toxicity of the petroleum hydrocarbons. Oil spill and accidents occur due to the transportation of crude oil which is generally through tankers on water or through land pipeline. Problems of the oil contamination occur mostly due to the reason that the main oil-producing countries are not the chief oil clients; hence petroleum is transported to the consumption area. Certain microorganisms are accountable for the petroleum hydrocarbon degradation and are used as the resource of carbon and energy for growth and maintenance. Soil contamination can be remediated by many ways including both physicochemical and biological techniques.

Biological techniques are more economical and proficient than physicochemical techniques. The degradation rate of petroleum products is increased by developing several remediation methods. Bioremediation through microorganism is considered to be the most effective method in comparison to other biological methods, but the high molecular weight hydrocarbons with low adsorption and solubility limit their accessibility to microorganisms.

#### *7.2.1 Principle of bioremediation*

Composite mixture of diverse chemical substances makes up the crude oil. Oil and its component are recognized by microbes using bioemulsifiers and biosurfactants, and then they join themselves; hydrocarbon is used as the resource of carbon and energy. High molecular weight hydrocarbons due to their low adsorption and solubility limit their accessibility to microorganisms. Oil biodegradation rates are improved by the biosurfactant's addition which increases the elimination and solubility of these pollutants.

The oil constituents vary particularly in susceptibility, volatility, and volubility to biodegradation. A number of substances are easily degraded, some are nonbiodegradable, and some oppose degradation. Diverse species of microbes preferentially attack diverse compounds due to this biodegradation of petroleum that occurs at different rates but concurrently. Enzymes produced by microorganisms in the presence of sources of carbon are accountable for attacking the hydrocarbon molecules. Hydrocarbon present in the petroleum is degraded by different enzymes and metabolic pathways. Hydrocarbon degradation is prevented by the lack of suitable enzyme [66].

Bioremediation process involves the utilization of natural microorganisms for the decontamination of atmosphere [67]. This process converts pollutants into useful or nontoxic substances by using bacteria, fungi, and yeast which are the

**17**

**Table 3.**

*Nocardia Pseudomonas Vibrio*

*List of microorganisms for bioremediation.*

*Source and Control of Hydrocarbon Pollution DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86487*

*7.2.2 Microorganisms*

for hydrocarbon degradation.

*7.2.2.2 Fungi*

*7.2.2.1 Bacteria*

included in the remediation of hydrocarbons.

naturally occurring microorganisms [40]. This is also a process in which microorganisms restore the quality of the environment by degrading and metabolizing the chemical substances [48]. **Table 3** represents the main microorganisms which are

Microbial species has efficient hydrocarbon degradation capability in natural environments. Various microbial species have been isolated from heavily polluted coastal areas, variety of oil spill, or soil contaminated by petroleum. These are isolated on the basis of their capability to metabolize different sources of carbon such as aliphatic and aromatic compounds and their chlorinated derivate. Enrichment culture procedures were used for obtaining the microorganisms, and for the selection criterion, maximum final cell concentration or maximum specific growth rate was used. Various microorganisms such as fungi, microalgae, bacteria, and yeast [68] are used for degrading the petroleum hydrocarbons. Out of these microorganisms, bacteria play a significant role for hydrocarbon degradation. Rapid degradation of low molecular weight alkanes is reported by various studies. The capability of microorganisms to use hydrocarbons to assure the growth of cell and energy requirements by degrading hydrocarbon is the driving force for the petroleum biodegradation. Biodegradation of petroleum is carried out more extensively by mixed cultures in comparison to pure culture [69]. Adequate indigenous microbial community in many ecosystems is capable of biodegradation of oil, but for oil degradation metabolic activity, environmental conditions should be favorable. Indigenous microorganisms have several advantages than adding microorganisms

For the biodegradation of hydrocarbons in soils, fungi play a more vital role than bacteria. Filamentous fungi which are found in aquatic structures are mostly related with surface films and sediments. The enzymatic processes used by mammalian organizations are also used by fungi in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs).

*Trichoderma*

**Bacteria Yeast and fungi** *Achromobacter Aspergillus Acinetobacter Candida Alcaligenes Cladosporium Arthrobacter Penicillium Bacillus Rhodotorula Brevibacterium Sporobolomyces Corynebacterium Trichoderma Flavobacterium Fusarium*

naturally occurring microorganisms [40]. This is also a process in which microorganisms restore the quality of the environment by degrading and metabolizing the chemical substances [48]. **Table 3** represents the main microorganisms which are included in the remediation of hydrocarbons.

### *7.2.2 Microorganisms*

### *7.2.2.1 Bacteria*

*Hydrocarbon Pollution and Its Effect on the Environment*

Bioremediation is a cost-efficient method used for the treatment of soil polluted with oil and wastes of petroleum consisting of biodegradable hydrocarbons and

Enzymes attack on some inorganic compounds and on most of the organic compounds through the activities of living organisms. Bioremediation is the technique which involves the productive use of the biodegradative process for the elimination

Oil spill causes contamination of soil which is considered as the chief worldwide concern. Pollution of soil due to petroleum causes a serious effect to human being, affects the groundwater, decreases the agricultural production of the soil, and causes economic loss and ecological problems. Plants, animals, microorganisms, and humans are affected by the toxicity of the petroleum hydrocarbons. Oil spill and accidents occur due to the transportation of crude oil which is generally through tankers on water or through land pipeline. Problems of the oil contamination occur mostly due to the reason that the main oil-producing countries are not the chief oil clients; hence petroleum is transported to the consumption area. Certain microorganisms are accountable for the petroleum hydrocarbon degradation and are used as the resource of carbon and energy for growth and maintenance. Soil contamination can be remediated by many ways including both physicochemi-

Biological techniques are more economical and proficient than physicochemical techniques. The degradation rate of petroleum products is increased by developing several remediation methods. Bioremediation through microorganism is considered to be the most effective method in comparison to other biological methods, but the high molecular weight hydrocarbons with low adsorption and solubility limit their

Composite mixture of diverse chemical substances makes up the crude oil. Oil and its component are recognized by microbes using bioemulsifiers and biosurfactants, and then they join themselves; hydrocarbon is used as the resource of carbon and energy. High molecular weight hydrocarbons due to their low adsorption and solubility limit their accessibility to microorganisms. Oil biodegradation rates are improved by the biosurfactant's addition which increases the elimination and

The oil constituents vary particularly in susceptibility, volatility, and volubility

Bioremediation process involves the utilization of natural microorganisms for the decontamination of atmosphere [67]. This process converts pollutants into useful or nontoxic substances by using bacteria, fungi, and yeast which are the

to biodegradation. A number of substances are easily degraded, some are nonbiodegradable, and some oppose degradation. Diverse species of microbes preferentially attack diverse compounds due to this biodegradation of petroleum that occurs at different rates but concurrently. Enzymes produced by microorganisms in the presence of sources of carbon are accountable for attacking the hydrocarbon molecules. Hydrocarbon present in the petroleum is degraded by different enzymes and metabolic pathways. Hydrocarbon degradation is prevented by the lack of suit-

The management of suitable levels of nutrient fertilizer addition, moisture control to optimize soil degradation by microorganisms, aeration and mixing, and

pH amendment are required for the process of land treatment [65].

or detoxification of pollutants from the environment.

**7.2 Bioremediation**

indigenous microbes.

cal and biological techniques.

accessibility to microorganisms.

*7.2.1 Principle of bioremediation*

solubility of these pollutants.

able enzyme [66].

**16**

Microbial species has efficient hydrocarbon degradation capability in natural environments. Various microbial species have been isolated from heavily polluted coastal areas, variety of oil spill, or soil contaminated by petroleum. These are isolated on the basis of their capability to metabolize different sources of carbon such as aliphatic and aromatic compounds and their chlorinated derivate. Enrichment culture procedures were used for obtaining the microorganisms, and for the selection criterion, maximum final cell concentration or maximum specific growth rate was used. Various microorganisms such as fungi, microalgae, bacteria, and yeast [68] are used for degrading the petroleum hydrocarbons. Out of these microorganisms, bacteria play a significant role for hydrocarbon degradation. Rapid degradation of low molecular weight alkanes is reported by various studies. The capability of microorganisms to use hydrocarbons to assure the growth of cell and energy requirements by degrading hydrocarbon is the driving force for the petroleum biodegradation. Biodegradation of petroleum is carried out more extensively by mixed cultures in comparison to pure culture [69]. Adequate indigenous microbial community in many ecosystems is capable of biodegradation of oil, but for oil degradation metabolic activity, environmental conditions should be favorable. Indigenous microorganisms have several advantages than adding microorganisms for hydrocarbon degradation.

### *7.2.2.2 Fungi*

For the biodegradation of hydrocarbons in soils, fungi play a more vital role than bacteria. Filamentous fungi which are found in aquatic structures are mostly related with surface films and sediments. The enzymatic processes used by mammalian organizations are also used by fungi in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs).


#### **Table 3.**

*List of microorganisms for bioremediation.*

Two major types of cytochrome P450 monooxygenases have been well characterized in yeasts and filamentous fungi. Several fungi have the ability to oxidize polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons to phenols, dihydrodiols, and other metabolites and conjugates, but only some fungi such as *Phanerochaete chrysosporium* have the capability to catabolize them totally to CO2.

Example:

i.*Mitosporic Ascomycota*

ii.*DothiorellaAureobasidium*

iii. *Saccharomycetales candida*

#### *7.2.2.3 Yeast*

The biodegradability of various yeasts decreases from n-alkanes > branched alkanes > low molecular weight aromatic hydrocarbons > cycloalkanes > high molecular weight aromatic and polar compounds.

Bioremediation process involves the detoxification of pollutants due to the various metabolic capabilities of microorganisms which is the developing method for elimination of contaminants from nature together with the yields of the petroleum industry [70]. Bioremediation technique is considered to be cost-effective and noninvasive. Petroleum and other hydrocarbon contaminants can be eliminated from the atmosphere by using microorganisms which is considered as primary mechanism, and it is the cheaper method in comparison to other remediation technologies. Microorganisms having suitable metabolic capabilities are the essential requirement.

Alkylaromatic degradation is carried out by various microorganisms such as *Arthrobacter*, *Mycobacterium*, *Sphingomonas*, *Burkholderia*, *Rhodococcus*, and *Pseudomonas*.

Fungi, bacteria, and yeast are accountable for the biodegradation of hydrocarbons in the environment. Six percent [71] to 82% [72] is the reported efficiency of biodegradation for soil fungi, 0.003–100% [73] for marine bacteria, and 0.13% [71] to 50% [72] for soil bacteria. Complex mixtures of hydrocarbons such as crude oil in freshwater, aquatic environments, and soil are degraded by mixed populations with overall wide enzymatic capacities [74].

Bioremediation involves two processes as follows:

1.Bioaugmentation

#### 2.Biostimulation

#### *7.2.2.3.1 Bioaugmentation*

Bioaugmentation process involves the degradation of the harmful hydrocarbons by the addition of microorganisms in order to achieve the pollutant reduction [67]. It is also the injection of polluted water with microorganisms capable of hydrocarbon degradation [48]. This process sometimes involves biodegradation of the hydrocarbon pollutants by adding the genetically engineered microorganisms into the polluted water [75]. Bioaugmentation process is not often used for the hydrocarbon degradation because microorganisms responsible for hydrocarbon degradation naturally exist in the environment. Bioaugmentation process is not so much effective to be used in oil spill remediation sites, and nonindigenous microorganisms

**19**

*Source and Control of Hydrocarbon Pollution DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86487*

environment [76].

*7.2.2.3.2 Biostimulation*

microorganisms [79].

*7.3.1 Dispersants*

*7.3.2 Solidifiers*

solidifiers [82, 84].

*7.3.3 Chemical oxidation*

**7.3 Chemical remediation**

examples of chemical dispersants [83].

used in this process can cause competition with the microbes already present in the

Biostimulation is the process which involves degradation of the harmful compounds by adding the nutrients required by indigenous hydrocarbon-degrading microbes [67]. The growth of microorganisms responsible for the degradation of oil during oil spillage is activated by the increase in carbon. The tendency of the microorganisms to degrade the hydrocarbons is enhanced by addition of suitable concentration of supplemental nutrients. Due to this reason, microorganisms are competent of achieving their utmost rate of growth and consequently the utmost rate of contaminant uptake [77, 78]. The maximum biostimulation is achieved by obtaining the ideal nutrient concentration which is required for the utmost growth of the microorganisms and maintaining concentration as long as possible for

This process requires the use of chemicals. Contaminants can be treated by using various chemicals. Chemicals usually have the capability of altering the contaminant's chemical and physical properties [80]. Dispersants, solidifiers, and chemical oxidants are the three categories in which the chemical remediations are grouped [2, 48, 52].

Slick of oil can be broken down into smaller droplets by surfactants which are present in dispersants, and these droplets undergo rapid dilution by transferring it into the water and can be effortlessly degraded [81]. Chemical dispersants can raise the oil droplet surface area which results in an increased rate of natural biodegradation, and this process makes the oil less sticky to the surface by slowing down the development of oil-water emulsions and allows fast treatment [82]. This method makes oil spills less harmful for living organisms and the marine life. This is achieved by converting oil slicks into droplets which in turn can be degraded by bacteria [2, 81]. Nokomis 3-F4, Slickgone NS, Finasol OSR 52, SPC 1000™, Neon AB3000, ZI-400, Corexit 9500, Corexit 8667, and Saf-Ron Gold are some of the

In this method oil is removed by physical method which involves the interaction of dry granular materials with the oil and converts its liquid state into rubberlike solid state. Dry particulate and semisolid substances such as balls, pucks, sponge, etc. are the various forms in which the solidifiers can be applied. Solidification can be enhanced by using the solidifiers in the seas because mixing energy is provided by the seawater. Solidifiers are difficult to recover after solidification, and it is less efficient, which are the major drawbacks for the use of the

This technique involves the usage of chemical agents which are capable of oxidizing the organic pollutants [85]. These chemical agents are introduced by the help used in this process can cause competition with the microbes already present in the environment [76].

### *7.2.2.3.2 Biostimulation*

*Hydrocarbon Pollution and Its Effect on the Environment*

capability to catabolize them totally to CO2.

i.*Mitosporic Ascomycota*

ii.*DothiorellaAureobasidium*

iii. *Saccharomycetales candida*

overall wide enzymatic capacities [74].

1.Bioaugmentation

2.Biostimulation

*7.2.2.3.1 Bioaugmentation*

Bioremediation involves two processes as follows:

molecular weight aromatic and polar compounds.

Example:

*7.2.2.3 Yeast*

requirement.

*Pseudomonas*.

Two major types of cytochrome P450 monooxygenases have been well characterized in yeasts and filamentous fungi. Several fungi have the ability to oxidize polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons to phenols, dihydrodiols, and other metabolites and conjugates, but only some fungi such as *Phanerochaete chrysosporium* have the

The biodegradability of various yeasts decreases from n-alkanes > branched alkanes > low molecular weight aromatic hydrocarbons > cycloalkanes > high

Bioremediation process involves the detoxification of pollutants due to the various metabolic capabilities of microorganisms which is the developing method for elimination of contaminants from nature together with the yields of the petroleum industry [70]. Bioremediation technique is considered to be cost-effective and noninvasive. Petroleum and other hydrocarbon contaminants can be eliminated from the atmosphere by using microorganisms which is considered as primary mechanism, and it is the cheaper method in comparison to other remediation technologies. Microorganisms having suitable metabolic capabilities are the essential

Alkylaromatic degradation is carried out by various microorganisms such as *Arthrobacter*, *Mycobacterium*, *Sphingomonas*, *Burkholderia*, *Rhodococcus*, and

Fungi, bacteria, and yeast are accountable for the biodegradation of hydrocarbons in the environment. Six percent [71] to 82% [72] is the reported efficiency of biodegradation for soil fungi, 0.003–100% [73] for marine bacteria, and 0.13% [71] to 50% [72] for soil bacteria. Complex mixtures of hydrocarbons such as crude oil in freshwater, aquatic environments, and soil are degraded by mixed populations with

Bioaugmentation process involves the degradation of the harmful hydrocarbons by the addition of microorganisms in order to achieve the pollutant reduction [67]. It is also the injection of polluted water with microorganisms capable of hydrocarbon degradation [48]. This process sometimes involves biodegradation of the hydrocarbon pollutants by adding the genetically engineered microorganisms into the polluted water [75]. Bioaugmentation process is not often used for the hydrocarbon degradation because microorganisms responsible for hydrocarbon degradation naturally exist in the environment. Bioaugmentation process is not so much effective to be used in oil spill remediation sites, and nonindigenous microorganisms

**18**

Biostimulation is the process which involves degradation of the harmful compounds by adding the nutrients required by indigenous hydrocarbon-degrading microbes [67]. The growth of microorganisms responsible for the degradation of oil during oil spillage is activated by the increase in carbon. The tendency of the microorganisms to degrade the hydrocarbons is enhanced by addition of suitable concentration of supplemental nutrients. Due to this reason, microorganisms are competent of achieving their utmost rate of growth and consequently the utmost rate of contaminant uptake [77, 78]. The maximum biostimulation is achieved by obtaining the ideal nutrient concentration which is required for the utmost growth of the microorganisms and maintaining concentration as long as possible for microorganisms [79].

