**3. Conservation strategies designed to address increasing HWC**

Most HWC incidences may be considered *wicked* conservation problems; their multi-complexity is rooted in the interlinkage imbedded in social, economic, biological, and stochastic variables (**Figure 2**, [13]). They vary according to different taxonomic groups within the Mammalia class and sub-regions across the African continent. Their inherited uncertainty can be quantified by various technology and formulas, which can then be applied to assist local mammalian management [13]. Moving forward, conservation of mammals (and all other species) in Africa will only be affected if bottom-up and top-down approaches are implemented simultaneously. The following section offers an assessment of implemented strategies which mitigate and minimize HWC. These are subdivided into two: (1) ground level applications and (2) wide scale conceptual applications.

#### **3.1 Ground level applications**

The Maasai and Samburu local communities utilize homestead fencing whereby crop fields and livestock are fenced in corals and wildlife dispersal is enabled. Limited depredation is attributed to such established husbandry practices which utilize wire, acacia, wicker or solid enclosures (listed from the most effective to the least).

**177**

(see below).

associated costs.

**Figure 2.**

recommended.

the same species.

*An Assessment of the Human-Wildlife Conflict across Africa*

*the interlinked area. Adapted from Benjamin-Fink and Reilly [13].*

In addition to these conventional fences, electric fencing such as those required in reserves that enclose the "BIG 5" (i.e., lion, buffalo (*Syncerus caffer*), leopard, elephant, and rhino), or constructing roofs on the fences, are viable alternatives for a more sophisticated solution. Electric fences have proven to be effective at creating a spatial separation between human settlements and mammals in Nyeri and Laikipia districts in Kenya encompass the Endarasha and Ol Moran villages. In fact, electric fences in the East Caprivi region of Namibia have successfully deterred elephants from destroying crops [4, 5]. Equally important, the return on investment in eletric fences ocurs within 5 years, which may then be reallocated to offset

*The multifaceted human mammalian interactions and conflict drivers are addressed within a wicked conservation contextual problem (illustrated in green). Effective strategies to decrease HWC are found within* 

Crop damage and death incidences are primarily associated with male mammals, most of which are polygynous. This is due to their large body size and mass. As a result, culling a male elephant would have the equivalent crop economic result of removing a family of 20 elephants. The demography of a population is correlated to the female population size, age of first reproduction, litter size, interval between births, age of reproductive senescence, and mortality. In a polygynous species such as elephants, the male contributes sperm, providing no additional source of energy in the rearing of offspring. As such, a surplus of males is not uncommon. The critical adult sex ratio varies amongst mammalian species and is additionally correlated to spatial distribution, density, seasonality in breeding, duration and periodicity of oestrus in females, reproductive behavior, etc. With that in mind, poaching is primarily targeted toward male and female tuskers, which consequently skews the demography. As such, culling of problematic male elephants as a policy to reduce conflicts is not widely

The practice of translocation of "problematic" animals is a viable alternative to culling. However, when taken in an *ad hoc* fashion, this mammalian management practice may also have negative effects on the genetic pool; conservation programs should consider all aspects of ecological implications [7]. Ungulate translocations need to be considered as the possibility of inbreeding, outbreeding, and hybridization high risk implications may additionally be posed in the case of carnivores, particularly when territories are already occupied by individuals of

Herders are fearless when protecting their animals in East Africa. The task of deterring lions, hyenas, and cheetahs, is given to young boys or adult males. Undesired shooting and death of the animals themselves occurs frequently. The utilization of guard dogs as a safer tactic is employed across South Africa and Botswana, whereby the dog's bark is sufficient to scare predators away.

An intensified version of proactive protectors is anti-poaching units (APU)

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82793*

*An Assessment of the Human-Wildlife Conflict across Africa DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82793*

#### **Figure 2.**

*Wildlife Population Monitoring*

conflict resulting from warfare.

during 2012–2017.

