**2. Overview of HWC drivers across Africa**

Over the past two decades, I have focused my research on the implications of human-wildlife conflict interactions worldwide. In Africa, HWC primarily occurs in regions where rural communities live adjacent to protected areas. This chapter explores drivers for, and solutions to, regional case studies throughout Africa. Much of these drivers enable significant shifts in the dynamics of endangered mammalian species (i.e., abundance, composition, and distribution of prey and predator population). The conservation concern arises from the developed negative attitudes of the local people toward wildlife causing exacerbated and dejection of the conservations' efforts. In order to break this threatening cycle, there is a need to protect rural livelihoods, reduce their vulnerability, and counterbalance losses with benefits and foster community-willingness to participate in conservation.

#### **2.1 Human population growth and land conversion**

Human population growth inherently entails settlement expansion into and around protected areas [2]. Additionally, more often than not such expansion entails land cover conversion and shifts in wild herbivore and predator dynamics.

Human population growth entails settlement expansion which has resulted in the infringement into mammalian habitats, constriction of species into marginal habitat patches, and increased direct competition for coexistence. Human encroachment

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*An Assessment of the Human-Wildlife Conflict across Africa*

economic loss associated with livestock predation.

into national reserves is documented to occur in Nigeria, Uganda, Ghana, Congo,

As human population grows and settlement expands, land cover conversion is driven by the need for economic profitability and livelihood sustainability. Research done in Samburu, Trans-Mara, Taita, and Kwale in Kenya illuminate the interlinkage between intensified conflict, land conversion and the development of small-scale farming [3]. Provide details!! Over the last 4 decades, state and trust ranches have been subdivided and sold as smallholdings and commercially cultivated horticultural areas. The unintended result is an artificially improved carrying capacity which alters mammalian ecology. These crops may serve as favorable feeding grounds for non- residential predators, thereby altering the natural distribution and ecology of predators and the dynamics of the prey population abundances.

Growing densities in livestock populations can create an overlap of diets and forage competition with wild herbivores, resulting in overgrazing and decline or even local extinction in wild herbivore populations. As such, livestock becomes an important source of prey for predators. As a response, landowners often shoot and kill predators found on their land, or on the neighboring lands in order to avoid

Villagers living adjacent to Tasavo Conservation Area (TCA), Kenya, indicate the severity of the ongoing conflict; 64.8% of respondents indicated that their agriculture was destroyed, 28.8% reported livestock predation, 4% indicated damage to water structures, and 2.3% reported damage to fences (add

A variety of mammals have been documented to cause crop damage, such as primates, rhino, elephant, deer, and wild pig. Crop loss includes mainly banana, cassava, maize, and sweet potatoes, millet, and cotton. In fact, the endangered African bush elephant (*Loxodonta africana*) accounted for 4–7% of annual crop loss in Kibale national Park, Uganda [2]. The park borders the communities, which is 54% of cultivated land within 1Km of Kibale's border. Landowners report a loss of maize, cassava, sweet potato, and banana due to elephants, bushpig (*Potamochoerus sp.*), olive baboons (*Papio cynocephalus*), and redtail monkey (*Cercopithecus ascanius*). Similarly, farmers consider most medium and large-size mammals as a threat to their crops in Jozani Forest Reserve located on Unguja, Zanzibar. In particular, loss of coconut harvest is attributed to one of the most endangered primates, the red

In Caprivi, Namibia, the largest free ranging population of elephants (5000) shares their habitat with local people. Elephants dispersing from the two Caprivi National Parks are documented to be responsible for a lot of crop damage although the financial losses are less than lion (*Panthera leo*) attacks on livestock (US\$39,200,

For many communities across Africa, the cost of coexisting with wildlife is the loss of valuable revenue due to livestock predation by the endangered Leopard (*Panthera pardus*), the vulnerable Lion and Cheetah (*Acinonyx jubatus*), or the

Commercial cattle ranches supply meat to both national and international markets. Such ranches located adjacent to the Tsavo East National Park in Kenya suffer losses of large domestic animals (i.e., cows, bulls, and steers) due to predation by lions and spotted hyenas, in addition to losses of small domesticated animals (i.e., young cattle) following cheetah attacks [5]. In a 4 year study, ranchers lost

Kenya, Tanzania, Zanzibar, and South Africa to name a few countries.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82793*

Need to add more details!!!