### **7.3 Chemical remediation**

This process requires the use of chemicals. Contaminants can be treated by using various chemicals. Chemicals usually have the capability of altering the contaminant's chemical and physical properties [80]. Dispersants, solidifiers, and chemical oxidants are the three categories in which the chemical remediations are grouped [2, 48, 52].

### *7.3.1 Dispersants*

Slick of oil can be broken down into smaller droplets by surfactants which are present in dispersants, and these droplets undergo rapid dilution by transferring it into the water and can be effortlessly degraded [81]. Chemical dispersants can raise the oil droplet surface area which results in an increased rate of natural biodegradation, and this process makes the oil less sticky to the surface by slowing down the development of oil-water emulsions and allows fast treatment [82]. This method makes oil spills less harmful for living organisms and the marine life. This is achieved by converting oil slicks into droplets which in turn can be degraded by bacteria [2, 81]. Nokomis 3-F4, Slickgone NS, Finasol OSR 52, SPC 1000™, Neon AB3000, ZI-400, Corexit 9500, Corexit 8667, and Saf-Ron Gold are some of the examples of chemical dispersants [83].

### *7.3.2 Solidifiers*

In this method oil is removed by physical method which involves the interaction of dry granular materials with the oil and converts its liquid state into rubberlike solid state. Dry particulate and semisolid substances such as balls, pucks, sponge, etc. are the various forms in which the solidifiers can be applied. Solidification can be enhanced by using the solidifiers in the seas because mixing energy is provided by the seawater. Solidifiers are difficult to recover after solidification, and it is less efficient, which are the major drawbacks for the use of the solidifiers [82, 84].

### *7.3.3 Chemical oxidation*

This technique involves the usage of chemical agents which are capable of oxidizing the organic pollutants [85]. These chemical agents are introduced by the help


#### **Table 4.**

*Advantages and disadvantages of chemical treatment.*

of the mixing apparatus and injection in water or soil at the contaminated site. The usefulness of the process is found to depend upon oxidant quality, efficient contact between pollutant and oxidant, geological conditions, and oxidant's residence time [86]. This process is rapid and can be applied in all weather situations which are some of the advantages of this process. **Table 4** represents the details of other advantages and disadvantages.

### **8. Chemical and mechanical remediation methods**

#### **8.1 Oil spilled on the sea surface**

There are various techniques involved for the elimination of oil from the surface of the sea and to avoid the oil to reach the shoreline. The widely used methods are mechanical recovery and the application of dispersants. The crude oil spreads over the sea surface because it is lighter than water and the thickness of the oil film becomes very thin in a small time. Type of oil, temperature of atmosphere, tide, temperature of water, and wind are the factors on which the velocity of oil spreading depends.

If oil spills accidentally, then the spreading of the oil can be prevented by using skimmers and booms which can control the spill to a short area, and finally the oil can be collected into the container. Oil can be solubilized by applying biosurfactants which are generally not detrimental to nature.

For oil spill remediation, at times in situ oil burning is also used as an optional method; but in situ method is useful only when the spilled layer of oil is floating on the surface of the water, oil spill is fresh, or after the oil has been converted into a smaller area by the booms. The above technique has some drawback that aquatic system gets polluted by the by-products and smoke generated as a result of burning of oil. Weather, tides, and ocean currents are the factors on which the usefulness of the cleaning method depends. If the oil reaches the shoreline, different methods are applied to clean up the gravels and sand. Oil is absorbed sometimes by oil sorbents similar to sponge. Oil is removed from the oiled vegetation by washing with water, but the plants damaged severely should be detached completely.

**21**

*Source and Control of Hydrocarbon Pollution DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86487*

contaminated site.

**8.2 Oil spilled on soil**

temporary solution.

1.In situ

2.Ex situ

*8.2.2 Ex situ*

*8.2.1 In situ method*

steam into the contaminated soil.

remediation which is as follows:

When the amount of contaminated water is less than ex situ, remediation method is applied by pumping the contaminated water to the processing site. The shore sand and gravels are removed and cleaned in a different place from the

Pollution of soil occurs due to leakages from pipes and wellheads during offshore oil production and drilling operations, leakage from underground storage tanks of petroleum, overflow from gathering stations, petroleum yields, and inappropriate dumping of waste of petroleum. During the excavation, transport, and handling of polluted material, significant risk may be created by this method. For the final disposal of the substance, it is very hard to locate new landfill sites. There is continuous requirement of monitoring and maintenance of separation barriers since the pollutant remains on the site, and hence cap and containment technique is the

Methods for the treatment of soil contamination are as follows:

or partially saturated soil by using a process called as slurping.

This method involves physicochemical processes including air sparging, soil air extraction, or by combinations of these two methods applied to the soil at the contaminated site. Vertical & horizontal fossil fuel drilling equipment's are used *in-situ* treatment. This technique is more efficient on sandy soil than on clay soils. Soil pollutant can be taken out by using air sparging which is also known as soil venting. The growth of aerobic bacteria on oxygen feeding is accelerated by the help of this method. Air sparging can be also performed under the water table if the contamination takes place in the groundwater through extraction wells or to the surface by gravity segregation. The oil can be extracted from the oil saturated ground water

The volatile components which are trapped in the soil are extracted by injecting

This technique involves the elimination and transportation of polluted soil to off-site remediation ability. Various processes are used to perform the ex situ

Land farming process is used in which soil polluted with oil is excavated and spread above a bed where it once in a while is tilled until the contaminants are degraded. Fifteen to 35 cm of soil surface is treated with the help of this technique. Composting involves the increase in the development of the microbial species by mixing polluted soil with harmless organic compounds to contaminated soil. Bioreactors are used for the bioprocessing of polluted soil, sediment, and water in which the three phases, gas, soil, and liquid, are mixed continuously in order to enhance the biodegradation rate. Before loading the contaminated soil to the bioreactors, the soil is pretreated. Contaminants undergo chemical reaction and convert harmful compounds into nontoxic compounds. Dechlorination or UV is used for the catalyzation of the oxidation reactions. These techniques have a few limitations

#### *Source and Control of Hydrocarbon Pollution DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86487*

When the amount of contaminated water is less than ex situ, remediation method is applied by pumping the contaminated water to the processing site. The shore sand and gravels are removed and cleaned in a different place from the contaminated site.

#### **8.2 Oil spilled on soil**

*Hydrocarbon Pollution and Its Effect on the Environment*

Dispersants Suitable in all weather condition and for wide range of oils

> about toxicity Less man power needed Less expensive than mechanical

methods

*Advantages and disadvantages of chemical treatment.*

Solidifiers All weather conditions Quick

Accelerates by degradation of the oil by natural processes Advanced formulations have reduced the previous concerns

**Advantages Disadvantages**

No oil recovery

waxy oil

Selected oil Not effective No oil recovery

Not effective on highly viscous, non-spreading, and

The localized and temporary increase in the amount of oil in water concentration that would have an

If dispersion is not achieved, other response method effectiveness may reduce on less disperse oil

effect on the surrounding marine life

Lack of practical application Large amount required

**Chemical treatment**

**Table 4.**

advantages and disadvantages.

**8.1 Oil spilled on the sea surface**

which are generally not detrimental to nature.

**8. Chemical and mechanical remediation methods**

of the mixing apparatus and injection in water or soil at the contaminated site. The usefulness of the process is found to depend upon oxidant quality, efficient contact between pollutant and oxidant, geological conditions, and oxidant's residence time [86]. This process is rapid and can be applied in all weather situations which are some of the advantages of this process. **Table 4** represents the details of other

There are various techniques involved for the elimination of oil from the surface of the sea and to avoid the oil to reach the shoreline. The widely used methods are mechanical recovery and the application of dispersants. The crude oil spreads over the sea surface because it is lighter than water and the thickness of the oil film becomes very thin in a small time. Type of oil, temperature of atmosphere, tide, temperature of

If oil spills accidentally, then the spreading of the oil can be prevented by using skimmers and booms which can control the spill to a short area, and finally the oil can be collected into the container. Oil can be solubilized by applying biosurfactants

For oil spill remediation, at times in situ oil burning is also used as an optional method; but in situ method is useful only when the spilled layer of oil is floating on the surface of the water, oil spill is fresh, or after the oil has been converted into a smaller area by the booms. The above technique has some drawback that aquatic system gets polluted by the by-products and smoke generated as a result of burning of oil. Weather, tides, and ocean currents are the factors on which the usefulness of the cleaning method depends. If the oil reaches the shoreline, different methods are applied to clean up the gravels and sand. Oil is absorbed sometimes by oil sorbents similar to sponge. Oil is removed from the oiled vegetation by washing with water, but the plants damaged severely should be detached

water, and wind are the factors on which the velocity of oil spreading depends.

**20**

completely.

Pollution of soil occurs due to leakages from pipes and wellheads during offshore oil production and drilling operations, leakage from underground storage tanks of petroleum, overflow from gathering stations, petroleum yields, and inappropriate dumping of waste of petroleum. During the excavation, transport, and handling of polluted material, significant risk may be created by this method. For the final disposal of the substance, it is very hard to locate new landfill sites. There is continuous requirement of monitoring and maintenance of separation barriers since the pollutant remains on the site, and hence cap and containment technique is the temporary solution.

Methods for the treatment of soil contamination are as follows:

1.In situ

2.Ex situ

#### *8.2.1 In situ method*

This method involves physicochemical processes including air sparging, soil air extraction, or by combinations of these two methods applied to the soil at the contaminated site. Vertical & horizontal fossil fuel drilling equipment's are used *in-situ* treatment. This technique is more efficient on sandy soil than on clay soils. Soil pollutant can be taken out by using air sparging which is also known as soil venting.

The growth of aerobic bacteria on oxygen feeding is accelerated by the help of this method. Air sparging can be also performed under the water table if the contamination takes place in the groundwater through extraction wells or to the surface by gravity segregation. The oil can be extracted from the oil saturated ground water or partially saturated soil by using a process called as slurping.

The volatile components which are trapped in the soil are extracted by injecting steam into the contaminated soil.

#### *8.2.2 Ex situ*

This technique involves the elimination and transportation of polluted soil to off-site remediation ability. Various processes are used to perform the ex situ remediation which is as follows:

Land farming process is used in which soil polluted with oil is excavated and spread above a bed where it once in a while is tilled until the contaminants are degraded. Fifteen to 35 cm of soil surface is treated with the help of this technique. Composting involves the increase in the development of the microbial species by mixing polluted soil with harmless organic compounds to contaminated soil. Bioreactors are used for the bioprocessing of polluted soil, sediment, and water in which the three phases, gas, soil, and liquid, are mixed continuously in order to enhance the biodegradation rate. Before loading the contaminated soil to the bioreactors, the soil is pretreated. Contaminants undergo chemical reaction and convert harmful compounds into nontoxic compounds. Dechlorination or UV is used for the catalyzation of the oxidation reactions. These techniques have a few limitations such as high cost due to the complication of the method required, while bioremediation due to natural biological action is a choice which provides the chance to degrade the hydrocarbon contaminants.

### **9. Application of bioremediation**


It is a less costly technique than other techniques which are used for cleaning up of the toxic waste.

Hydrocarbons due to their different solubility from polar compounds such as methanol have lower polarity and hence have low solubility. Degradation of hydrocarbons is not only determined by solubilization. Many microorganisms are responsible for increasing the surface area of the substrate by excreting emulsifiers including *Bacillus licheniformis*, *Pseudomonas putida*, *Bacillus cereus*, *Pseudomonas aeruginosa*, *Bacillus subtilis*, and *Bacillus laterosporus*. Absorption of hydrophobic substance is facilitated by change in the cell surface by microorganisms. The behavior of individual hydrocarbons as well as mixtures can be changed by changing the physicochemical character of hydrocarbons [74].

### **10. Conclusion**

Hydrocarbon pollutants have a widely applicable consequence on land, aquatic, as well as atmospheric ecosystem. This has been a problem ever since the use of fossil fuels and industrial revolution started. The unparalleled growth in populations with frequent oil spills, leakages in pipelines, and rampant use of pesticides contribute to substantial increase in pollution. These together are threatening the lives of animals and native microbiological population in land, air, and water

**23**

**Author details**

Manish Srivastava1

\*, Anamika Srivastava1

\*Address all correspondence to: dr.srivastava2480@gmail.com

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

1 Banasthali Vidyapith, Rajasthan, India

provided the original work is properly cited.

2 Amity University, Gurugram, Haryana, India

, Anjali Yadav1

and Varun Rawat<sup>2</sup>

*Source and Control of Hydrocarbon Pollution DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86487*

remediation.

surfaces and subsurfaces. Thus environmental remediation is the most important aspect of human survival. This book not only highlights the causes but also explains the techniques used in pollution rectifications. The various remediations described in this chapter are (i) phytoremediation, (ii) bioremediation, and (iii) chemical

#### *Source and Control of Hydrocarbon Pollution DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86487*

*Hydrocarbon Pollution and Its Effect on the Environment*

degrade the hydrocarbon contaminants.

**9. Application of bioremediation**

120 km of shoreline.

portation can be overcome.

bioremediation process.

of the toxic waste.

**10. Conclusion**

treatment are generally nonhazardous.

physicochemical character of hydrocarbons [74].

such as high cost due to the complication of the method required, while bioremediation due to natural biological action is a choice which provides the chance to

1.Ecologically sound, natural process; there is an increase in the number of the existing microorganisms when the contaminants are present, and the microbial population decreases naturally when the contaminants are degraded. The residues such as water, carbon dioxide, and fatty acids obtained as a result of the biological treatment are usually nonhazardous product, and the obtained

2.Bioremediation is responsible for destroying the target chemicals in place of

3.Other techniques which are used for the cleanup of harmful waste are more costly than bioremediation. For example, through the cleanup of the Exxon Valdez spill, the cost of 1-day physical washing is more than bioremediating

4.Bioremediation deals with in situ treatment and does not involve the transfer of a large amount of the polluted wastes off-site, and the risk due to the trans-

5.Microbe efficiency can be enhanced by using nutrient formulation in the

6.The residues such as CO2, fatty acids, water, etc. obtained from the biological

It is a less costly technique than other techniques which are used for cleaning up

Hydrocarbon pollutants have a widely applicable consequence on land, aquatic, as well as atmospheric ecosystem. This has been a problem ever since the use of fossil fuels and industrial revolution started. The unparalleled growth in populations with frequent oil spills, leakages in pipelines, and rampant use of pesticides contribute to substantial increase in pollution. These together are threatening the lives of animals and native microbiological population in land, air, and water

Hydrocarbons due to their different solubility from polar compounds such as methanol have lower polarity and hence have low solubility. Degradation of hydrocarbons is not only determined by solubilization. Many microorganisms are responsible for increasing the surface area of the substrate by excreting emulsifiers including *Bacillus licheniformis*, *Pseudomonas putida*, *Bacillus cereus*, *Pseudomonas aeruginosa*, *Bacillus subtilis*, and *Bacillus laterosporus*. Absorption of hydrophobic substance is facilitated by change in the cell surface by microorganisms. The behavior of individual hydrocarbons as well as mixtures can be changed by changing the

CO2 can be used for the photosynthesis process by the plants.

transferring the contaminants from one place to another.

**22**

surfaces and subsurfaces. Thus environmental remediation is the most important aspect of human survival. This book not only highlights the causes but also explains the techniques used in pollution rectifications. The various remediations described in this chapter are (i) phytoremediation, (ii) bioremediation, and (iii) chemical remediation.

## **Author details**

Manish Srivastava1 \*, Anamika Srivastava1 , Anjali Yadav1 and Varun Rawat<sup>2</sup>


\*Address all correspondence to: dr.srivastava2480@gmail.com

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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overview of principles and criteria of fundamental processes. Sustainability. 2015;**7**(2):2189-2212

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**24**

*Hydrocarbon Pollution and Its Effect on the Environment*

[8] Meagher RB. Phytoremediation of toxic elemental and organic pollutants. Current Opinion in Plant Biology. 2000;**3**:153-162. DOI: 10.1016/

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[13] Boopathy R, Kulpa CF. Biotransformation of 2,4,6-

[14] Newcombe DA, Crowley DE. Bioremediation of atrazinecontaminated soil by repeated applications of atrazine-degrading bacteria. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 1999;**51**:877-882

[15] Singh BK, Walker A, Morgan JA, Wright DJ. Biodegradation of chlorpyrifos by enterobacter strain B-14 and its use in bioremediation of contaminated soils. Applied and Environmental Microbiology.