**2.8 Civil war and poaching**

**3.1 Ground level applications**

effective to the least).

protein intake. Two primary negative impacts are associated with bushmeat consumption; the transfer of Zoonotic diseases and biodiversity loss. The Ebola outbreak crisis across West Africa in 2016 resulted in a decreased consumption rate in high-income households than in low-income households [16]. However, daily meal frequency decreased during the crisis, while the diversity of food items and preferences for bushmeat species remained constant. In Garamba National Park and neighboring Azande Hunting Reserve, Congo, bushmeat hunting of primates increased fivefold during political instability and armed

The Illegal Wildlife Trade (IWT) refers to the trade in animal body parts among international borders. With an annual circulation of \$17 billion annually, IWT is driven by the consumer belief system that consuming an animal or its body parts, then one resumes the animals' potency [14]. Africa is home to the most endangered mammalian population supplies. The most trafficked animal worldwide is the pangolin (*Manis*) for its scales, the white rhino (*Ceratotherium simum simum*) and the black rhino (*Diceros bicornis*) for their horn, and the elephant for its tusks. In 2011, South Africa was home to 83% of Africa's rhinos and nearly three-quarters of all wild rhinos worldwide. Alarmingly, on average, one rhino was poached every 8 hours during 2015. Specifically, three South African provinces (Limpopo, North West, and KwaZulu-Natal) are home to 90% of South Africa's rhino population, experiencing 75% of all poaching

During the civil war and Human-Human Conflict (HHC) in South Sudan and The Democratic Republic of the Congo elephant populations significantly decreased. Their decreased numbers were attributed to increased poaching and dispersal. Studies conducted during political stable times indicate that elephant populations re-established their local home-ranges after HHC. Provide details!!!

**3. Conservation strategies designed to address increasing HWC**

level applications and (2) wide scale conceptual applications.

Most HWC incidences may be considered *wicked* conservation problems; their multi-complexity is rooted in the interlinkage imbedded in social, economic, biological, and stochastic variables (**Figure 2**, [13]). They vary according to different taxonomic groups within the Mammalia class and sub-regions across the African continent. Their inherited uncertainty can be quantified by various technology and formulas, which can then be applied to assist local mammalian management [13]. Moving forward, conservation of mammals (and all other species) in Africa will only be affected if bottom-up and top-down approaches are implemented simultaneously. The following section offers an assessment of implemented strategies which mitigate and minimize HWC. These are subdivided into two: (1) ground

The Maasai and Samburu local communities utilize homestead fencing whereby crop fields and livestock are fenced in corals and wildlife dispersal is enabled. Limited depredation is attributed to such established husbandry practices which utilize wire, acacia, wicker or solid enclosures (listed from the most

**176**

*The multifaceted human mammalian interactions and conflict drivers are addressed within a wicked conservation contextual problem (illustrated in green). Effective strategies to decrease HWC are found within the interlinked area. Adapted from Benjamin-Fink and Reilly [13].*

In addition to these conventional fences, electric fencing such as those required in reserves that enclose the "BIG 5" (i.e., lion, buffalo (*Syncerus caffer*), leopard, elephant, and rhino), or constructing roofs on the fences, are viable alternatives for a more sophisticated solution. Electric fences have proven to be effective at creating a spatial separation between human settlements and mammals in Nyeri and Laikipia districts in Kenya encompass the Endarasha and Ol Moran villages. In fact, electric fences in the East Caprivi region of Namibia have successfully deterred elephants from destroying crops [4, 5]. Equally important, the return on investment in eletric fences ocurs within 5 years, which may then be reallocated to offset associated costs.

Crop damage and death incidences are primarily associated with male mammals, most of which are polygynous. This is due to their large body size and mass. As a result, culling a male elephant would have the equivalent crop economic result of removing a family of 20 elephants. The demography of a population is correlated to the female population size, age of first reproduction, litter size, interval between births, age of reproductive senescence, and mortality. In a polygynous species such as elephants, the male contributes sperm, providing no additional source of energy in the rearing of offspring. As such, a surplus of males is not uncommon. The critical adult sex ratio varies amongst mammalian species and is additionally correlated to spatial distribution, density, seasonality in breeding, duration and periodicity of oestrus in females, reproductive behavior, etc. With that in mind, poaching is primarily targeted toward male and female tuskers, which consequently skews the demography. As such, culling of problematic male elephants as a policy to reduce conflicts is not widely recommended.

The practice of translocation of "problematic" animals is a viable alternative to culling. However, when taken in an *ad hoc* fashion, this mammalian management practice may also have negative effects on the genetic pool; conservation programs should consider all aspects of ecological implications [7]. Ungulate translocations need to be considered as the possibility of inbreeding, outbreeding, and hybridization high risk implications may additionally be posed in the case of carnivores, particularly when territories are already occupied by individuals of the same species.