**2.2 HWC results in monetary loss**

colobus (*Procolobus kirkii*).

US\$85,570, respectively) [4].

Spotted hyenas (*Crocuta crocuta*).

reference).

#### *An Assessment of the Human-Wildlife Conflict across Africa DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82793*

*Wildlife Population Monitoring*

ungulates such as wildebeest.

**Figure 1.**

*boxes.*

pate in conservation.

**2. Overview of HWC drivers across Africa**

**2.1 Human population growth and land conversion**

market sector of South Africa came to a halt in 2008 due to concerns over a possible outbreak of Hand, Foot, and Mouth Disease (HFMD), known to be spread by

*The connection between human-mammalian co-existence and its drivers for conflict. Casual interlinkages are illustrated by directional arrows. Consequential variables are highlighted with slanted frames and in gray* 

Over the past two decades, I have focused my research on the implications of human-wildlife conflict interactions worldwide. In Africa, HWC primarily occurs in regions where rural communities live adjacent to protected areas. This chapter explores drivers for, and solutions to, regional case studies throughout Africa. Much of these drivers enable significant shifts in the dynamics of endangered mammalian species (i.e., abundance, composition, and distribution of prey and predator population). The conservation concern arises from the developed negative attitudes of the local people toward wildlife causing exacerbated and dejection of the conservations' efforts. In order to break this threatening cycle, there is a need to protect rural livelihoods, reduce their vulnerability, and counterbalance losses with benefits and foster community-willingness to partici-

Human population growth inherently entails settlement expansion into and around protected areas [2]. Additionally, more often than not such expansion entails land cover conversion and shifts in wild herbivore and predator

Human population growth entails settlement expansion which has resulted in the infringement into mammalian habitats, constriction of species into marginal habitat patches, and increased direct competition for coexistence. Human encroachment

**172**

dynamics.

into national reserves is documented to occur in Nigeria, Uganda, Ghana, Congo, Kenya, Tanzania, Zanzibar, and South Africa to name a few countries.

As human population grows and settlement expands, land cover conversion is driven by the need for economic profitability and livelihood sustainability. Research done in Samburu, Trans-Mara, Taita, and Kwale in Kenya illuminate the interlinkage between intensified conflict, land conversion and the development of small-scale farming [3]. Provide details!! Over the last 4 decades, state and trust ranches have been subdivided and sold as smallholdings and commercially cultivated horticultural areas. The unintended result is an artificially improved carrying capacity which alters mammalian ecology. These crops may serve as favorable feeding grounds for non- residential predators, thereby altering the natural distribution and ecology of predators and the dynamics of the prey population abundances. Need to add more details!!!

Growing densities in livestock populations can create an overlap of diets and forage competition with wild herbivores, resulting in overgrazing and decline or even local extinction in wild herbivore populations. As such, livestock becomes an important source of prey for predators. As a response, landowners often shoot and kill predators found on their land, or on the neighboring lands in order to avoid economic loss associated with livestock predation.

#### **2.2 HWC results in monetary loss**

Villagers living adjacent to Tasavo Conservation Area (TCA), Kenya, indicate the severity of the ongoing conflict; 64.8% of respondents indicated that their agriculture was destroyed, 28.8% reported livestock predation, 4% indicated damage to water structures, and 2.3% reported damage to fences (add reference).

A variety of mammals have been documented to cause crop damage, such as primates, rhino, elephant, deer, and wild pig. Crop loss includes mainly banana, cassava, maize, and sweet potatoes, millet, and cotton. In fact, the endangered African bush elephant (*Loxodonta africana*) accounted for 4–7% of annual crop loss in Kibale national Park, Uganda [2]. The park borders the communities, which is 54% of cultivated land within 1Km of Kibale's border. Landowners report a loss of maize, cassava, sweet potato, and banana due to elephants, bushpig (*Potamochoerus sp.*), olive baboons (*Papio cynocephalus*), and redtail monkey (*Cercopithecus ascanius*). Similarly, farmers consider most medium and large-size mammals as a threat to their crops in Jozani Forest Reserve located on Unguja, Zanzibar. In particular, loss of coconut harvest is attributed to one of the most endangered primates, the red colobus (*Procolobus kirkii*).