[16] Frassinetti S, Setti L, Corti A, Farrinelli P, Montevecchi P, Vallini G. Biodegradation of dibenzothiophene by a nodulating isolate of *Rhizobium* 

*meliloti*. Canadian Journal of Microbiology. 1998;**44**(3):289-297

2004;**70**:4855-4863

[10] Scragg A. Bioremediation. Environmental Biotechnology.

s1369-5266(99)00054-0

2005:173-229

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[61] Susarla S, Medina VF, McCutcheon SC. Phytoremediation: An ecological solution to organic chemical contamination. Ecological Engineering. 2002;**18**:647-658. DOI: 10.1016/ S0925-8574(02)00026-5

[62] Singer AC, Thompson IP, Bailey MJ. The tritrophic trinity: A source of pollutant degrading enzymes and its implication for phytoremediation. Current Opinion in Microbiology. 2004;**7**:239-244. DOI: 10.1016/j. mib.2004.04.007

[63] Chaudhry Q, Blom-Zandstra M, Gupta SK, Joner E. Utilizing the synergy between plants and rhizosphere microorganisms to enhance breakdown of organic pollutants in the environment. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2005;**12**:34-48. DOI: 10.1065/espr2004.08.213

[64] Marmiroli N, Marmiroli M, Maestri E. Phytoremediation and phytotechnologies: A review for the present and the future. In: Soil and Water Pollution Monitoring, Protection and Remediation. Vol. 69. Dordrecht: Springer; 2006. pp. 403-416. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4020-4728-2\_26

[65] Salanitro JP, Dorn PB, Huesemann MH, Moore KO, Rhodes IA, Ricejackson LM, et al. Crude oil hydrocarbon bioremediation and soil ecotoxicity assessment. Environmental Science and Technology. 1997;**31**:1769-1776. DOI: 10.1021/es960793i

[66] Thapa B, Kumar KCA, Ghimire A. A review on bioremediation of petroleum hydrocarbon contaminants in soil. Kathmandu University Journal of Science, Engineering and Technology. 2012;**8**:164-170. DOI: 10.3126/kuset. v8i1.6056

[67] Sharma S. Bioremediation: Features, strategies and applications. Asian Journal of Pharmacy and Life Science. 2012;**2**:202-213

[68] Doong RA, Wu SC. Substrate effects on the enhanced biotransformation of polychlorinated hydrocarbons under anaerobic condition. Chemosphere. 1995;**30**:1499-1511. DOI: 10.1016/0045-6535(95)00044-9

[69] Ghazali MF, Rahman RNZA, Salleh AB, Basri M. Biodegradation of hydrocarbons in soil by microbial consortium. International Biodeterioration and Biodegradation. 2004;**54**:61-67. DOI: 10.1016/j. ibiod.2004.02.002

[70] Medina-Bellver JI, Marin P, Delgado A, Rodríguez-Sánchez A, Reyes E, Ramos JL, et al. Evidence for in situ crude oil biodegradation after the prestige oil spill. Environmental Microbiology. 2005;**7**:773-779. DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-2920.2005.00742.x

[71] Jones JG, Knight M. Effect of gross population by kerosene hydrocarbons on the microflora of a moorland soil. Nature. 1970;**227**:1166

[72] Pinholt Y, Struwe S, Kjøller A. Microbial changes during oil decomposition in soil. Holarctic Ecology. 1979;**2**:195-200. DOI: 10.1111/ j.1600-0587.1979.tb00701.x

[73] Mulkins-Phillips GJ, Stewart JE. Distribution of hydrocarbon utilizing bacteria in Northwestern Atlantic waters and coastal sediments. Canadian Journal of Microbiology. 1974:955-962. DOI: 10.1139/m74-147

[74] Patel V, Shah K. Petroleum hydrocarbon pollution and its biodegradation. International Journal of Chemtech Applications. 2014;**2**:63-80

[75] Gentry TJ, Rensing C, Pepper IL. New approaches for bioaugmentation as a remediation technology. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology. 2004;**34**:447-494

[76] Swannell RP, Lee K, McDonagh M. Field evaluations of marine oil spill bioremediation. Microbiological Reviews. 1996;**60**:342-365

[77] Boufadel MC, Suidan MT, Venosa AD. Tracer studies in laboratory beach

**29**

*Source and Control of Hydrocarbon Pollution DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86487*

simulating tidal influences. Journal of Environmental Engineering.

reagent. Hazardous Waste & Hazardous

[86] Karpenko O, Lubenets V, Karpenko E, Novikov V. Chemical oxidants for remediation of contaminated soil and water. A review. Chemistry & Chemical

Materials. 1990;**7**:335-345

Technology. 2008;**3**:41-45

[78] Zahed MA, Aziz HA, Isa HM, Mohajeri L. Effect of initial oil

concentration and dispersant on crude oil biodegradation in contaminated seawater. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology.

[79] Lee SH, Lee S, Kim DY, Kim JG. Degradation characteristics of waste lubricants under different nutrient conditions. Journal of Hazardous

[80] Vergetis E. Oil Pollution in Greek Seas and Spill Confrontation Means-Methods. Greece: National Technical

2006;**132**:616-623

2010;**84**:438-442

Materials. 2007;**143**:65-72

University of Athens; 2002

2000;**6**:59-68

article/158385/

[81] Lessard RR, DeMarco G. The significance of oil spill dispersants. Spill Science and Technology Bulletin.

[82] Nomack M, Cleveland CJ. Oil Spill Control Technologies. The

[83] USEPA. National Contingency Plan Product Schedule. Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency; 2011 Available from: http:// ocean.floridamarine.org/acp/SJACP/ Documents/EPA/NCP\_Product\_

[84] Fingas MF, Kyle DA, Larouche N, Fieldhouse B, Sergy G, Stoodley G. Effectiveness testing of oil spill-treating agents. In: Lane P, editor. The Use of Chemicals in Oil Spill Response. USA: ASTM International; 1995. pp. 286-298.

[85] Watts R, Udell M, Rauch P, Leung S. Treatment of pentachlorophenolcontaminated soils using Fenton's

Schedule\_ July\_2011.pdf

ISBN: 9780803119994

Encyclopedia of Earth; 2010. Available from: http://www.eoearth.org/view/

*Source and Control of Hydrocarbon Pollution DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86487*

simulating tidal influences. Journal of Environmental Engineering. 2006;**132**:616-623

*Hydrocarbon Pollution and Its Effect on the Environment*

[69] Ghazali MF, Rahman RNZA, Salleh AB, Basri M. Biodegradation of hydrocarbons in soil by microbial

Biodeterioration and Biodegradation.

[71] Jones JG, Knight M. Effect of gross population by kerosene hydrocarbons on the microflora of a moorland soil.

consortium. International

ibiod.2004.02.002

Nature. 1970;**227**:1166

[72] Pinholt Y, Struwe S, Kjøller A. Microbial changes during oil decomposition in soil. Holarctic Ecology. 1979;**2**:195-200. DOI: 10.1111/

[73] Mulkins-Phillips GJ, Stewart JE. Distribution of hydrocarbon utilizing bacteria in Northwestern Atlantic waters and coastal sediments. Canadian Journal of Microbiology. 1974:955-962. DOI: 10.1139/m74-147

[74] Patel V, Shah K. Petroleum hydrocarbon pollution and its

[75] Gentry TJ, Rensing C, Pepper IL. New approaches for bioaugmentation as a remediation technology. Critical Reviews in

Reviews. 1996;**60**:342-365

2004;**34**:447-494

biodegradation. International Journal of Chemtech Applications. 2014;**2**:63-80

Environmental Science and Technology.

[76] Swannell RP, Lee K, McDonagh M. Field evaluations of marine oil spill bioremediation. Microbiological

[77] Boufadel MC, Suidan MT, Venosa AD. Tracer studies in laboratory beach

j.1600-0587.1979.tb00701.x

2004;**54**:61-67. DOI: 10.1016/j.

[70] Medina-Bellver JI, Marin P, Delgado A, Rodríguez-Sánchez A, Reyes E, Ramos JL, et al. Evidence for in situ crude oil biodegradation after the prestige oil spill. Environmental Microbiology. 2005;**7**:773-779. DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-2920.2005.00742.x

[62] Singer AC, Thompson IP, Bailey MJ. The tritrophic trinity: A source of pollutant degrading enzymes and its implication for phytoremediation. Current Opinion in Microbiology. 2004;**7**:239-244. DOI: 10.1016/j.

[63] Chaudhry Q, Blom-Zandstra M, Gupta SK, Joner E. Utilizing the synergy between plants and

DOI: 10.1065/espr2004.08.213

[64] Marmiroli N, Marmiroli M, Maestri E. Phytoremediation and phytotechnologies: A review for the present and the future. In: Soil and Water Pollution Monitoring, Protection and Remediation. Vol. 69. Dordrecht: Springer; 2006. pp. 403-416. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4020-4728-2\_26

[65] Salanitro JP, Dorn PB, Huesemann MH, Moore KO, Rhodes IA, Ricejackson LM, et al. Crude oil hydrocarbon bioremediation and soil ecotoxicity assessment. Environmental Science and Technology. 1997;**31**:1769-1776. DOI:

[66] Thapa B, Kumar KCA, Ghimire A. A review on bioremediation of petroleum hydrocarbon contaminants in soil. Kathmandu University Journal of Science, Engineering and Technology. 2012;**8**:164-170. DOI: 10.3126/kuset.

[67] Sharma S. Bioremediation: Features, strategies and applications. Asian Journal of Pharmacy and Life Science.

[68] Doong RA, Wu SC. Substrate effects on the enhanced biotransformation of polychlorinated hydrocarbons under anaerobic condition.

Chemosphere. 1995;**30**:1499-1511. DOI:

10.1016/0045-6535(95)00044-9

10.1021/es960793i

v8i1.6056

2012;**2**:202-213

rhizosphere microorganisms to enhance breakdown of organic pollutants in the environment. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2005;**12**:34-48.

mib.2004.04.007

**28**

[78] Zahed MA, Aziz HA, Isa HM, Mohajeri L. Effect of initial oil concentration and dispersant on crude oil biodegradation in contaminated seawater. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 2010;**84**:438-442

[79] Lee SH, Lee S, Kim DY, Kim JG. Degradation characteristics of waste lubricants under different nutrient conditions. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2007;**143**:65-72

[80] Vergetis E. Oil Pollution in Greek Seas and Spill Confrontation Means-Methods. Greece: National Technical University of Athens; 2002

[81] Lessard RR, DeMarco G. The significance of oil spill dispersants. Spill Science and Technology Bulletin. 2000;**6**:59-68

[82] Nomack M, Cleveland CJ. Oil Spill Control Technologies. The Encyclopedia of Earth; 2010. Available from: http://www.eoearth.org/view/ article/158385/

[83] USEPA. National Contingency Plan Product Schedule. Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency; 2011 Available from: http:// ocean.floridamarine.org/acp/SJACP/ Documents/EPA/NCP\_Product\_ Schedule\_ July\_2011.pdf

[84] Fingas MF, Kyle DA, Larouche N, Fieldhouse B, Sergy G, Stoodley G. Effectiveness testing of oil spill-treating agents. In: Lane P, editor. The Use of Chemicals in Oil Spill Response. USA: ASTM International; 1995. pp. 286-298. ISBN: 9780803119994

[85] Watts R, Udell M, Rauch P, Leung S. Treatment of pentachlorophenolcontaminated soils using Fenton's

reagent. Hazardous Waste & Hazardous Materials. 1990;**7**:335-345

[86] Karpenko O, Lubenets V, Karpenko E, Novikov V. Chemical oxidants for remediation of contaminated soil and water. A review. Chemistry & Chemical Technology. 2008;**3**:41-45

Chapter 3

Abstract

1. Introduction

100 μg m<sup>3</sup>

31

Aerosol Studies over Central India

Earth's radiation budget and thus climate change are significantly influenced by natural and anthropogenic aerosols. Variability of aerosols both in space and time poses challenges to quantify their effects on cloud microphysical properties, precipitation and hydrological cycle. Black carbon (BC) aerosol besides having effects on human health, possess light absorbing nature and thus contribute in atmospheric radiative properties and interaction with clouds. Aerosol properties have been studied over Nagpur (79.028°E, 21.125°N) located in central India, using multi instruments such as multi wavelength radiometer, aethalometer, sunphotometer, balloon based GPS radiosonde, etc., during the study period of 2008–2014. Seasonal variability of different parameters such as aerosol optical depth, columnar water vapor, black carbon mass concentrations, mixed layer height, etc. will be discussed. MODIS aerosol and water vapor products have also been validated against ground based sunphotometer measurements. To understand the source apportionment HYSPLIT model back trajectories have been used. The chapter discusses the interesting aspect of seasonal variability of aerosol properties including monsoonal

Keywords: aerosol, black carbon, aethalometer, radiosonde, columnar water vapor

Atmospheric aerosols are solid or liquid particles suspended in air. These particles include sea salt particles, mineral dust, smoke, pollen, etc. Sources of aerosols can be from natural and anthropogenic sources. Generation of aerosols involves individual or combination of chemical, physical and biological processes. Removing processes of aerosols can be of two types, namely wet and dry deposition [1] while dominating process of aerosol removal is wet deposition (cloud and rainfall).

The environment impact assessment of these aerosols is decided by their physi-

The aerosol particles can be classified based on the size as the nucleation mode, ultrafine mode and coarse mode. Nucleation mode refers to aerosol particles below 0.1 μm in diameter, whereas diameter is lower than 0.01 μm are called ultrafine mode. The coarse mode refers to particles with diameter larger than 1.0 μm. These particles can accumulate in the atmosphere with lifetime, ranging from 1 to 7 days

). In the free troposphere, aerosol concentrations are (1–2 orders) of

cal and chemical properties and lifetime. The abundance, size distribution and composition of aerosol particles are highly variable both in space and time. In the lower troposphere, the total particle number concentration (typical mass concen-

tration) typically varies in the range of about 100–100,000 cm<sup>3</sup> (1 and

Kannemadugu Hareef Baba Shaeb

effects over the data sparse region of central India.

magnitude lower than in the boundary layer.

### Chapter 3

## Aerosol Studies over Central India

Kannemadugu Hareef Baba Shaeb

### Abstract

Earth's radiation budget and thus climate change are significantly influenced by natural and anthropogenic aerosols. Variability of aerosols both in space and time poses challenges to quantify their effects on cloud microphysical properties, precipitation and hydrological cycle. Black carbon (BC) aerosol besides having effects on human health, possess light absorbing nature and thus contribute in atmospheric radiative properties and interaction with clouds. Aerosol properties have been studied over Nagpur (79.028°E, 21.125°N) located in central India, using multi instruments such as multi wavelength radiometer, aethalometer, sunphotometer, balloon based GPS radiosonde, etc., during the study period of 2008–2014. Seasonal variability of different parameters such as aerosol optical depth, columnar water vapor, black carbon mass concentrations, mixed layer height, etc. will be discussed. MODIS aerosol and water vapor products have also been validated against ground based sunphotometer measurements. To understand the source apportionment HYSPLIT model back trajectories have been used. The chapter discusses the interesting aspect of seasonal variability of aerosol properties including monsoonal effects over the data sparse region of central India.

Keywords: aerosol, black carbon, aethalometer, radiosonde, columnar water vapor

### 1. Introduction

Atmospheric aerosols are solid or liquid particles suspended in air. These particles include sea salt particles, mineral dust, smoke, pollen, etc. Sources of aerosols can be from natural and anthropogenic sources. Generation of aerosols involves individual or combination of chemical, physical and biological processes. Removing processes of aerosols can be of two types, namely wet and dry deposition [1] while dominating process of aerosol removal is wet deposition (cloud and rainfall).

The environment impact assessment of these aerosols is decided by their physical and chemical properties and lifetime. The abundance, size distribution and composition of aerosol particles are highly variable both in space and time. In the lower troposphere, the total particle number concentration (typical mass concentration) typically varies in the range of about 100–100,000 cm<sup>3</sup> (1 and 100 μg m<sup>3</sup> ). In the free troposphere, aerosol concentrations are (1–2 orders) of magnitude lower than in the boundary layer.

The aerosol particles can be classified based on the size as the nucleation mode, ultrafine mode and coarse mode. Nucleation mode refers to aerosol particles below 0.1 μm in diameter, whereas diameter is lower than 0.01 μm are called ultrafine mode. The coarse mode refers to particles with diameter larger than 1.0 μm. These particles can accumulate in the atmosphere with lifetime, ranging from 1 to 7 days

(boundary layer), 3–10 days (free troposphere) and 1–365 days (in the stratosphere) and during this period they can undergo long range transport [2].

have studied for the first time over this region focusing on the classification of aerosol types, validation of MODIS AOD and water vapor products and the role of aerosol transport. Black carbon (BC) is a primary aerosol emitted directly at the source from incomplete combustion processes such as fossil fuel and biomass burning and therefore much atmospheric BC is of anthropogenic origin (IPCC 2007). BC is receiving much attention recently owing to its effects on weather, atmospheric circulation, and hydrological cycles [7–11] and due to the adverse health impacts of BC [12, 13]. BC possess strong absorption characteristics over wide wavelength range (from UV to near IR) and its chemically inert nature (i.e., longer life time) make this species very important in global change and climate studies [14, 15]. Boundary layer dynamics play important role in surface concentrations of observed BC and its vertical dispersion (convection). The altitude up to which the surface would influence the vertical dispersion of species through convective turbulent eddies is known as the mixed layer height (MLH) and this is an important boundary layer parameter. In view of this Kompalli et al. [16] studied continuous observations of surface BC mass concentration (MBC) along with year-around vertical profiles of atmospheric thermodynamics using balloon borne GPS aided radiosonde ascents from a semi-arid suburban location Nagpur, in Central India are

The chapter discusses the interesting aspect of seasonal variability of aerosol

Central India is surrounded by the Great Indian Desert in the northwest, Indo Gangetic Plain in the north and coastal India in east and west. The Nagpur city

on the Deccan plateau of Indian peninsula. A very dry and semi humid climate prevails throughout the year except in the monsoon season (June–September).

E; 310 m a.m.s.l) lies at the geographic center of India (Figure 1)

properties over the data sparse region of central India.

2. Study location and general meteorology

carried out.

(21°06<sup>0</sup>

Figure 1. Study site location.

