**2.6 Emerging markets**

*Wildlife Population Monitoring*

share of the economic loss.

cies, and homestead areas.

**2.3 Fencing and artificial enclosures**

As such, increasing risks posed to endangered mammals.

revenue (US\$8749).

annually on average 2.4% of their herd, accounting for 2.6% of their economic

Similarly, traditional agro-pastoralism is prone to livestock deprivation in Zimbabwe. During 1993–1996, 241 livestock were reported as killed by lions, leopards, and yellow baboons (*Papio anubis*), accounting for 34, 12, and 54% of the kills respectively [6]. These amounts account for an annual loss of 142% of total family's income per household. These mammals differ in their targeted prey and therefore, in the economic damage; while the large predators kill cattle and donkeys, baboons kill smaller livestock (e.g., sheep and goats). As a result, lions account for a large

Across Africa, fences provide a spatial barrier around game reserves, conservan-

Conflicts over natural resources have increased as communities, particularly pastoralists, compete for diminishing water, pasture and food resources with wildlife. Tasavo Conservation Area (TCA) is located adjacent to traditional villages in Kenya where traditional pastoralism is practiced. Despite fences, people trespass with their livestock into the TCA so that they may access resources that are lacking (e.g., grazing). Similarly, Maasai herdsmen, a semi-nomadic pastoralist group, drive their animals into the Maasai Mara game in Kenya on an ongoing

The effectiveness of natural or man-made fences depends on behavior of different mammalian species. For example, burrowing animals such as bushpig can breach such barriers and enable additional mammalian species to do so (such as lions utilizing their holes around Kruger National Park in South Africa). Similarly, baboons, lions and leopards have been documented to jump over fences and into livestock enclosures at the Wildlife Research Area in Zimbabwe [9]. In Laikipia District situated in Northern Kenya, pastoralists discovered that domestic animals experience a lower depredation

rate when penned in corals overnight (when carnivore tend to hunt) [10].

have increased the frequency of domestic livestock predation.

Conservation success is often synonymous with the successful recovery of declining endangered populations through effective management strategies. However, it is worth noting that the social organization, habitat and prey requirements, and home-range distributions of such recovered populations often serve as a renewed source for HWC. Examples include: lions straying out of the Kruger Park Reserve in South Africa and into adjacent villages, and bull elephants on musth acting aggressively and venturing into local communities across Kenya. Recent recovery programs have additionally contributed to the recolonization by cheetahs of their original home range including rural areas in Botswana; and in the process

Populations are closed, finite and natural processes do not take place (e.g., dispersal, emigration, and colonization dynamics). This not clear!! Negative consequences may be in one of the following forms: hybridization and introgression, genetic bottlenecks, inbreeding or outbreeding depression, and shifts in local or regional ecological equilibrium. As a result of such artificial enclosures, game ranch owners are faced with the need to intensely manage populations on their land while weighting economic profitability with genetic concerns stemming from small and closed populations (e.g., inbreeding, outbreeding depression, and bottlenecks) [7].

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basis [8].

**2.4 Species' localized recovery**

South Africa experienced an annual increase of 5.6% in land used for wildlife ranching during 1991–2000 [7]. Diminished economic profitability of livestock, coupled with an increase in stock theft, resulted in a shift from traditional agriculture and cattle farming to ungulate ranching within the private ranching industry. With an annual return on investment per hectare higher than any agriculturally based market (upwards of 80%), the game ranching industry generates annually R4.7 billion [11, 12].

More recently, the market for ungulate color variance has evolved in South Africa. Proactively breeding for morphological characteristics (i.e., coat color) is a relatively new avenue for economic revenue, yielding upwards of 1 billion Rand/ year. This sector is emerging in its scope and has the capacity to produce 50–1000% ROIs in full. A primary example is the breeding of a bull golden wildebeest (*Connochaetes)* with a cow blue wildebeest (*Connochaetes taurinus*); the offspring is referred to as "Split Golden" and were sold in private auctions during 2014 for 513, 137 rand (a 541% increase in selling price compared to 80,000 rands in 2004) [7]. These Split Golden wildebeests are then mated with golden bulls (i.e., backcrossed) to facilitate the expression of the recessive allele for a golden color coat. Similarly, the price of offspring that result from breeding a blue wildebeest with split king wildebeest increased 10-fold during 2012–2014 (81,553–882,917 rands, respectively). The average price of a pure breed blue wildebeest in 2014 was 3626 rands. Breeding for color variance may also occur by selectively breeding blue wildebeest with split golden wildebeest or blue wildebeest with king wildebeest. The high ROIs dictate mammalian artificial overlap and stocking within the confinement of these reserves; thus, in turn, altering intra and interspecies dynamics, resulting in the potential of significant increases in HWC frequencies.