In Caprivi, Namibia, the largest free ranging population of elephants (5000) shares their habitat with local people. Elephants dispersing from the two Caprivi National Parks are documented to be responsible for a lot of crop damage although the financial losses are less than lion (*Panthera leo*) attacks on livestock (US\$39,200, US\$85,570, respectively) [4].

For many communities across Africa, the cost of coexisting with wildlife is the loss of valuable revenue due to livestock predation by the endangered Leopard (*Panthera pardus*), the vulnerable Lion and Cheetah (*Acinonyx jubatus*), or the Spotted hyenas (*Crocuta crocuta*).

Commercial cattle ranches supply meat to both national and international markets. Such ranches located adjacent to the Tsavo East National Park in Kenya suffer losses of large domestic animals (i.e., cows, bulls, and steers) due to predation by lions and spotted hyenas, in addition to losses of small domesticated animals (i.e., young cattle) following cheetah attacks [5]. In a 4 year study, ranchers lost

annually on average 2.4% of their herd, accounting for 2.6% of their economic revenue (US\$8749).

Similarly, traditional agro-pastoralism is prone to livestock deprivation in Zimbabwe. During 1993–1996, 241 livestock were reported as killed by lions, leopards, and yellow baboons (*Papio anubis*), accounting for 34, 12, and 54% of the kills respectively [6]. These amounts account for an annual loss of 142% of total family's income per household. These mammals differ in their targeted prey and therefore, in the economic damage; while the large predators kill cattle and donkeys, baboons kill smaller livestock (e.g., sheep and goats). As a result, lions account for a large share of the economic loss.

### **2.3 Fencing and artificial enclosures**

Across Africa, fences provide a spatial barrier around game reserves, conservancies, and homestead areas.

Populations are closed, finite and natural processes do not take place (e.g., dispersal, emigration, and colonization dynamics). This not clear!! Negative consequences may be in one of the following forms: hybridization and introgression, genetic bottlenecks, inbreeding or outbreeding depression, and shifts in local or regional ecological equilibrium. As a result of such artificial enclosures, game ranch owners are faced with the need to intensely manage populations on their land while weighting economic profitability with genetic concerns stemming from small and closed populations (e.g., inbreeding, outbreeding depression, and bottlenecks) [7]. As such, increasing risks posed to endangered mammals.

Conflicts over natural resources have increased as communities, particularly pastoralists, compete for diminishing water, pasture and food resources with wildlife. Tasavo Conservation Area (TCA) is located adjacent to traditional villages in Kenya where traditional pastoralism is practiced. Despite fences, people trespass with their livestock into the TCA so that they may access resources that are lacking (e.g., grazing). Similarly, Maasai herdsmen, a semi-nomadic pastoralist group, drive their animals into the Maasai Mara game in Kenya on an ongoing basis [8].

The effectiveness of natural or man-made fences depends on behavior of different mammalian species. For example, burrowing animals such as bushpig can breach such barriers and enable additional mammalian species to do so (such as lions utilizing their holes around Kruger National Park in South Africa). Similarly, baboons, lions and leopards have been documented to jump over fences and into livestock enclosures at the Wildlife Research Area in Zimbabwe [9]. In Laikipia District situated in Northern Kenya, pastoralists discovered that domestic animals experience a lower depredation rate when penned in corals overnight (when carnivore tend to hunt) [10].

#### **2.4 Species' localized recovery**

Conservation success is often synonymous with the successful recovery of declining endangered populations through effective management strategies. However, it is worth noting that the social organization, habitat and prey requirements, and home-range distributions of such recovered populations often serve as a renewed source for HWC. Examples include: lions straying out of the Kruger Park Reserve in South Africa and into adjacent villages, and bull elephants on musth acting aggressively and venturing into local communities across Kenya. Recent recovery programs have additionally contributed to the recolonization by cheetahs of their original home range including rural areas in Botswana; and in the process have increased the frequency of domestic livestock predation.