33

N, 79°03<sup>0</sup>

Aerosol Studies over Central India

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85001

The chemical composition of atmospheric aerosol consists of variable concentrations of sulphate, nitrate, ammonium, sea salt, crustal elements and carbonaceous compounds (elemental and organic carbon) and other organic materials. Nucleation mode consists of sulphate, nitrate, ammonium, elemental and organic carbon and certain trace metals (e.g., lead, cadmium, nickel, copper, etc.). The coarse mode consists of dust, crustal elements, nitrate, sodium, chloride and biogenic organic particles (e.g., pollen, spores, plant fragments, etc.).

Atmospheric aerosol particles can absorb and scatter the incoming/outgoing shortwave and longwave radiation, which alters the radiation budget of the Earth. The also play important role in the formation of clouds and precipitation since they operate as cloud condensation and ice nuclei. Aerosols can affect significantly the cycles of nitrogen, sulphur, and atmospheric oxidants. Aerosol particles in the upper atmosphere can modify the ozone removal [3]. Additionally aerosols in the lower troposphere affect human health and mortality rate.

The effects of aerosols on climate are very uncertain. Aerosols influence the climate (forcing) in two ways, i.e., direct and indirect. In a direct effect, aerosol particles (especially sulphates) reflect incoming shortwave radiation thus cooling the Earth's atmosphere. However, this cooling effect is compensated by the absorption of longwave terreastrial radiation by absorbing aerosols (black carbon and dust particles). The annual mean radiative forcing (global) is estimated as 0.4 0.2 W m<sup>2</sup> (for sulphate), 0.05 0.05 W m<sup>2</sup> (for fossil fuel organic carbon), +0.2 0.15 W m<sup>2</sup> (for fossil fuel black carbon), +0.03 0.12 W m<sup>2</sup> (for biomass burning), 0.1 0.1 W m<sup>2</sup> (for nitrate) and 0.1 0.2 W m<sup>2</sup> (for mineral dust) [4].

Indirect effect of aerosols affect formation of cloud droplets which are formed by condensation of water vapour onto aerosol particles (cloud condensation nuclei, or ice nuclei) when the relative humidity exceeds the saturation. A very large supersaturation (about 400%) is required for the homogeneous condensation of water vapor in the absnce of aerosols. The increased number of aerosols (i.e., the increased cloud optical thickness) decreases the net surface radiation as they reflect more solar radiation (Twomey effect). Smaller particles can increase cloud lifetime. The absorption of solar radiation by absorbing aerosols can lead to evaporation of cloud particles (semi-direct effect). Anthropogenic aerosols effects on water clouds through the cloud albedo effect cause a negative radiative forcing of 0.3 to 1.8 W m<sup>2</sup> [4].

Variability of aerosol parameters over Indian region has been studied using multi-wavelength radiometer (MWR) since 1980 under the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) Geosphere Biosphere Program [5]. Aerosol measurements were reported from several places within the country, but such data and results are sparse in a dry tropical region in the central India.

Ground-based observations are important in order to evaluate the accuracy and validity of parameters retrieved from satellites. The validation excerise is usually targeted to the test the retrieval algorithm efficiency and how it can be improved further. India has a wide variety of ecosystems and surface conditions. Hence it is important to validate the satellite-based retrievals using ground-based measurements for different climatic regions throughout the country. Hareef Baba Shaeb et al. [6] reported the validation of the MODIS aerosol optical depth and water vapor over Nagpur located in the central Indian region. Aerosol loading at the measurement site is influenced both by local sources and long range transport. To locate the possible sources, back trajectory analysis is used. We also used MODIS detected fire locations to understand the contribution of biomass burning. They

#### Aerosol Studies over Central India DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85001

(boundary layer), 3–10 days (free troposphere) and 1–365 days (in the stratosphere) and during this period they can undergo long range transport [2].

genic organic particles (e.g., pollen, spores, plant fragments, etc.).

particles). The annual mean radiative forcing (global) is estimated as

lower troposphere affect human health and mortality rate.

Hydrocarbon Pollution and Its Effect on the Environment

mineral dust) [4].

1.8 W m<sup>2</sup> [4].

32

The chemical composition of atmospheric aerosol consists of variable concentrations of sulphate, nitrate, ammonium, sea salt, crustal elements and carbonaceous compounds (elemental and organic carbon) and other organic materials. Nucleation mode consists of sulphate, nitrate, ammonium, elemental and organic carbon and certain trace metals (e.g., lead, cadmium, nickel, copper, etc.). The coarse mode consists of dust, crustal elements, nitrate, sodium, chloride and bio-

Atmospheric aerosol particles can absorb and scatter the incoming/outgoing shortwave and longwave radiation, which alters the radiation budget of the Earth. The also play important role in the formation of clouds and precipitation since they operate as cloud condensation and ice nuclei. Aerosols can affect significantly the cycles of nitrogen, sulphur, and atmospheric oxidants. Aerosol particles in the upper atmosphere can modify the ozone removal [3]. Additionally aerosols in the

The effects of aerosols on climate are very uncertain. Aerosols influence the climate (forcing) in two ways, i.e., direct and indirect. In a direct effect, aerosol particles (especially sulphates) reflect incoming shortwave radiation thus cooling the Earth's atmosphere. However, this cooling effect is compensated by the absorption of longwave terreastrial radiation by absorbing aerosols (black carbon and dust

0.4 0.2 W m<sup>2</sup> (for sulphate), 0.05 0.05 W m<sup>2</sup> (for fossil fuel organic carbon), +0.2 0.15 W m<sup>2</sup> (for fossil fuel black carbon), +0.03 0.12 W m<sup>2</sup> (for biomass burning), 0.1 0.1 W m<sup>2</sup> (for nitrate) and 0.1 0.2 W m<sup>2</sup> (for

through the cloud albedo effect cause a negative radiative forcing of 0.3 to

sparse in a dry tropical region in the central India.

Variability of aerosol parameters over Indian region has been studied using multi-wavelength radiometer (MWR) since 1980 under the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) Geosphere Biosphere Program [5]. Aerosol measurements were reported from several places within the country, but such data and results are

Ground-based observations are important in order to evaluate the accuracy and validity of parameters retrieved from satellites. The validation excerise is usually targeted to the test the retrieval algorithm efficiency and how it can be improved further. India has a wide variety of ecosystems and surface conditions. Hence it is important to validate the satellite-based retrievals using ground-based measurements for different climatic regions throughout the country. Hareef Baba Shaeb et al. [6] reported the validation of the MODIS aerosol optical depth and water vapor over Nagpur located in the central Indian region. Aerosol loading at the measurement site is influenced both by local sources and long range transport. To locate the possible sources, back trajectory analysis is used. We also used MODIS detected fire locations to understand the contribution of biomass burning. They

Indirect effect of aerosols affect formation of cloud droplets which are formed by condensation of water vapour onto aerosol particles (cloud condensation nuclei, or ice nuclei) when the relative humidity exceeds the saturation. A very large supersaturation (about 400%) is required for the homogeneous condensation of water vapor in the absnce of aerosols. The increased number of aerosols (i.e., the increased cloud optical thickness) decreases the net surface radiation as they reflect more solar radiation (Twomey effect). Smaller particles can increase cloud lifetime. The absorption of solar radiation by absorbing aerosols can lead to evaporation of cloud particles (semi-direct effect). Anthropogenic aerosols effects on water clouds have studied for the first time over this region focusing on the classification of aerosol types, validation of MODIS AOD and water vapor products and the role of aerosol transport. Black carbon (BC) is a primary aerosol emitted directly at the source from incomplete combustion processes such as fossil fuel and biomass burning and therefore much atmospheric BC is of anthropogenic origin (IPCC 2007). BC is receiving much attention recently owing to its effects on weather, atmospheric circulation, and hydrological cycles [7–11] and due to the adverse health impacts of BC [12, 13]. BC possess strong absorption characteristics over wide wavelength range (from UV to near IR) and its chemically inert nature (i.e., longer life time) make this species very important in global change and climate studies [14, 15].

Boundary layer dynamics play important role in surface concentrations of observed BC and its vertical dispersion (convection). The altitude up to which the surface would influence the vertical dispersion of species through convective turbulent eddies is known as the mixed layer height (MLH) and this is an important boundary layer parameter. In view of this Kompalli et al. [16] studied continuous observations of surface BC mass concentration (MBC) along with year-around vertical profiles of atmospheric thermodynamics using balloon borne GPS aided radiosonde ascents from a semi-arid suburban location Nagpur, in Central India are carried out.

The chapter discusses the interesting aspect of seasonal variability of aerosol properties over the data sparse region of central India.

### 2. Study location and general meteorology

Central India is surrounded by the Great Indian Desert in the northwest, Indo Gangetic Plain in the north and coastal India in east and west. The Nagpur city (21°06<sup>0</sup> N, 79°03<sup>0</sup> E; 310 m a.m.s.l) lies at the geographic center of India (Figure 1) on the Deccan plateau of Indian peninsula. A very dry and semi humid climate prevails throughout the year except in the monsoon season (June–September).

Figure 1. Study site location.

#### Hydrocarbon Pollution and Its Effect on the Environment

Dry and hot weather prevails throughout the pre monsoon (PMS) season (March– May). The maximum temperature shoots up to 42–48°C. Summer monsoon (SMS) starts in June and continue up to September. Maximum rainfall is observed during July and August months. During the post monsoon (PoMS) season (October– November), the maximum temperature is about 33°C. Winter season (December, January and February) registers minimum temperatures around 12°C and at times goes below that level.

monthly means of relative humidity and temperature for the year 2012 at the site. Relative humidity is in between �50–85% during Monsoon and �60–80% during oost-monsoon and its highest compared to other seasons. Mean wind speed is high during monsoon season and it was observed maximum in the month of June and July. It is gradually increasing from lower values in winter months (not much variation within the winter months) to higher values in pre-monsoon and reaches maximum in monsoon months as high as (2.39 � 0.53) m/s in the year 2012 decreases in post-monsoon months as like in the winter months. The monthly variation of mean wind speed is shown in Figure 2(b) for the years 2012.

Figure 2(c) shows the monthly variation of the mode of wind direction. These wind direction data is used to correlate with cluster trajectories which were used for source appointment. It was observed that mode (maximum number of times) of wind direction is constant about 3–4 months. Thus the wind direction plays a key

Multi-Wavelength Radiometer (MWR) is a passive instrument used for study-

where I0<sup>λ</sup> = extra-atmospheric solar irradiance, mr = relative air mass, Iλ is the

τR<sup>λ</sup> = Rayleigh optical thickness, τg<sup>λ</sup> = absorption optical depth (atmospheric gases), τw<sup>λ</sup> = optical depth (water vapor), τa<sup>λ</sup> = aerosol optical depth. The calculable values of aerosol optical depth τa<sup>λ</sup> has errors. The error in τλ arises due to 1-min time resolution and the statistical errors in regression calculations. The error in Ozone

associatean uncertainty of 10% in τg<sup>λ</sup> while error in τR<sup>λ</sup> is 0.03%. Thus τaλ, may thus

(O3) model superimposed with the seasonal differences in O3 contributes

direct solar irradiance at the earth's surface at wavelength λ, τλ = total optical thickness. The measured data was edited and further AOD values were calculable following the Langley technique [17, 18]. The total optical depth τλ was calculable because the the slope of the curve following the Langley plot methodology. Considering τλ as the total of the contribution of the various atmospheric components,

Iλ ¼ I0λ exp :½ � �τλ mr (1)

τλ ¼ τ<sup>R</sup><sup>λ</sup> þ τ<sup>g</sup><sup>λ</sup> þ τ<sup>w</sup><sup>λ</sup> þ τ<sup>a</sup><sup>λ</sup> (2)

ing the spectral variation in aerosol properties in the visible and near infrared region. The MWR, was mounted on the building upperside, was used to estimate spectral AOD's, on days when unobstructed solar visibility was available for 3 h or a lot of. Aerosol columnar optical depth is calcuable at 10 slender wavelength bands targeted at 380, 400, 450, 500, 600, 650, 750, 850, 935 and 1025 nm. The MWR collects the incoming solar flux as a function of solar zenith angles. The well-known Lambert–Beer–Bouguer Law (Eq. (1)) permits the estimation of AOD, because the output voltage V<sup>λ</sup> of the MWR at any wavelength is directly proportional to Iλ, by

solving a linear square fit between the logarithm of V<sup>λ</sup> and therefore the

role in the seasonal transportation of black carbon to study site.

3. Data and methods

3.1.1 Ground based

3.1 Measurement methods

Aerosol Studies over Central India

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85001

3.1.1.1 Multiwavelength radiometer

corresponding relative air mass.

35

The monthly mean surface meteorological data, obtained from www.wunderg round.com and rainfall data obtained from www.hydro.imd.gov.in are used for correlating measured Black carbon mass concentrations. Figure 2(a) shows

Monthly variations of (a) relative humidity (%) and temperature (°C), (b) wind speed (m/s) and (c) wind direction (Deg) for 2012.

#### Aerosol Studies over Central India DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85001

monthly means of relative humidity and temperature for the year 2012 at the site. Relative humidity is in between �50–85% during Monsoon and �60–80% during oost-monsoon and its highest compared to other seasons. Mean wind speed is high during monsoon season and it was observed maximum in the month of June and July. It is gradually increasing from lower values in winter months (not much variation within the winter months) to higher values in pre-monsoon and reaches maximum in monsoon months as high as (2.39 � 0.53) m/s in the year 2012 decreases in post-monsoon months as like in the winter months. The monthly variation of mean wind speed is shown in Figure 2(b) for the years 2012.

Figure 2(c) shows the monthly variation of the mode of wind direction. These wind direction data is used to correlate with cluster trajectories which were used for source appointment. It was observed that mode (maximum number of times) of wind direction is constant about 3–4 months. Thus the wind direction plays a key role in the seasonal transportation of black carbon to study site.

### 3. Data and methods

#### 3.1 Measurement methods

### 3.1.1 Ground based

Dry and hot weather prevails throughout the pre monsoon (PMS) season (March– May). The maximum temperature shoots up to 42–48°C. Summer monsoon (SMS) starts in June and continue up to September. Maximum rainfall is observed during July and August months. During the post monsoon (PoMS) season (October– November), the maximum temperature is about 33°C. Winter season (December, January and February) registers minimum temperatures around 12°C and at times

Hydrocarbon Pollution and Its Effect on the Environment

The monthly mean surface meteorological data, obtained from www.wunderg round.com and rainfall data obtained from www.hydro.imd.gov.in are used for correlating measured Black carbon mass concentrations. Figure 2(a) shows

Monthly variations of (a) relative humidity (%) and temperature (°C), (b) wind speed (m/s) and (c) wind

goes below that level.

Figure 2.

34

direction (Deg) for 2012.

#### 3.1.1.1 Multiwavelength radiometer

Multi-Wavelength Radiometer (MWR) is a passive instrument used for studying the spectral variation in aerosol properties in the visible and near infrared region. The MWR, was mounted on the building upperside, was used to estimate spectral AOD's, on days when unobstructed solar visibility was available for 3 h or a lot of. Aerosol columnar optical depth is calcuable at 10 slender wavelength bands targeted at 380, 400, 450, 500, 600, 650, 750, 850, 935 and 1025 nm. The MWR collects the incoming solar flux as a function of solar zenith angles. The well-known Lambert–Beer–Bouguer Law (Eq. (1)) permits the estimation of AOD, because the output voltage V<sup>λ</sup> of the MWR at any wavelength is directly proportional to Iλ, by solving a linear square fit between the logarithm of V<sup>λ</sup> and therefore the corresponding relative air mass.

$$\text{I}\lambda = \text{IO}\lambda \text{ } \exp.[-\text{\textquotedblleft}\_{\lambda}\text{mr}\right] \tag{1}$$

where I0<sup>λ</sup> = extra-atmospheric solar irradiance, mr = relative air mass, Iλ is the direct solar irradiance at the earth's surface at wavelength λ, τλ = total optical thickness. The measured data was edited and further AOD values were calculable following the Langley technique [17, 18]. The total optical depth τλ was calculable because the the slope of the curve following the Langley plot methodology. Considering τλ as the total of the contribution of the various atmospheric components,

$$
\pi\_{\dot{\lambda}} = \pi\_{\text{B\dot{\lambda}}} + \pi\_{\text{g}\dot{\lambda}} + \pi\_{\text{w\dot{\lambda}}} + \pi\_{\text{a}\dot{\lambda}} \tag{2}
$$

τR<sup>λ</sup> = Rayleigh optical thickness, τg<sup>λ</sup> = absorption optical depth (atmospheric gases), τw<sup>λ</sup> = optical depth (water vapor), τa<sup>λ</sup> = aerosol optical depth. The calculable values of aerosol optical depth τa<sup>λ</sup> has errors. The error in τλ arises due to 1-min time resolution and the statistical errors in regression calculations. The error in Ozone (O3) model superimposed with the seasonal differences in O3 contributes associatean uncertainty of 10% in τg<sup>λ</sup> while error in τR<sup>λ</sup> is 0.03%. Thus τaλ, may thus have a most application of this methos to the MWR data analysis is described in many earlier papers [5, 19, 20].

The columnar water vapor content has been estimated from the MWR measurements at 935 and 1025 nm [21–23]. The absorption of radiation at 935 nm band is higher by more than three orders of magnitude than at 850 and 1025 nm bands. The details of application of this technique are described by Nair and Moorthy [24].