Herders are fearless when protecting their animals in East Africa. The task of deterring lions, hyenas, and cheetahs, is given to young boys or adult males. Undesired shooting and death of the animals themselves occurs frequently. The utilization of guard dogs as a safer tactic is employed across South Africa and Botswana, whereby the dog's bark is sufficient to scare predators away.

An intensified version of proactive protectors is anti-poaching units (APU) (see below).

#### **3.2 Wide scale conceptual applications**

A community based natural resource management scheme (CBNRMS) has been established in the Caprivi region of Namibia, where the eco-tourism industry and hunting concessions provide the lions a share of local economic revenue. The interlinkage of livelihoods with wildlife-based revenue (particularly large mammalian species and carnivores) is a scheme employed across Kenya and Namibia. An example of indirect economic income is the creation of employment opportunities via the tourist sector. Kibale National Park in Uganda foster positive attitudes toward the park by directly sharing a percent of generated revenues with local communities.

Moreover, Bénoué National Park (BNP), Cameroon, was established in 1968. Prior to which the land was owned by local villages. Concurrently, their revenue sources include crop, livestock, fishing, and hunting as such, the average loss per household is an estimated annual 31% of their economic revenue generated from crop and 18% of their economic revenue livestock generated from livestock due to elephants, baboons, and warthog (*Phacochoerus aethiopicus*) [15, 16]*.* The government currently subsidies their economic loss. In a nut shell, economic returns benefit rural communities and serve as incentives which motivate them to protect wildlife outside protected areas and to discourage poaching.

The role of anti-poaching units (APUs) is diverse. Their primary objective is to halt the poaching of charismatic mammals (e.g., pangolin, elephant, rhino, etc.`) and their activities range from aerial patrols conducted by satellites and helicopters, to ground patrols conducted by ground troops traveling by foot and/or in vehicles. Additionally, they serve as a vital peace-keeping governing body within local communities. At times, patrolling officers may extend themselves to assist surrounding villages in resolving common disputes surrounding criminal activities. Such processes and involvement facilitate a mutual trusting relationship and positive attitudes toward mammalian conservation.

Settlement of rights is a scheme by which the reimbursement for crop and livestock losses, or of loss of human life or injury, has a fixed quota of exploited commodities. It legitimizes the rights of local communities to resources within reserve zones. This, in turn, promotes positive attitudes and perceptions toward mammalian conservation and a higher tolerance for HWC incidences.

#### **4. Recommendations and conclusions**

This chapter highlights the importance of considering human-mammalian interactions when poising to understand the most critical conservation challenges facing biodiversity and formulating effective management strategies. It highlights common problems and solutions across biogeographical regions and demonstrates that conflicts have similar causes and effects, and that detailed information is the key to the development of appropriate strategies for resolving the problem and conserving different ecosystems and their inhabitants.

Many international organizations strive to implement mammalian conservation strategies that will decrease HWC incidences and bring back endangered species from the brink of extinction. Conservation beyond borders (CBB) provides an example of considering the most challenging conservation phenomenon within their complexity and formalizing comprehensive solutions.

The most sustainable approaches ensure the development of a local economy derived partially from wildlife (e.g., revenue from nature reserves), as well as a reduction in the vulnerability of rural communities to livestock

**179**

**Author details**

Benjamin-Fink Nicole

provided the original work is properly cited.

Conservation Beyond Borders, Minnesota, USA

*An Assessment of the Human-Wildlife Conflict across Africa*

Sophy, and Emma for providing important guidance.

depredation and crop damage by various mammalian species. In order to optimize conservation efforts, management plans should be based on scientific knowledge, combined with indigenous knowledge, practical local knowledge,

I would like to thank many African colleges who have contributed directly or indirectly to insights highlighted in this chapter. Their valuable time and knowledge was instrumental to the conceptual formulation of ideas. A special thanks to Neev,

There are no conflicts of interest the author wishes to point out or declare.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82793*

and collaboration.

**Acknowledgements**

**Conflict of interest**

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

\*Address all correspondence to: nicole@conservationbeyondborders.org

depredation and crop damage by various mammalian species. In order to optimize conservation efforts, management plans should be based on scientific knowledge, combined with indigenous knowledge, practical local knowledge, and collaboration.