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*An Assessment of the Human-Wildlife Conflict across Africa*

during the dry season when vegetation cover is scarce [6].

potential of significant increases in HWC frequencies.

**2.7 The illegal wildlife trade (IWT)**

Climate is a determining factor in mammalian colonization (i.e., home range and distribution expansion, contraction, or shift). As climate chance becomes increasingly rapid, people can expect an increase in HWC incidences. Concurrently, seasonal changes in rainfall are directly correlated with lion predation intensity on livestock in Tsavo National Park in Kenya [5]. In fact, monthly rainfall predicts lion attacks on livestock during seasonal rains. Similarly, the intensity of livestock predation by predators increased in Sengwa Wildlife Research Area, Zimbabwe,

South Africa experienced an annual increase of 5.6% in land used for wildlife ranching during 1991–2000 [7]. Diminished economic profitability of livestock, coupled with an increase in stock theft, resulted in a shift from traditional agriculture and cattle farming to ungulate ranching within the private ranching industry. With an annual return on investment per hectare higher than any agriculturally based market (upwards of 80%), the game ranching industry generates annually

More recently, the market for ungulate color variance has evolved in South Africa. Proactively breeding for morphological characteristics (i.e., coat color) is a relatively new avenue for economic revenue, yielding upwards of 1 billion Rand/ year. This sector is emerging in its scope and has the capacity to produce 50–1000%

(*Connochaetes)* with a cow blue wildebeest (*Connochaetes taurinus*); the offspring is referred to as "Split Golden" and were sold in private auctions during 2014 for 513, 137 rand (a 541% increase in selling price compared to 80,000 rands in 2004) [7]. These Split Golden wildebeests are then mated with golden bulls (i.e., backcrossed) to facilitate the expression of the recessive allele for a golden color coat. Similarly, the price of offspring that result from breeding a blue wildebeest with split king wildebeest increased 10-fold during 2012–2014 (81,553–882,917 rands, respectively). The average price of a pure breed blue wildebeest in 2014 was 3626 rands. Breeding for color variance may also occur by selectively breeding blue wildebeest with split golden wildebeest or blue wildebeest with king wildebeest. The high ROIs dictate mammalian artificial overlap and stocking within the confinement of these reserves; thus, in turn, altering intra and interspecies dynamics, resulting in the

The illegal wildlife trade can be clustered into one of two categories: (1) the bushmeat trade, the illegal harvest of non-domesticated animals in tropical forests in order to meet local and regional consumption demand, and (2) the international trade in body parts of endangered animals to meet the international black-market demands [9, 10]. The first primarily consists of hunting ungulates and, the second entails the poaching of rhinos, elephant, and pangolins to name the most popular. It is important to note that often times, poaching entails the illegal harvest of ungulates which are not classified as endangered including Kudu (*Tragelaphus*) in

Bushmeat represents an important source of animal protein for humans in tropical Africa. In Bénoué National Park (BNP), Cameron, and Sam-Sam villages, Ghana, is the local diet, whereby bushmeat consists of up to 24% of animal

Mozambique and waterbuck (*Kobus*) in Zimbabwe and Mozambique.

ROIs in full. A primary example is the breeding of a bull golden wildebeest

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82793*

**2.5 Climate factors and stochastic events**

**2.6 Emerging markets**

R4.7 billion [11, 12].

## **2.5 Climate factors and stochastic events**

Climate is a determining factor in mammalian colonization (i.e., home range and distribution expansion, contraction, or shift). As climate chance becomes increasingly rapid, people can expect an increase in HWC incidences. Concurrently, seasonal changes in rainfall are directly correlated with lion predation intensity on livestock in Tsavo National Park in Kenya [5]. In fact, monthly rainfall predicts lion attacks on livestock during seasonal rains. Similarly, the intensity of livestock predation by predators increased in Sengwa Wildlife Research Area, Zimbabwe, during the dry season when vegetation cover is scarce [6].