#### 3.1.1.2 Sun photometer

Model 540 MICROTOPS-II (microprocessor-based Total Ozone Portable Spectrometer) sun photometer is a compact, portable and multi-channel sun photometer is employed to study the characteristics of columnar aerosols properties and columnar water vapor and to validate the satellite retrievals.

The physical and operational characteristics of the instrument are represented within the user's guide (http://www.solar.com/manuals.htm). The sun photometer measures solar irradiance in 5 spectral wave bands (with peak wavelengths of 440, 500, 675, 870, and 936 nm) from that it derives AOD through internal software. The filters utilized in all channels have a peak wavelength preciseness of �1.5 nm and FWHM band pass of 10 nm (http://www.solar.com/sunphoto.html).

Derivation of AOD and water vapor employing a sun photometer has been clearly explained by Refs. [25, 26]. However; here transient outline is given.

At 440, 500, 675 and 870 nm wavelengths, AOT is derived based on the Beer– Lambert–Bouguer law as follows:

$$\mathbf{V}\_{\lambda} = \mathbf{V}\_{0\lambda}\mathbf{D} - 2\exp(-\tau\_{\lambda}\mathbf{M}),\tag{3}$$

AERONET stands for Aerosol RObotic NETwork formed by NASA/GSFC and is expanded by collaborators in order to cover a large spatial extent. The sun photometer measurements were performed in cloud-free conditions. For the current study, sun photometer observations are chosen from the condition that the time difference between ground based observation and MODIS flypast time is a smaller amount than quarter-hour. The data set was used because the ground truth within the validation of the Terra Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS)

Aethalometer measures blackcarbon (absorbingaerosol) content by measuring the attenuation of a beam of light transmitted through the sample when collected on a fibrous filter (Lambert–Beer law) at 7 channels (370, 470, 520, 590, 660, 880 and 950 nm). Sixth channel (entered at 880 nm) is considered as the standard channel for BC measurements because BC is the principal absorber of light at this

wavelength and other Aerosol components have negligible absorption. Aethalometer (ModelAE-42, Magee Scientific, USA) was operated daily on a 24 h cycle at a flow rate 3 L/min at sampling rate of 5 min interval and air inlet

The details of principle of operation, data deduction, error budget of

aethalometer, inherent uncertainties in its technique and the corrections are extensively available in the literature (e.g., [28–30]) and are not repeated. The instrumental uncertainty of the aethalometer ranges from 50% at 0.05 μg m<sup>3</sup> to 6% at 1 μg m<sup>3</sup> [30]. The inherent uncertainties in the aethalometer technique basically arise due to multiple scattering (known as C-factor) and shadowing (R-factor)

The MODIS flies on board the EOS Terra and Aqua satellite and measure AOD and other optical properties on a world scale daily from the year 2000 onwards. Terra and Aqua satellites are at an altitude of 705 km, cross equator at 10:30 Indian Standard Time (IST) ascending towards north and at 13:30, IST dropping towards south, respectively. MODIS has 36 bands starting from 0.4 to

MODIS daily level-3 collection version 005 AOD data at 550 nm averaged at a 1° latitude/longitude grid to produce daily MOD08\_D3.005 products from Terra sat-

convenient source of data that has land and ocean measurements at a 1-degree scale combined into one file. Remer et al. [62] provided international validation of Collection 004 (C004) product over both land and ocean (compared to AERONET) and reported the expected error bars of AOD values as τpλ = 0.05 0.15τpλ over land, where τpλ is the AOD value retrieved from the intensity measured at ground. The updated C005 algorithm rule has to be valid, to account for native biases. The aerosol properties contained among the lookup table (LUT) has to be updated for as many ground measuring sites as possible, to improve the accuracy of the

14.4 μm wavelengths with three completely different spatial resolutions

ellite were used. For general climate modeling, the level 3 data provide a

AOD550.

3.1.1.3 Aethalometer

Aerosol Studies over Central India

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85001

is 12 m above the ground.

effects in the filter tape [28–30].

3.1.2 Satellite data

(250, 500 and 1000 m).

retrieved AOD [31].

37

3.1.2.1 MODIS

where, for each channel (wavelength (λ)), V<sup>λ</sup> = the signal measured by the instrument, V0<sup>λ</sup> = the extraterrestrial signal, D = Earth-Sun distance in astronomical units, τλ = total optical thickness (τλ = τa<sup>λ</sup> + τR<sup>λ</sup> + τO3λ), τa<sup>λ</sup> = aerosol optical thickness (AOT), τR<sup>λ</sup> = Rayleigh (air) optical thickness, τO3<sup>λ</sup> = Ozone optical thickness, M = the optical air mass.

The Rayleigh (τRλ), ozone optical thickness (τO3λ) are obtained from atmospheric models as below:

$$
\pi\_{\mathbb{R}\vec{\lambda}} = \mathbb{R}\mathbf{4} \,\,\exp\left(-\mathbf{h}/2\mathbf{9}.\mathbf{3}/27\mathbf{3}\right) \tag{4}
$$

$$
\tau\_{\text{O3\%}} = \text{O2abs} \times \text{DOBS} / 1000 \,\tag{5}
$$

where h = altitude of the place of observation in meters, R4 = 28773.6 � (R2 � (2 + R2) � λ � 2)2, R2 = 10–8 � {8342.13 + 2,406,030/ (130 � λ � 2) + 15,997/(38.9 � λ � 2)}, λ = wavelength in μm, Ozabs = ozone absorption cross section (extracted from a lookup table based on wavelength), DOBS = ozone amount in Dobson units (extracted from a lookup table based on latitude and date of observation).

MICROTOPS II sun photometer was calibrated by its manufacturer (M/s Solar Light Control, USA) at the Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii which is a noise-free high-altitude site before the measurements started in 2011 at our measurement site. Aside from this, we analyzed the MICROTOPS-II output when air mass is eual to zero, which is used as calibration constant. Filter degradation, temperature effects and poor pointing towards the sun can contribute to other measurement errors. The Microtops AOT retrievals uncertainties are in the range of 0.01–0.02 [27].

#### Aerosol Studies over Central India DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85001

AERONET stands for Aerosol RObotic NETwork formed by NASA/GSFC and is expanded by collaborators in order to cover a large spatial extent. The sun photometer measurements were performed in cloud-free conditions. For the current study, sun photometer observations are chosen from the condition that the time difference between ground based observation and MODIS flypast time is a smaller amount than quarter-hour. The data set was used because the ground truth within the validation of the Terra Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) AOD550.

### 3.1.1.3 Aethalometer

have a most application of this methos to the MWR data analysis is described

The columnar water vapor content has been estimated from the MWR measurements at 935 and 1025 nm [21–23]. The absorption of radiation at 935 nm band is higher by more than three orders of magnitude than at 850 and 1025 nm bands. The details of application of this technique are described by Nair and Moorthy [24].

Model 540 MICROTOPS-II (microprocessor-based Total Ozone Portable Spectrometer) sun photometer is a compact, portable and multi-channel sun photometer is employed to study the characteristics of columnar aerosols properties and colum-

The physical and operational characteristics of the instrument are represented within the user's guide (http://www.solar.com/manuals.htm). The sun photometer measures solar irradiance in 5 spectral wave bands (with peak wavelengths of 440, 500, 675, 870, and 936 nm) from that it derives AOD through internal software. The filters utilized in all channels have a peak wavelength preciseness of �1.5 nm

and FWHM band pass of 10 nm (http://www.solar.com/sunphoto.html).

Derivation of AOD and water vapor employing a sun photometer has been clearly explained by Refs. [25, 26]. However; here transient outline is given.

where, for each channel (wavelength (λ)), V<sup>λ</sup> = the signal measured by the instrument, V0<sup>λ</sup> = the extraterrestrial signal, D = Earth-Sun distance in astronomical

thickness (AOT), τR<sup>λ</sup> = Rayleigh (air) optical thickness, τO3<sup>λ</sup> = Ozone optical thick-

The Rayleigh (τRλ), ozone optical thickness (τO3λ) are obtained from atmo-

units, τλ = total optical thickness (τλ = τa<sup>λ</sup> + τR<sup>λ</sup> + τO3λ), τa<sup>λ</sup> = aerosol optical

R4 = 28773.6 � (R2 � (2 + R2) � λ � 2)2, R2 = 10–8 � {8342.13 + 2,406,030/ (130 � λ � 2) + 15,997/(38.9 � λ � 2)}, λ = wavelength in μm, Ozabs = ozone absorption cross section (extracted from a lookup table based on wavelength), DOBS = ozone amount in Dobson units (extracted from a lookup table based on

Microtops AOT retrievals uncertainties are in the range of 0.01–0.02 [27].

MICROTOPS II sun photometer was calibrated by its manufacturer (M/s Solar Light Control, USA) at the Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii which is a noise-free high-altitude site before the measurements started in 2011 at our measurement site. Aside from this, we analyzed the MICROTOPS-II output when air mass is eual to zero, which is used as calibration constant. Filter degradation, temperature effects and poor pointing towards the sun can contribute to other measurement errors. The

where h = altitude of the place of observation in meters,

At 440, 500, 675 and 870 nm wavelengths, AOT is derived based on the Beer–

V<sup>λ</sup> ¼ V0λD � 2expð Þ �τλM , (3)

τR<sup>λ</sup> ¼ R4 exp :ð Þ �h=29:3=273 (4)

τO3<sup>λ</sup> ¼ Ozabs � DOBS=1000 (5)

in many earlier papers [5, 19, 20].

Hydrocarbon Pollution and Its Effect on the Environment

Lambert–Bouguer law as follows:

ness, M = the optical air mass.

latitude and date of observation).

36

spheric models as below:

nar water vapor and to validate the satellite retrievals.

3.1.1.2 Sun photometer

Aethalometer measures blackcarbon (absorbingaerosol) content by measuring the attenuation of a beam of light transmitted through the sample when collected on a fibrous filter (Lambert–Beer law) at 7 channels (370, 470, 520, 590, 660, 880 and 950 nm). Sixth channel (entered at 880 nm) is considered as the standard channel for BC measurements because BC is the principal absorber of light at this wavelength and other Aerosol components have negligible absorption. Aethalometer (ModelAE-42, Magee Scientific, USA) was operated daily on a 24 h cycle at a flow rate 3 L/min at sampling rate of 5 min interval and air inlet is 12 m above the ground.

The details of principle of operation, data deduction, error budget of aethalometer, inherent uncertainties in its technique and the corrections are extensively available in the literature (e.g., [28–30]) and are not repeated. The instrumental uncertainty of the aethalometer ranges from 50% at 0.05 μg m<sup>3</sup> to 6% at 1 μg m<sup>3</sup> [30]. The inherent uncertainties in the aethalometer technique basically arise due to multiple scattering (known as C-factor) and shadowing (R-factor) effects in the filter tape [28–30].

### 3.1.2 Satellite data

### 3.1.2.1 MODIS

The MODIS flies on board the EOS Terra and Aqua satellite and measure AOD and other optical properties on a world scale daily from the year 2000 onwards. Terra and Aqua satellites are at an altitude of 705 km, cross equator at 10:30 Indian Standard Time (IST) ascending towards north and at 13:30, IST dropping towards south, respectively. MODIS has 36 bands starting from 0.4 to 14.4 μm wavelengths with three completely different spatial resolutions (250, 500 and 1000 m).

MODIS daily level-3 collection version 005 AOD data at 550 nm averaged at a 1° latitude/longitude grid to produce daily MOD08\_D3.005 products from Terra satellite were used. For general climate modeling, the level 3 data provide a convenient source of data that has land and ocean measurements at a 1-degree scale combined into one file. Remer et al. [62] provided international validation of Collection 004 (C004) product over both land and ocean (compared to AERONET) and reported the expected error bars of AOD values as τpλ = 0.05 0.15τpλ over land, where τpλ is the AOD value retrieved from the intensity measured at ground. The updated C005 algorithm rule has to be valid, to account for native biases. The aerosol properties contained among the lookup table (LUT) has to be updated for as many ground measuring sites as possible, to improve the accuracy of the retrieved AOD [31].

#### 3.1.2.2 OMI

The Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) is a space-borne spectrometer, which has global coverage on a daily basis with a spatial resolution of 13 � 24 km at nadir. This instrument measures reflected and backscattered solar radiation in UV-visible spectrum (from 250 to 500 nm). Absorbing aerosol index (AAI) or simply aerosol index (AI) is obtained from OMI (http://www.temis.nl/airpollution/ absaai/absaai-omi.php?year=2012&datatype=data&freq=daily) gridded daily global level 3 data (NetCDF data format) which is available on ESA Tropospheric Emission Monitoring Internet Service (TEMIS).

The AI is expressed in the following equation:

$$\text{AI} = -100 \log \left\{ \left( \frac{\text{I}\_{\text{l}1}}{\text{I}\_{\text{l}2}} \right)\_{\text{meas}} \right\} + 100 \log \left\{ \left[ \frac{\text{I}\_{\text{l}1}}{\text{I}\_{\text{l}2}} \frac{(\text{A}\_{\text{LEBA}1})}{(\text{A}\_{\text{LEBA}2})} \right]\_{\text{calc}} \right\} \tag{6}$$

ALER is the surface Lambert equivalent albedo which is dependent on wavelength. AI at 388 nm is obtained using λ<sup>1</sup> (342.5 nm) and λ<sup>2</sup> (388 nm) and is the residue between the measured and calculated radiance assuming Lambert equivalent reflectivity [32, 33]. Tthe presence of absorbing aerosols such as dust and smoke result in positive AI values (>0.2) and high negative values (<�0.2) represent fine non absorbing particles such as sulfates, while AAI values close to zero (�0.2) correspond to clouds or coarse mode non absorbing aerosols [34].

The magnitude of AI is influenced by parameters such as solar zenith angle, aerosol layer height, cloud reflectivity, and pressure but uncertainty/variability can be minimized through seasonal/annual averages [32]. Kascoutis et al. [32] observed that the exclusion of negative AI values may not lead to a true representation of the AI levels at a particular site.

> Bengal or Arabian Sea and/or operation of any trigger mechanism produce conditions contributing for the explosive convective development. This high convective activity and frequent incidence of long range transport of dust from

Annual average moderate resolution imaging instrument (MODIS) Terra AOD550 over the Indian

week or within the third week of June and this can be characterized by severe weather activity i.e., heavy rain, thunderstorm etc. AOD500 values (0.38 0.06) are determined to be lower throughout the monsoon season because of stronger higher winds, cloud removal and rain out processes [38]. The withdrawal of monsoon is characterized by the reversal of winds from South West to North East. During the post monsoon, aerosols build up slowly and possibly undergo hygro-

scopic growth in water vapor (RH > 50%) leading to increase in AOD500

4.2 Seasonal variability in columnar water vapor

locations [39–42].

39

Figure 3.

subcontinent and surrounding regions.

Aerosol Studies over Central India

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85001

(0.5 0.02). The winter season is characterized by dry and cold weather. In the winter season, AOD500 is less (0.42 0.15) compared to post monsoon season.

A temporal variation of columnar water vapor content (CWC) values for the period from July 2008 to June 2009 is reported by Hareef Baba Shaeb et al. [6]. Minimum columnar water vapor content value of 0.61 g/cm<sup>2</sup> and maximum value of 3.26 g/cm<sup>2</sup> is observed in the months of March 2009 and July 2008 respectively. There exists a well defined seasonal variation in CWC, with the maximum value during the monsoon months and minimum during winter months. Similar variations in columnar water vapor have been observed at other Indian

The monsoon typically advances over central India throughout the top of second

northwestern result in increase in AOD throughout this season [36].

#### 4. Results and discussion

#### 4.1 Seasonal variability in aerosol optical depth

Hareef Baba Shaeb et al. [6] observed that AOD values are observed to be lowest throughout the monsoon because of stronger upper winds, cloud scavenging process and rain wash out [35, 36]. Throughout the post monsoon, aerosols build up slowly and presumably undergo hygroscopic (absorptive) growth in water vapor (RH > 50%) resulting in increase in AOD. In the winter season, AOD exhibits a lot of variability, at first decreasing for the month of December and so steady increasing throughout January and February months. This will be attributed to substancial increase in CWC and temperature from December to January and February. AOD rises in its manitude from winter to summer. High temperature, in association with robust surface winds throughout summer plays a very important role in heating and lifting the top soil layer. This high convective activity and frequent prevalence of long range transport of dust from northwestern India cause increase in AOD throughout this season [37].

Figure 3 shows annual average Moderate Resolution Imaging Instrument (MODIS) Terra AOD550 over the Indian subcontinent and surrounding regions. AOD is found to be significant (AOD > 0.7) over northwest, IGP, North east and other parts of India shows relatively less AOD (<0.45).

High AOD500 (0.64 � 0.08) is observed throughout PMS. High temperature, in association with sturdy surface winds, throughout summer plays a vital role in heating and lifting the loose soil. The incursion of wet air either from the Bay of

3.1.2.2 OMI

Monitoring Internet Service (TEMIS).

the AI levels at a particular site.

4. Results and discussion

in AOD throughout this season [37].

38

other parts of India shows relatively less AOD (<0.45).

4.1 Seasonal variability in aerosol optical depth

The AI is expressed in the following equation:

Hydrocarbon Pollution and Its Effect on the Environment

Iλ2 

meas

ALER is the surface Lambert equivalent albedo which is dependent on wavelength. AI at 388 nm is obtained using λ<sup>1</sup> (342.5 nm) and λ<sup>2</sup> (388 nm) and is the residue between the measured and calculated radiance assuming Lambert equivalent reflectivity [32, 33]. Tthe presence of absorbing aerosols such as dust and smoke result in positive AI values (>0.2) and high negative values (<�0.2) represent fine non absorbing particles such as sulfates, while AAI values close to zero (�0.2) correspond to clouds or coarse mode non absorbing aerosols [34].

The magnitude of AI is influenced by parameters such as solar zenith angle, aerosol layer height, cloud reflectivity, and pressure but uncertainty/variability can be minimized through seasonal/annual averages [32]. Kascoutis et al. [32] observed that the exclusion of negative AI values may not lead to a true representation of

Hareef Baba Shaeb et al. [6] observed that AOD values are observed to be lowest throughout the monsoon because of stronger upper winds, cloud scavenging process and rain wash out [35, 36]. Throughout the post monsoon, aerosols build up slowly and presumably undergo hygroscopic (absorptive) growth in water vapor (RH > 50%) resulting in increase in AOD. In the winter season, AOD exhibits a lot of variability, at first decreasing for the month of December and so steady increasing throughout January and February months. This will be attributed to substancial increase in CWC and temperature from December to January and February. AOD rises in its manitude from winter to summer. High temperature, in association with robust surface winds throughout summer plays a very important role in heating and lifting the top soil layer. This high convective activity and frequent prevalence of long range transport of dust from northwestern India cause increase

Figure 3 shows annual average Moderate Resolution Imaging Instrument (MODIS) Terra AOD550 over the Indian subcontinent and surrounding regions. AOD is found to be significant (AOD > 0.7) over northwest, IGP, North east and

High AOD500 (0.64 � 0.08) is observed throughout PMS. High temperature, in association with sturdy surface winds, throughout summer plays a vital role in heating and lifting the loose soil. The incursion of wet air either from the Bay of

<sup>þ</sup> 100 log <sup>I</sup>λ<sup>1</sup>

Iλ2

ð Þ ALERλ<sup>1</sup> ð Þ ALERλ<sup>2</sup> 

calc

(6)

AI ¼ �100 log <sup>I</sup>λ<sup>1</sup>

The Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) is a space-borne spectrometer, which has global coverage on a daily basis with a spatial resolution of 13 � 24 km at nadir. This instrument measures reflected and backscattered solar radiation in UV-visible spectrum (from 250 to 500 nm). Absorbing aerosol index (AAI) or simply aerosol index (AI) is obtained from OMI (http://www.temis.nl/airpollution/ absaai/absaai-omi.php?year=2012&datatype=data&freq=daily) gridded daily global level 3 data (NetCDF data format) which is available on ESA Tropospheric Emission

Figure 3. Annual average moderate resolution imaging instrument (MODIS) Terra AOD550 over the Indian subcontinent and surrounding regions.

Bengal or Arabian Sea and/or operation of any trigger mechanism produce conditions contributing for the explosive convective development. This high convective activity and frequent incidence of long range transport of dust from northwestern result in increase in AOD throughout this season [36].

The monsoon typically advances over central India throughout the top of second week or within the third week of June and this can be characterized by severe weather activity i.e., heavy rain, thunderstorm etc. AOD500 values (0.38 0.06) are determined to be lower throughout the monsoon season because of stronger higher winds, cloud removal and rain out processes [38]. The withdrawal of monsoon is characterized by the reversal of winds from South West to North East. During the post monsoon, aerosols build up slowly and possibly undergo hygroscopic growth in water vapor (RH > 50%) leading to increase in AOD500 (0.5 0.02). The winter season is characterized by dry and cold weather. In the winter season, AOD500 is less (0.42 0.15) compared to post monsoon season.

### 4.2 Seasonal variability in columnar water vapor

A temporal variation of columnar water vapor content (CWC) values for the period from July 2008 to June 2009 is reported by Hareef Baba Shaeb et al. [6]. Minimum columnar water vapor content value of 0.61 g/cm<sup>2</sup> and maximum value of 3.26 g/cm<sup>2</sup> is observed in the months of March 2009 and July 2008 respectively. There exists a well defined seasonal variation in CWC, with the maximum value during the monsoon months and minimum during winter months. Similar variations in columnar water vapor have been observed at other Indian locations [39–42].

#### Figure 4.

Seasonal variation of black carbon concentration measured using an Aethalometer at Nagpur, during the year 2012.

It is seen that minimum CWC happens wihin the month of March and starts increasing till July and remains high throughout southwest monsoon months (June–September). CWC starts decreasing shortly once the monsoon season ends from the month of October and then a secondary minimum happens throughout the month of December.

Very good correlation R2 0.7 (R2 0.5) is observed between RH (%) and CWC in summer and the monsoon (post monsoon and winter). This signifies the correlation between near surface and columnar water vapor amounts.

#### 4.3 Seasonal variations in BC mass concentration

Seasonal variations of BC aerosol mass concentration showed high values, during the post monsoon (4.4 0.9 <sup>μ</sup>g m<sup>3</sup> ) followed by winter (4.2 0.6 <sup>μ</sup>g m<sup>3</sup> ) season and low values during the monsoon (2.4 0.6 <sup>μ</sup>g m<sup>3</sup> ) followed by pre monsoon (3.3 0.6 <sup>μ</sup>g m<sup>3</sup> ) season. The variation is shown in the form of bar chart in Figure 4.

4.5 Seasonal variations in mixed layer depth

gradients inθv exceeded 3 K km<sup>1</sup>

BC values reported by different authors.

Station Location/

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85001

Aerosol Studies over Central India

Srinagar (34.06 °N,

Darjeeling (27.03° N, 88.26°E)

Dayalbagh, Agra (27.23°N, 78.0026°

Kanpur (26.46°N, 80.32°E)

Ooty (11.4°N, 76.7°

Mumbai (19.13°N, 72.91°E)

Hyderabad (17.47° N, 78.58°E)

Kharagpur (22.5°N,

New Delhi (28.63° N, 77.17°E)

Trivandrum (8.5° N, 77°E)

Pune (18.53°N, 73.85°E)

Table 1.

Ahmedabad (23.03°N, 72.55°E)

Ananthapur (14.36°N, 77.65°E)

87.3°E)

74.78°E)

E)

E)

environment

Northern India (Indo-Gangetic basin)/urban

Northern India (central part of IGP)/ urban

South India (Western ghats)/

Western Coast/urban industrial

Southern plateau/rural (semi-arid)

South-Central India/ urban

Eastern coast of North India/industrialized

North India/urban industrial Southern

Sothern peninsular semiurban/coastal

Northern India/urban Jan 2013-Dec

Eastern India Jan 2010 to Dec

2013

2011

May 2014 to April 2015

8 January 2015 to 28 February 2015

> April 2010 to May 2012

January to March 1999

August 2006 to July 2007

January to July 2003

May 2001 to April 2002

August 2000 to October 2001

December 2005

Western India/urban Winter 11.6 2.9 [48]

monsoon and winter seasons [16].

MLH is low.

41

In order to estimate mixed layer height (MLH), the raw data on temperature, pressure, relative humidity and geographical position (latitude, longitude and altitude) as a function of time at every 1 s, are filtered and regridded at 10 m regular

. The equations used and procedure to obtain

Period Mean MBC (μg m<sup>3</sup>

) Reference

[47]

[51]

6 [43]

3.45 [44]

9.5 [45]

4.06 2.46 [46]

12.5 [49]

1.97 [50]

17.9 (6.7–27.9) [53]

0.3–5 [54]

4.1 [55]

0.96 0.35 (summer) 0.23 0.06 (monsoon)

0.5–68 (dry season) 0.5–45 (wet season)

2004–2008 6.50 3.04 [52]

interval. The top of mixed layer is defined as the altitude where the vertical

Western/urban January to

MLH is explained in Ref. [16] hence not repeated. The mean mixed layer height values for PMS, SMS, PoMS and winter are found to be 3014 1187, 832 452, 1871 506 and 1488 706 m respectively, therfore showing the least values in monsoon season, highest values in pre monsoon and moderate to low values in post

According to Ref. [16] the main conclusion from association of MLH with BC is a good association between MLH and MBC was seen during dry period of the year (winter and PMS). However, during wet period the association between MBCand

The annual average BC concentration is found to be 3.57 0.7 <sup>μ</sup>g m<sup>3</sup> and this is 20% more than the value found for the year 2011. High values of wind speed (and total rain fall) during monsoon and pre monsoon seasons may be responsible for observed low values of BC mass concentrations. During winter and post monsoon low temperatures (which keep mixed layer height low), low relative humidity leads to observed high concentrations at the surface level.

#### 4.4 Comparisons with other locations in India

The BC mass concentrations have been compared with the measurements reported from other locations in India. This value (3.57 0.7 <sup>μ</sup>g m<sup>3</sup> ) is lower compared to urban areas like Ahmedabad, Pune and much lower in comparison to urban and industrial locations like Delhi and Mumbai (Table 1).

#### Aerosol Studies over Central India DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85001


#### Table 1.

It is seen that minimum CWC happens wihin the month of March and starts increasing till July and remains high throughout southwest monsoon months (June–September). CWC starts decreasing shortly once the monsoon season ends from the month of October and then a secondary minimum happens throughout

Seasonal variation of black carbon concentration measured using an Aethalometer at Nagpur, during the year

Very good correlation R2 0.7 (R2 0.5) is observed between RH (%) and CWC in summer and the monsoon (post monsoon and winter). This signifies the

Seasonal variations of BC aerosol mass concentration showed high values,

The annual average BC concentration is found to be 3.57 0.7 <sup>μ</sup>g m<sup>3</sup> and this is 20% more than the value found for the year 2011. High values of wind speed (and total rain fall) during monsoon and pre monsoon seasons may be responsible for observed low values of BC mass concentrations. During winter and post monsoon low temperatures (which keep mixed layer height low), low relative

The BC mass concentrations have been compared with the measurements

compared to urban areas like Ahmedabad, Pune and much lower in comparison to

) followed by winter (4.2 0.6 <sup>μ</sup>g m<sup>3</sup>

) season. The variation is shown in the form of bar

) followed by pre

) is lower

)

correlation between near surface and columnar water vapor amounts.

4.3 Seasonal variations in BC mass concentration

Hydrocarbon Pollution and Its Effect on the Environment

season and low values during the monsoon (2.4 0.6 <sup>μ</sup>g m<sup>3</sup>

humidity leads to observed high concentrations at the surface level.

reported from other locations in India. This value (3.57 0.7 <sup>μ</sup>g m<sup>3</sup>

urban and industrial locations like Delhi and Mumbai (Table 1).

during the post monsoon (4.4 0.9 <sup>μ</sup>g m<sup>3</sup>

4.4 Comparisons with other locations in India

the month of December.

Figure 4.

2012.

monsoon (3.3 0.6 <sup>μ</sup>g m<sup>3</sup>

chart in Figure 4.

40

BC values reported by different authors.

### 4.5 Seasonal variations in mixed layer depth

In order to estimate mixed layer height (MLH), the raw data on temperature, pressure, relative humidity and geographical position (latitude, longitude and altitude) as a function of time at every 1 s, are filtered and regridded at 10 m regular interval. The top of mixed layer is defined as the altitude where the vertical gradients inθv exceeded 3 K km<sup>1</sup> . The equations used and procedure to obtain MLH is explained in Ref. [16] hence not repeated. The mean mixed layer height values for PMS, SMS, PoMS and winter are found to be 3014 1187, 832 452, 1871 506 and 1488 706 m respectively, therfore showing the least values in monsoon season, highest values in pre monsoon and moderate to low values in post monsoon and winter seasons [16].

According to Ref. [16] the main conclusion from association of MLH with BC is a good association between MLH and MBC was seen during dry period of the year (winter and PMS). However, during wet period the association between MBCand MLH is low.

### 4.6 Seasonal variability in absorbing aerosol index

Annual mean variation of AAI for the year 2011 is shown in Figure 5. The positive values (>0.2) which represent absorbing aerosols such as dust is present in north western region (Thar desert region) and it extends even to IGP region though with less concentrations. Over Southern India the AAI values are negative indicating lesser influence of dust related aerosol particles.

Monthly mean variation of AAI at Nagpur is shown in Figure 6. AAI values are highly positive (>0.2) during pre-monsoon months (Mar, April, May) indicating dominance of absorbing aerosols such as dust while highly negative (<0.2) during Monsoon (Jun, Jul, Aug, Sept) indicating the presence of non-absorbing aerosols such as sulfates. During winter (Dec, Jan, Feb) the AAI values close to zero (0.2) indicates the presence of clouds or coarse mode non absorbing aerosols.

### 4.7 Hysplit back trajectories

Hareef et al. [56] analyzed the airmass back trajectories in association with forest fires for various seasons specifically, PMS, SMS, PoMS and winter. Analysis urged that in PMS, the air masses were started from the biomass burning regions, desert

regions and also from marine regions. During SMS, as a result of the sustained south westerly flow of the monsoon winds, the air masses were largely of marine origin. Throughout the post monsoon season, the dominant air masses were started from north India, as well as transport of air masses from biomass burning, i.e., Punjab region. Throughout winter, the origins of air masses were set in eastern India and IGP region. Figure 7 shows example back trajectory starting at 09:00 UTC on 12

The geophysical parameters retrieved from satellites need to be validated against the ground measurements in order to understand the retrieval errors and to correct them accordingly. This validation exercise needs to be performed for different surfaces globally. Towards this, detailed validation of MODIS AOD products of different versions with distinct spatial resolutions by using the ground-based multi wavelength radiometer and MICROTOPS sun photometer has been performed by several authors over the Indian subcontinent (e.g., [57–61]). The studies found MODIS overestimating the AOD values during the summer and underestimating during winter. Hareef et al. [56] validated the MODIS aerosol product version C005 over the central Indian region where there is no validation exercise done so far. Authors found a high correlation of 0.75 observed indicates that the MODIS can capture the seasonal variability well, and a slope of 0.65 implies an underestimation of 35% lower AOD compared to sun photometer. In the MODIS AOD retrieval algorithm, by default neutral aerosol model (Single Scattering Albedo (SSA) 0.9) was set for a major part of Asia [62, 63] for different seasons in a year. Absorbing (SSA 0.85) or non-absorbing (SSA 0.95) models were applied in rest of the world. This is supported by the aerosol varieties determined in AERONET sites situated at different parts around the world and supported the condition that If either the non-absorbing or the absorbing aerosol occupied more than 40% of the pie, and the other occupied less than 20%, then the location was selected as the dominant aerosol type. In India, there is just one AERONET site (IIT Kanpur: 26.28° N, 80.24°E) situated inside the IGP region and aerosol varieties determined there is

4.8 Comparison with MODIS aerosol and water vapor products

Aug 2012 at the Nagpur location.

Monthly variation of AAI at Nagpur.

Aerosol Studies over Central India

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85001

Figure 6.

43

Figure 5. Annual mean variation of AAI over India.

4.6 Seasonal variability in absorbing aerosol index

Hydrocarbon Pollution and Its Effect on the Environment

indicating lesser influence of dust related aerosol particles.

4.7 Hysplit back trajectories

Figure 5.

42

Annual mean variation of AAI over India.

indicates the presence of clouds or coarse mode non absorbing aerosols.

Annual mean variation of AAI for the year 2011 is shown in Figure 5. The positive values (>0.2) which represent absorbing aerosols such as dust is present in north western region (Thar desert region) and it extends even to IGP region though with less concentrations. Over Southern India the AAI values are negative

Monthly mean variation of AAI at Nagpur is shown in Figure 6. AAI values are highly positive (>0.2) during pre-monsoon months (Mar, April, May) indicating dominance of absorbing aerosols such as dust while highly negative (<0.2) during Monsoon (Jun, Jul, Aug, Sept) indicating the presence of non-absorbing aerosols such as sulfates. During winter (Dec, Jan, Feb) the AAI values close to zero (0.2)

Hareef et al. [56] analyzed the airmass back trajectories in association with forest fires for various seasons specifically, PMS, SMS, PoMS and winter. Analysis urged that in PMS, the air masses were started from the biomass burning regions, desert

Figure 6. Monthly variation of AAI at Nagpur.

regions and also from marine regions. During SMS, as a result of the sustained south westerly flow of the monsoon winds, the air masses were largely of marine origin. Throughout the post monsoon season, the dominant air masses were started from north India, as well as transport of air masses from biomass burning, i.e., Punjab region. Throughout winter, the origins of air masses were set in eastern India and IGP region. Figure 7 shows example back trajectory starting at 09:00 UTC on 12 Aug 2012 at the Nagpur location.

### 4.8 Comparison with MODIS aerosol and water vapor products

The geophysical parameters retrieved from satellites need to be validated against the ground measurements in order to understand the retrieval errors and to correct them accordingly. This validation exercise needs to be performed for different surfaces globally. Towards this, detailed validation of MODIS AOD products of different versions with distinct spatial resolutions by using the ground-based multi wavelength radiometer and MICROTOPS sun photometer has been performed by several authors over the Indian subcontinent (e.g., [57–61]). The studies found MODIS overestimating the AOD values during the summer and underestimating during winter. Hareef et al. [56] validated the MODIS aerosol product version C005 over the central Indian region where there is no validation exercise done so far. Authors found a high correlation of 0.75 observed indicates that the MODIS can capture the seasonal variability well, and a slope of 0.65 implies an underestimation of 35% lower AOD compared to sun photometer. In the MODIS AOD retrieval algorithm, by default neutral aerosol model (Single Scattering Albedo (SSA) 0.9) was set for a major part of Asia [62, 63] for different seasons in a year. Absorbing (SSA 0.85) or non-absorbing (SSA 0.95) models were applied in rest of the world. This is supported by the aerosol varieties determined in AERONET sites situated at different parts around the world and supported the condition that If either the non-absorbing or the absorbing aerosol occupied more than 40% of the pie, and the other occupied less than 20%, then the location was selected as the dominant aerosol type. In India, there is just one AERONET site (IIT Kanpur: 26.28° N, 80.24°E) situated inside the IGP region and aerosol varieties determined there is

The authors concluded that the MODIS aerosol optical depth retrievals do not represent, accurately, true observations in central India, and therefore cannot be well applied there. This could be attributed to a complex nature of surface conditions and aerosol varieties and seasonal nature of surface reflectance and aerosol models over completely different ecological and geographic regions. Thus

Hareef et al. [56] reported columnar water vapor (CWC) amount measured using a sun photometer over this region as typically in the 0.4–4 cm range. There exists a well-defined seasonal variation in CWC, with the maximum value during the monsoon months and minimum during winter months. Similar variations in CWC have been observed from other locations in India [5, 40]. The validation of gridded products (MODIS) is important as they are used for assimilation in numerical weather prediction and global climate models [64]. For this purpose, detailed validation of MODIS water vapor product is attempted. Validation of MODIS TERRA retrieved water vapor (NIR) with Sun photometer suggests 20% overestimation by MODIS with correlation

coefficient 0.89, which has been attributed to errors due to turbidity or haze in

This chapter presents the aerosol studies over Nagpur, a tropical station in central India. The main conclusions of the study are summarized as follows:

1. AOD showed highest value (0.64 0.08) during the summer, while lowest

2. There exists a well-defined seasonal variation in columnar water vapor content (CWC), with the maximum value during the monsoon months and minimum during winter months. Columnar water vapor (CWC) amount measured using

3. Comparison of AOD (MODIS) and water vapor (NIR) (MODIS), with the sun photometer observations, indicates an underestimation of 35% lower AOD (correlation coefficient 0.75) and overestimation of 20% higher water vapor

4.Aerosol transport analysis suggests during PMS, the air masses were originated from the biomass burning regions, desert regions and also from marine

) season and low values during the monsoon

) followed by pre monsoon (3.3 0.6 <sup>μ</sup>g m<sup>3</sup>

) followed by winter

) season.

5. Seasonal variations of BC aerosol mass concentration showed high values,

6.The BC mass concentrations have been compared with the measurements reported from other locations in India indicating the lower value compared to urban areas like Ahmedabad, Pune and much lower in comparison to urban

a sun photometer over this region as typically in the 0.4–4 cm range.

during the monsoon season (0.38 0.06).

(correlation coefficient 0.89) respectively.

during the post monsoon (4.4 0.9 <sup>μ</sup>g m<sup>3</sup>

and industrial locations like Delhi and Mumbai.

we recommend better absorbing type of model and conjointly embody seasonally dynamic changing land use/land cover options in central India for

correct retrieval.

Aerosol Studies over Central India

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85001

the atmosphere.

5. Conclusions

regions.

45

(4.2 0.6 <sup>μ</sup>g m<sup>3</sup>

(2.4 0.6 <sup>μ</sup>g m<sup>3</sup>

Figure 7.

Forward trajectories starting at 09:00 UTC on 12 Aug 2012 at the Nagpur location.

used in the retrieval of AOD for other locations. During PMS main aerosol types observed over Nagpur location, were UB and DD, however MODIS algorithm assumes neutral aerosol whereas there is a good proportion of UB is present that is of absorbing type. The absolute error between AOD measured (the sun photometer) to that of MODIS retrieved AOD is maximum (0.29) for this season. A decent variety of MODIS fire locations over central India and back trajectories additionally indicate that there is a transport from such places. This can cause underestimation of AOD, as for absorbing aerosols if the algorithm assumes the scattering aerosols, it will incorrectly assign a smaller AOD value to match calculated radiance with determined radiance resulting in underestimation of the AOD (retrieved from satellite). The Single Scattered Albedo for black carbon aerosols because of biomass burning is considerably not up to that of dust particles. This might be the rationale, whereas different authors reported overestimation of MODIS AOD compared to ground measured AOD, over this region, Hareef et al. [56] had observed the underestimation because of the significant amount of black carbon.

#### Aerosol Studies over Central India DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85001

The authors concluded that the MODIS aerosol optical depth retrievals do not represent, accurately, true observations in central India, and therefore cannot be well applied there. This could be attributed to a complex nature of surface conditions and aerosol varieties and seasonal nature of surface reflectance and aerosol models over completely different ecological and geographic regions. Thus we recommend better absorbing type of model and conjointly embody seasonally dynamic changing land use/land cover options in central India for correct retrieval.

Hareef et al. [56] reported columnar water vapor (CWC) amount measured using a sun photometer over this region as typically in the 0.4–4 cm range. There exists a well-defined seasonal variation in CWC, with the maximum value during the monsoon months and minimum during winter months. Similar variations in CWC have been observed from other locations in India [5, 40]. The validation of gridded products (MODIS) is important as they are used for assimilation in numerical weather prediction and global climate models [64]. For this purpose, detailed validation of MODIS water vapor product is attempted. Validation of MODIS TERRA retrieved water vapor (NIR) with Sun photometer suggests 20% overestimation by MODIS with correlation coefficient 0.89, which has been attributed to errors due to turbidity or haze in the atmosphere.

### 5. Conclusions

This chapter presents the aerosol studies over Nagpur, a tropical station in central India. The main conclusions of the study are summarized as follows:


used in the retrieval of AOD for other locations. During PMS main aerosol types observed over Nagpur location, were UB and DD, however MODIS algorithm assumes neutral aerosol whereas there is a good proportion of UB is present that is of absorbing type. The absolute error between AOD measured (the sun photometer) to that of MODIS retrieved AOD is maximum (0.29) for this season. A decent variety of MODIS fire locations over central India and back trajectories additionally indicate that there is a transport from such places. This can cause underestimation of AOD, as for absorbing aerosols if the algorithm assumes the scattering aerosols, it will incorrectly assign a smaller AOD value to match calculated radiance with determined radiance resulting in underestimation of the AOD (retrieved from satellite). The Single Scattered Albedo for black carbon aerosols because of biomass burning is considerably not up to that of dust particles. This might be the rationale, whereas different authors reported overestimation of MODIS AOD compared to ground measured AOD, over this region, Hareef et al. [56] had observed the underestima-

Forward trajectories starting at 09:00 UTC on 12 Aug 2012 at the Nagpur location.

Hydrocarbon Pollution and Its Effect on the Environment

tion because of the significant amount of black carbon.

Figure 7.

44

7. Seasonally the mean MLH values show the lowest in monsoon, highest values in PMS and moderate to low values in PoMS and winter.

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8. AAI values are highly positive during pre-monsoon months, indicating dominance of absorbing aerosols such as dust while highly negative during monsoon indicating the presence of non-absorbing aerosols such as sulfates. During winter the AAI values close to zero indicates the presence of clouds or coarse mode non absorbing aerosols.

### Acknowledgements

Most of the work presented in this chapter is carried out as a part of Aerosol Radiative Forcing Over India (ARFI) project of ISRO-GBP, author thanks Space Physics Laboratory for conceiving and executing such a wonderful project. Author thank Dr. Dibyendu Datta, Group Director, Climate Sciences Group, Dr. Sesha Sai M.V.R, Deputy Director, Earth and Climate Science Area and Director, NRSC for the support and encouragement towards this study. I am grateful to the NOAA Air Resources Laboratory (ARL) for the provision of the HYSPLIT transport and dispersion model through their website https://ready.arl.noaa.gov/HYSPLIT.

### Conflict of interest

The author declares that there is no conflict of interest.

### Author details

Kannemadugu Hareef Baba Shaeb Earth and Climate Science Area, ISRO-Department of Space, National Remote Sensing Centre, Hyderabad, Telangana, India

\*Address all correspondence to: babaphyiway@gmail.com

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Aerosol Studies over Central India DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85001

### References

7. Seasonally the mean MLH values show the lowest in monsoon, highest values

8. AAI values are highly positive during pre-monsoon months, indicating dominance of absorbing aerosols such as dust while highly negative during monsoon indicating the presence of non-absorbing aerosols such as sulfates. During winter the AAI values close to zero indicates the presence of clouds or

Most of the work presented in this chapter is carried out as a part of Aerosol Radiative Forcing Over India (ARFI) project of ISRO-GBP, author thanks Space Physics Laboratory for conceiving and executing such a wonderful project. Author thank Dr. Dibyendu Datta, Group Director, Climate Sciences Group, Dr. Sesha Sai M.V.R, Deputy Director, Earth and Climate Science Area and Director, NRSC for the support and encouragement towards this study. I am grateful to the NOAA Air Resources Laboratory (ARL) for the provision of the HYSPLIT transport and dis-

persion model through their website https://ready.arl.noaa.gov/HYSPLIT.

Earth and Climate Science Area, ISRO-Department of Space, National Remote

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

The author declares that there is no conflict of interest.

in PMS and moderate to low values in PoMS and winter.

coarse mode non absorbing aerosols.

Hydrocarbon Pollution and Its Effect on the Environment

Acknowledgements

Conflict of interest

Author details

46

Kannemadugu Hareef Baba Shaeb

Sensing Centre, Hyderabad, Telangana, India

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*Address all correspondence to: babaphyiway@gmail.com

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[19] Moorthy KK, Saha A, Prasad BSN, Niranjan K, Jhurry D, Pillai PS. Aerosol optical depths over peninsular India and adjoining oceans during the INDOEX campaigns: Spatial, temporal and spectral characteristics. Journal of Geophysical Research. 2001;106: 28539-28554

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[21] Leckner B. The spectral distribution of solar radiation at the earth's surface— Elements of a model. Solar Energy. 1978: 20143-20150

[22] Kneizys FX, Shettle EP, Gallery WO, Chetwynd JH Jr, Abreu LW, Selby JEA, et al. Atmospheric Transmittance/ Radiance: Computer Code, Lowtran 5. AFGL-TR-80-0067. MA, USA: AFGL; 1980

[23] Tanaka M, Nakazawa T, Fukabori M. Absorption of the ρστ, 0.8 um and α bands of the water vapour. Journal of

Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer. 1982;28:463-470

[30] Corrigan CE, Ramanathan V, Schauer JJ. Impact of monsoon transition on the physical and optical properties of aerosols. Journal of Geophysical Research. 2006;111:

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85001

Aerosol Studies over Central India

cloud drops. Journal of the Atmospheric

Sciences. 1985;42:583-606

316-332

[37] Badarinath KVS, Kharol SK, Kaskaoutis DG, Kambezidis HD. Dust storm over Indian region and its impact on the ground reaching solar radiation case study using multi-satellite data and ground measurements. Science of the Total Environment. 2007;384:

[38] Balakrishnaiah G, Raghavendra Kumar K, Suresh Kumar Reddy B, Rama Gopal K, Reddy RR, Reddy LSS, et al. Analysis of optical properties of atmospheric aerosols inferred from spectral AODs and Angstrom wavelength exponent. Atmospheric Environment. 2011;45:1275-1285

[39] Ernest Raj P, Devara PCS, Saha SK, Sonbawne SM, Dani KK, Pandithurai G. Temporal variations in sun photometer measured precipitable water in near IR band and its comparison with model estimates at a tropical Indian station. Atmosfera. 2008;21(4):317-333

[40] Ranjan RR, Ganguly ND, Joshi HP, Iyer KN. Study of aerosol optical depth and precipitable water vapour content at Rajkot, a tropical semi arid station. Indian Journal of Radio and Space

Physics. 2007;36:27-32

SR-43-94. 1994. pp. 1-78

[41] IMAP FINAL REPORT-III. Characteristics of Aerosol Spectral Optical Depths over India, ISRO-IMP-

[42] Bhat MA, Romshoo SA, Beig G. Aerosol black carbon at an urban site-Srinagar, Northwestern Himalaya, India: Seasonality, sources, meteorology and radiative forcing. Atmospheric Environment. 2017;165:336-348

[43] Sarkar C, Chatterjee A, Singh AK, Ghosh SK, Raha S. Characterization of black carbon aerosols over Darjeeling— A high altitude Himalayan station in Eastern India. Aerosol and Air Quality

[31] Levy RC, Remer LA, Kleidman RG, Mattoo S, Ichoku C, Kahn R, et al. Global evaluation of the collection 5 MODIS dark-target aerosol products over land. Atmospheric Chemistry and

Kosmopoulos PG, Kambezidis HD. The combined use of satellite data, air-mass trajectories and model applications for monitoring of the dust transport over Athens Greece. International Journal of Remote Sensing. 2010;31:5089-5109. DOI: 10.1080/01431160903283868.

[33] Herman JR, Bhartia PK, Torres O, Hsu C, Seftor C, Celarier E. Global distribution of UV-absorbing aerosols from Nimbus 7/TOMS data. Journal of Geophysical Research. 1997;102:

Veihelmann B, Ahn C, Braak R, Bhartia PK, et al. Aerosols and surface UV products from ozone monitoring instrument observations: An overview. Journal of Geophysical Research. 2007;

[35] Kaskaoutis DG, Badarinath KVS, Kharol SK, Sharma AR, Kambezidis HD.

[36] Flossman FI, Hall WD, Pruppacher HR. A theoretical study of the wet removal of atmospheric pollutants— Part I: The redistribution of aerosol particles captured through nucleation and impaction scavenging by growing

Variations in the aerosol optical properties and types over the tropical urban site of Hyderabad, India. Journal of Geophysical Research. 2009;114: D22204. DOI: 10.1029/2009JD012423

[34] Torres O, Tanskanen A,

112:D24S47. DOI: 10.1029/

2007JD008809

49

Physics. 2010;10:10399-10420

[32] Kaskaoutis DG, Nastos PT,

D18208

16911-16922

[24] Nair PR, Moorthy KK. Effects of changes in the atmospheric water vapour content on the physical properties of atmospheric aerosols at a coastal station. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar Terrestrial Physics. 1998;60: 563-572

[25] Ichoku C, Levy R, Kaufman YJ, Remer LA, Li RR, Martins VJ, et al. Analysis of the performance characteristics of the five-channel microtops II sun photometer for measuring aerosol optical thickness and precipitable water vapor. Journal of Geophysical Research. 2001;106: 14573-14582

[26] Morys M, Mims FM III, Hagerup S, Anderson SE, Baker A, Kia J, et al. Design, calibration, and performance of microtops II handheld ozone monitor and sun photometer. Journal of Geophysical Research. 2001;106: 14573-14582

[27] Holben BN, Tanre D, Smirnov A, Eck TF, Slutsker I, Abuhassan N, et al. An emerging ground-based aerosol climatology: Aerosol optical depth from AERONET. Journal of Geophysical Research. 2001;106:12067-12097

[28] Weingartner E, Saathoff H, Schnaiter M, Streit N, Bitnar B, Baltensperger U. Absorption of light by soot particles: Determination of the absorption coefficient by means of aethalometers. Journal of Aerosol Science. 2003;34:1445-1463

[29] Arnott WP, Hamasha K, Moosmuller H, Sheridan PJ, Ogren JA. Towards aerosol light-absorption measurements with a 7-wavelength aethalometer: Evaluation with a photoacoustic instrument and 3 wavelength nephelometer. Aerospace Science and Technology. 2005;39(1): 17-29

### Aerosol Studies over Central India DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85001

[30] Corrigan CE, Ramanathan V, Schauer JJ. Impact of monsoon transition on the physical and optical properties of aerosols. Journal of Geophysical Research. 2006;111: D18208

[16] Kompalli SK, Suresh Babu S, Krishna Moorthy K, Manoj MR, Kiran Kumar NVP, Hareef Baba Shaeb K, et al. Aerosol black carbon characteristics over Central India: Temporal variation and its dependence on mixed layer height. Atmospheric Research. 2014;

Hydrocarbon Pollution and Its Effect on the Environment

Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer. 1982;28:463-470

563-572

14573-14582

14573-14582

[24] Nair PR, Moorthy KK. Effects of changes in the atmospheric water vapour content on the physical

properties of atmospheric aerosols at a coastal station. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar Terrestrial Physics. 1998;60:

[25] Ichoku C, Levy R, Kaufman YJ, Remer LA, Li RR, Martins VJ, et al. Analysis of the performance characteristics of the five-channel microtops II sun photometer for measuring aerosol optical thickness and precipitable water vapor. Journal of Geophysical Research. 2001;106:

[26] Morys M, Mims FM III, Hagerup S, Anderson SE, Baker A, Kia J, et al. Design, calibration, and performance of microtops II handheld ozone monitor and sun photometer. Journal of Geophysical Research. 2001;106:

[27] Holben BN, Tanre D, Smirnov A, Eck TF, Slutsker I, Abuhassan N, et al. An emerging ground-based aerosol climatology: Aerosol optical depth from AERONET. Journal of Geophysical Research. 2001;106:12067-12097

[28] Weingartner E, Saathoff H, Schnaiter M, Streit N, Bitnar B,

[29] Arnott WP, Hamasha K,

17-29

Baltensperger U. Absorption of light by soot particles: Determination of the absorption coefficient by means of aethalometers. Journal of Aerosol Science. 2003;34:1445-1463

Moosmuller H, Sheridan PJ, Ogren JA. Towards aerosol light-absorption measurements with a 7-wavelength aethalometer: Evaluation with a photoacoustic instrument and 3 wavelength nephelometer. Aerospace Science and Technology. 2005;39(1):

[17] Shaw GE, Regan JA, Herman BM.

extinctions using direct solar radiation measurements made with a multiple wavelength radiometer. Journal of Applied Meteorology. 1973:12374-12380

[18] Moorthy KK, Nair PR, Krishna Murthy BV. Multi wavelength solar radiometer network and features of aerosol spectral optical depth at Trivandrum. Indian Journal of Radio and Space Physics. 1989;18:194-120

[19] Moorthy KK, Saha A, Prasad BSN, Niranjan K, Jhurry D, Pillai PS. Aerosol optical depths over peninsular India and adjoining oceans during the INDOEX campaigns: Spatial, temporal and spectral characteristics. Journal of Geophysical Research. 2001;106:

[20] Saha A, Moorthy KK. Impact of precipitation on aerosol spectral optical depth and retrieved size distributions: A case study. Journal of Applied Meteorology. 2004;43(6):902-914

[21] Leckner B. The spectral distribution of solar radiation at the earth's surface— Elements of a model. Solar Energy. 1978:

[22] Kneizys FX, Shettle EP, Gallery WO, Chetwynd JH Jr, Abreu LW, Selby JEA, et al. Atmospheric Transmittance/ Radiance: Computer Code, Lowtran 5. AFGL-TR-80-0067. MA, USA: AFGL;

[23] Tanaka M, Nakazawa T, Fukabori M. Absorption of the ρστ, 0.8 um and α bands of the water vapour. Journal of

Investigations of atmospheric

147-148(523):27-37

28539-28554

20143-20150

1980

48

[31] Levy RC, Remer LA, Kleidman RG, Mattoo S, Ichoku C, Kahn R, et al. Global evaluation of the collection 5 MODIS dark-target aerosol products over land. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 2010;10:10399-10420

[32] Kaskaoutis DG, Nastos PT, Kosmopoulos PG, Kambezidis HD. The combined use of satellite data, air-mass trajectories and model applications for monitoring of the dust transport over Athens Greece. International Journal of Remote Sensing. 2010;31:5089-5109. DOI: 10.1080/01431160903283868.

[33] Herman JR, Bhartia PK, Torres O, Hsu C, Seftor C, Celarier E. Global distribution of UV-absorbing aerosols from Nimbus 7/TOMS data. Journal of Geophysical Research. 1997;102: 16911-16922

[34] Torres O, Tanskanen A, Veihelmann B, Ahn C, Braak R, Bhartia PK, et al. Aerosols and surface UV products from ozone monitoring instrument observations: An overview. Journal of Geophysical Research. 2007; 112:D24S47. DOI: 10.1029/ 2007JD008809

[35] Kaskaoutis DG, Badarinath KVS, Kharol SK, Sharma AR, Kambezidis HD. Variations in the aerosol optical properties and types over the tropical urban site of Hyderabad, India. Journal of Geophysical Research. 2009;114: D22204. DOI: 10.1029/2009JD012423

[36] Flossman FI, Hall WD, Pruppacher HR. A theoretical study of the wet removal of atmospheric pollutants— Part I: The redistribution of aerosol particles captured through nucleation and impaction scavenging by growing

cloud drops. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences. 1985;42:583-606

[37] Badarinath KVS, Kharol SK, Kaskaoutis DG, Kambezidis HD. Dust storm over Indian region and its impact on the ground reaching solar radiation case study using multi-satellite data and ground measurements. Science of the Total Environment. 2007;384: 316-332

[38] Balakrishnaiah G, Raghavendra Kumar K, Suresh Kumar Reddy B, Rama Gopal K, Reddy RR, Reddy LSS, et al. Analysis of optical properties of atmospheric aerosols inferred from spectral AODs and Angstrom wavelength exponent. Atmospheric Environment. 2011;45:1275-1285

[39] Ernest Raj P, Devara PCS, Saha SK, Sonbawne SM, Dani KK, Pandithurai G. Temporal variations in sun photometer measured precipitable water in near IR band and its comparison with model estimates at a tropical Indian station. Atmosfera. 2008;21(4):317-333

[40] Ranjan RR, Ganguly ND, Joshi HP, Iyer KN. Study of aerosol optical depth and precipitable water vapour content at Rajkot, a tropical semi arid station. Indian Journal of Radio and Space Physics. 2007;36:27-32

[41] IMAP FINAL REPORT-III. Characteristics of Aerosol Spectral Optical Depths over India, ISRO-IMP-SR-43-94. 1994. pp. 1-78

[42] Bhat MA, Romshoo SA, Beig G. Aerosol black carbon at an urban site-Srinagar, Northwestern Himalaya, India: Seasonality, sources, meteorology and radiative forcing. Atmospheric Environment. 2017;165:336-348

[43] Sarkar C, Chatterjee A, Singh AK, Ghosh SK, Raha S. Characterization of black carbon aerosols over Darjeeling— A high altitude Himalayan station in Eastern India. Aerosol and Air Quality

Research. 2015;15:465-478. DOI: 10.4209/aaqr.2014.02.0028

[44] Gupta P, Singh SP, Jangid A, Kumar R. Characterization of black carbon in the ambient air of Agra, India: Seasonal variation and meteorological influence. Advances in Atmospheric Sciences. 2017;34(9):1082-1094. Available from: https://link.springer.com/article/ 10.1007/s00376-017-6234-z

[45] Navaneeth M, Thamban SNT, Moosakutty SP, Kuntamukkala P, Kanawade VP. Internally mixed black carbon in the Indo-Gangetic Plain and its effect on absorption enhancement. Atmospheric Research. 2017;197: 211-223. Available from: http://home. iitk.ac.in/snt/pdf/Thamban\_AR\_2017. pdf

[46] Udayasoorian C, Jayabalakrishnan RM, Suguna AR, Gogoi MM, Suresh Babu S. Aerosol black carbon characteristics over a high-altitude Western Ghats location in Southern India. Annales de Geophysique. 2014;32: 1361-1371. DOI: 10.5194/angeo-32-1361- 2014

[47] Ramachandran S, Kedia S. Black carbon aerosols over an urban region: Radiative forcing and climate impact. Journal of Geophysical Research. 2010; 115:D10202. DOI: 10.1029/ 2009JD013560. Available from: https:// agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ pdf/10.1029/2009JD013560

[48] Venkatraman C, Habib G, Eiguren-Fernandez A, Mignel AH, Friedlander SK. Residential biofuels in South Asia: Carbonaceous aerosol emissions and climate impacts. Science. 2005;307: 1454-1456

[49] Kumar KR, Narasimhulu K, Balakrishnaiah G, Reddy BSK, Gopal KR, Reddy RR, et al. Characterization of aerosol black carbon over a tropical semi-arid region of Anantapur, India.

Atmospheric Research. 2011;12–27 (530):100

[50] Latha KM, Badarinath KVS. Black carbon aerosols over tropical urban environment—A case study. Atmospheric Research. 2003;69:125-133 derived aerosol optical depth over the Ganga Basin, India. Annales de Geophysique. 2005;23:1093-1101

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85001

Aerosol Studies over Central India

[58] Prasad AK, Singh S, Chauhan SS, Srivastava MK, Singh RP, Singh R. Aerosol radiative forcing over the Indo-Gangetic Plains during major dust storms. Atmospheric Environment.

[59] Misra A, Jayaraman A, Ganguly D. Validation of MODIS derived aerosol optical depth over Western India. Journal of Geophysical Research. 2008;

[60] Vinoj V, Satheesh SK, Moorthy KK. Aerosol characteristics at a remote Island: Minicoy in Southern Arabian Sea. Journal of Earth System Science.

[61] Guleria RP, Kuniyal JC, Rawat PS, Thakur HK, Sharma M, Sharma NL, et al. Validation of MODIS retrieval

investigation of aerosol transport over Mohal in North Western Indian Himalaya. International Journal of Remote Sensing. 2012;33:5379-5401

[62] Remer L, Kaufman YJ, Tanre D, Mattoo S, Chu DA, Martins J, et al. The MODIS aerosol algorithm, products, and validation. Journal of the Atmospheric

[63] Levy RC, Remer LA, Dubovik O. Global aerosol optical properties and application to moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer aerosol retrieval over land. Journal of Geophysical Research. 2007;112:1-15

[64] Prasad AK, Singh RP. Validation of MODIS Terra, AIRS, NCEP/DOE AMIP-II reanalysis-2, and AERONET Sun photometer derived integrated

precipitable water vapor using groundbased GPS receivers over India. Journal of Geophysical Research. 2009;114:

D05107

51

aerosol optical depth and an

Sciences. 2005;62:947-973

2007;41:6289-6301

113:D04203

2008;117:389-397

[51] Rai K, Sarkar AK, Mitra AP. Chemical characterization of aerosols. IASTA Bulletin. Delhi: NPL; 2002;14: 155-158

[52] Kompalli SK, Moorthy KK, Babu SS. Rapid response of atmospheric BC to anthropogenic sources: Observational evidence. Atmospheric Science Letters. 2013;15(3):166-171. DOI: 10.1002/ asl2.483. Published online in wileyonline library.com

[53] Rai K, Sarkar AK, Mitra AP. Chemical characterization of aerosols at NPL, Delhi. Proceedings of a conference on aerosol remote sensing in global change and atmospheric pollution. IASTA Bulletin. 2002, 1982;14/1(special issue):155-158

[54] Babu SS, Moorthy KK. Aerosol black carbon over a tropical coastal station in India. Geophysical Research Letters. 2002;29(23):131e-1341e

[55] Safai PD, Kewat S, Praveen PS, Rao PSP, Momin GA, Ali K, et al. Seasonal variation of black carbon aerosols over a tropical urban city of Pune, India. Atmospheric Environment. 2007; 41(13):2699-2709

[56] Hareef Baba Shaeb K, Varghese AO, Mukkara SR, Joshi AK, Moharil SV. Aerosol type's classification and validation of MODIS aerosol and water vapor products using a sun photometer over central India. Aerosol and Air Quality Research (AAQR). 2015;15(2): 682-693

[57] Tripathi SN, Dey S, Chandel A, Srivastava S, Singh RP, Holben BN. Comparison of MODIS and AERONET Aerosol Studies over Central India DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85001

derived aerosol optical depth over the Ganga Basin, India. Annales de Geophysique. 2005;23:1093-1101

Research. 2015;15:465-478. DOI: 10.4209/aaqr.2014.02.0028

[45] Navaneeth M, Thamban SNT, Moosakutty SP, Kuntamukkala P, Kanawade VP. Internally mixed black carbon in the Indo-Gangetic Plain and its effect on absorption enhancement. Atmospheric Research. 2017;197: 211-223. Available from: http://home. iitk.ac.in/snt/pdf/Thamban\_AR\_2017.

[46] Udayasoorian C, Jayabalakrishnan RM, Suguna AR, Gogoi MM, Suresh Babu S. Aerosol black carbon characteristics over a high-altitude Western Ghats location in Southern India. Annales de Geophysique. 2014;32: 1361-1371. DOI: 10.5194/angeo-32-1361-

[47] Ramachandran S, Kedia S. Black carbon aerosols over an urban region: Radiative forcing and climate impact. Journal of Geophysical Research. 2010;

2009JD013560. Available from: https:// agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/

[48] Venkatraman C, Habib G, Eiguren-Fernandez A, Mignel AH, Friedlander SK. Residential biofuels in South Asia: Carbonaceous aerosol emissions and climate impacts. Science. 2005;307:

115:D10202. DOI: 10.1029/

pdf/10.1029/2009JD013560

[49] Kumar KR, Narasimhulu K, Balakrishnaiah G, Reddy BSK, Gopal KR, Reddy RR, et al. Characterization of aerosol black carbon over a tropical semi-arid region of Anantapur, India.

pdf

2014

1454-1456

50

[44] Gupta P, Singh SP, Jangid A, Kumar R. Characterization of black carbon in the ambient air of Agra, India: Seasonal variation and meteorological influence. Advances in Atmospheric Sciences. 2017;34(9):1082-1094. Available from: https://link.springer.com/article/ 10.1007/s00376-017-6234-z

Hydrocarbon Pollution and Its Effect on the Environment

Atmospheric Research. 2011;12–27

[50] Latha KM, Badarinath KVS. Black carbon aerosols over tropical urban environment—A case study.

Atmospheric Research. 2003;69:125-133

[52] Kompalli SK, Moorthy KK, Babu SS. Rapid response of atmospheric BC to anthropogenic sources: Observational evidence. Atmospheric Science Letters. 2013;15(3):166-171. DOI: 10.1002/ asl2.483. Published online in wileyonline

[51] Rai K, Sarkar AK, Mitra AP. Chemical characterization of aerosols. IASTA Bulletin. Delhi: NPL; 2002;14:

[53] Rai K, Sarkar AK, Mitra AP.

Chemical characterization of aerosols at NPL, Delhi. Proceedings of a conference on aerosol remote sensing in global change and atmospheric pollution. IASTA Bulletin. 2002, 1982;14/1(special

[54] Babu SS, Moorthy KK. Aerosol black carbon over a tropical coastal station in India. Geophysical Research Letters.

[55] Safai PD, Kewat S, Praveen PS, Rao PSP, Momin GA, Ali K, et al. Seasonal variation of black carbon aerosols over a tropical urban city of Pune, India. Atmospheric Environment. 2007;

[56] Hareef Baba Shaeb K, Varghese AO, Mukkara SR, Joshi AK, Moharil SV. Aerosol type's classification and

validation of MODIS aerosol and water vapor products using a sun photometer over central India. Aerosol and Air Quality Research (AAQR). 2015;15(2):

[57] Tripathi SN, Dey S, Chandel A, Srivastava S, Singh RP, Holben BN. Comparison of MODIS and AERONET

(530):100

155-158

library.com

issue):155-158

2002;29(23):131e-1341e

41(13):2699-2709

682-693

[58] Prasad AK, Singh S, Chauhan SS, Srivastava MK, Singh RP, Singh R. Aerosol radiative forcing over the Indo-Gangetic Plains during major dust storms. Atmospheric Environment. 2007;41:6289-6301

[59] Misra A, Jayaraman A, Ganguly D. Validation of MODIS derived aerosol optical depth over Western India. Journal of Geophysical Research. 2008; 113:D04203

[60] Vinoj V, Satheesh SK, Moorthy KK. Aerosol characteristics at a remote Island: Minicoy in Southern Arabian Sea. Journal of Earth System Science. 2008;117:389-397

[61] Guleria RP, Kuniyal JC, Rawat PS, Thakur HK, Sharma M, Sharma NL, et al. Validation of MODIS retrieval aerosol optical depth and an investigation of aerosol transport over Mohal in North Western Indian Himalaya. International Journal of Remote Sensing. 2012;33:5379-5401

[62] Remer L, Kaufman YJ, Tanre D, Mattoo S, Chu DA, Martins J, et al. The MODIS aerosol algorithm, products, and validation. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences. 2005;62:947-973

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Chapter 4

Abstract

1. Introduction

53

Recent Advances for Polycyclic

Aromatic Analysis in Airborne

Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña, Rebecca López-Márquez,

Keywords: airborne particles, PAHs, cleanup, GC-MS/MS

concentration and are generally endothermic [2].

Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Mónica Ivonne Arias-Montoya, Jorge Antonio Guerrero-Álvarez and Josefina Vergara-Sánchez

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are formed in natural processes during combustion of biomass (e.g., forest fires) and by anthropogenic activities at high temperatures. In according with the suggestion the major sources of PAHs in the environment. The main sources of PAHs come basically from heat and power generation (e.g., coal, gas, wood, and oil), industrial processes (e.g., coke production), refuse burning and vehicle emissions. Human exposure to airborne PAHs can result from these processes, as well as from emissions from other sources, such as cooking, smoking, and materials containing PAHs (e.g., petroleum products and fuels). The potential serious health effects resulting from acute and chronic human exposure to PAHs are of concern. For this reason, the identification and quantification of PAHs in airborne particles have been a real challenge, given the multiple impacts that these substances represent for human health. In the last decade, multiple technological developments have been implemented, ranging from sampling systems, extraction and analysis of these compounds with the aim of obtaining more accurate and reliable results. This chapter was prepared to describe and to assess the state of the art about the evolution and application of sampling, extraction and analysis methodologies for the determination of PAHs in airborne particles.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) comprise a large variety of organic compounds whose main characteristic is that they are formed by the fusion of benzene rings [1]. PAHs are originated mainly from incomplete pyrolysis of organic materials. Pyrolysis is the process in which organic compounds such as fuels undergo a change in the molecular structure at high temperature without sufficient oxygen concentration. These reactions are mainly dependent on temperature and

During combustion at high temperatures and relatively low amounts of oxygen, part of the combustible material is fragmented into small molecular masses, usually to free radicals by pyrolysis (approximately 500–800°C), which recombine to give

Particulate Matter

### Chapter 4
