**1. Introduction**

Around the world, resident hunting as part which is generally organized and managed by the state as a public service [1] has proven to be a powerful tool to promote conservation when conducted in ways that are biologically sound within appropriate governance and institutional settings [2]. License fees and taxes are set and taken by the state and in most situations are reinvested in managing the resource. In developing countries apart from conservation, public hunting can be regarded as a source of income as well as a livelihood strategy in terms of food security and in combating malnutrition. On the other hand, public hunting model has not worked effectively for conservation in Africa and other developing regions

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2017;**12**:46-58

*Wildlife Population Monitoring*

**References**

[1] Preventing and mitigating humanwildlife conflicts IUNC. World Park Congress; 2003. Available from: http:// www.iucn.org/themes/wcpa/wpc2003/ pdfs/outputs/recommendations/ approved/english/pdf/r20.pdf

Movement in Ol Pejeta Eco-System in

[9] Pennisi E. People are hunting primates, bats, and other mammals to

[10] Distefano E. Human-Wildlife Conflict Worldwide: Collection of Case Studies, Analysis of Management

Strategies and Good Practices. Rome, Italy: Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development Initiative (SARDI); 2005. Available from: FAO Corporate Document repository http://www.fao.

[11] Cloete PC, Van der Merwe P, Saayman M. Game Ranch Profitability

[12] Lindsey SL, Green MN, Bennett CL. The Okapi: Mysterious Animal of Congo-Zaire. University of Texas Press;

[13] Benjamin-Fink N, Reilly BK. A road map for developing and applying object-oriented Bayesian networks to "WICKED" problems. Ecological

[14] IUCN: International Union for Conservation of Nature. Available from:

area, North Cameroon. Oryx.

Wildlife. 2012;**17**(2):77-90

[15] Weladji RB, Tchamba MN. Conflict between people and protected areas within the Bénoué wildlife conservation

[16] Granados A, Weladji RB. Humanelephant conflict around Bénoué National Park, Cameroon: Influence on local attitudes and implications for conservation. Human Dimensions of

Modelling. 2017;**360**:27-44

https://www.iucn.org/

2003;**37**(1):72-79

in South Africa. ABSA; 2015.

Laikipia, Kenya; 2012

extinction. Science. 2016

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[2] Naughton-Treves L. Predicting patterns of crop damage by wildlife around Kibale National Park, Uganda. Conservation Biology.

[3] Wanyingi NJ. Determinants of human-elephant conflicts in Shimba Hills ecosystem, Kenya [doctoral dissertation]. 2016. Available from: http://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/ bitstream/handle/11295/97529/ betty%20final%20project. pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

[4] O'Connell-Rodwell CE, Rodwell T, Rice M, Hart LA. Living with the modern conservation paradigm: Can agricultural communities co-exist with elephants? A five-year case study in East Caprivi, Namibia. Biological Conservation. 2000;**93**(3):381-391

[5] Patterson BD, Kasiki SM, Selempo E, Kays RW. Livestock predation by lions (*Panthera leo*) and other carnivores on ranches neighboring Tsavo National Parks, Kenya. Biological Conservation.

[6] Butler JR. The economic costs of wildlife predation on livestock in Gokwe communal land, Zimbabwe. African Journal of Ecology. 2000;**38**(1):23-30

[7] Benjamin-Fink N, Reilly BK. Conservation implications of wildlife translocations; the state's ability to act as conservation units for

wildebeest populations in South Africa. Global Ecology and Conservation.

[8] Mutahi MD, Mwangi GP, Mutura BR. Impact of Electric Fence on Pastoralists

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such as Central Asia and even Mexico [3]. For example, governance, accountability mechanisms, and state agencies are unable to capture and channel license or tax revenues to manage and support conservation programs as they do in the North American Model [3].

In Tanzania resident hunting is recognized by the wildlife policy [4] which states that it is the right of indigenous Tanzanians to have legal access to wildlife use, and different scales of fees for tourists and residents to hunt have been established through the enabling legislation. The country has over 140 hunting concessions covering an area in excess of 250,000 km<sup>2</sup> that are licensed to conduct both tourist hunting and resident hunting. These concessions are distributed throughout the country in either Game Reserves and Game Controlled Areas, open areas, or Wildlife Management Areas. Schedules of the Hunting Regulations that support the Wildlife Conservation Act specify types of animals that may or may not be hunted on a hunting license. A wide range of animals (approximately 60 species) can legally be hunted by tourist hunters in Tanzania. However, the giraffe, cheetah, rhino, and wild dog are protected game and cannot be hunted in Tanzania. The Hunting Regulations stipulate the fees for hunting every type of animal and further specify a minimum number of hunting days. Currently there are over 40 hunting outfitters leasing concessions in Tanzania.

In Serengeti District before the 2002 joint venture between Serengeti District Council (SDC) and Singita Grumeti Reserve Limited (SGRL) which banned resident hunting, the latter was undertaken using existing regulations. Resident hunting was formally carried out in Nyichoka and Sibora open areas of Serengeti District. The chapter assesses the implications of the hunting ban on local communities' livelihood and examines the wildlife population trend after the ban.

### **2. Study area**

Serengeti District (10,373 km2 ) is located on the Eastern part of Mara region (**Figure 1**). The district has 10 wildlife areas, viz., Serengeti National Park (7000 km<sup>2</sup> ), Grumeti Game Reserve (68.37 km2 ), Ikorongo Game Reserve (189.68 km2 ), IKONA Wildlife Management Area (WMA) (148 km2 ), and open areas—IKONA Open Area, Issenye Open Area, Issenye Reminder, Nyakitono Reminder, Robanda Open Area, and Sasakwa, having a total of 2306 km2 . About 659 km2 is the area for agriculture, livestock keeping, and for settlements.

Average rainfall in the area is about 700 mm per annum. The temperatures in the area show a relatively constant mean monthly maximum of 27–28°C. The minimum temperature varies from 16°C in the hot month of October–March to 13°C during May–August. The relief ranges from 1144 to 1380 m above sea level.

This study involved three communities of Natta Mbiso, Machochwe, and Park Nyigoti. The criteria for picking these communities were their traditional link to wildlife utilization and adjacency to former hunting areas and/or protected area networks in the district. As for game population, emphasis was on IKONA WMA, which entered an agreement with Singita Grumeti Reserve Limited (SGRL).

SGRL under a multi-billionaire businessman Paul Tudor II was registered in 2002 and has tourism right tenure over the Grumeti Game Reserve, Ikorongo Game Reserve, and Ikoma Wildlife Management Area. The SGRL which is one of the most ambitious conservation and tourism projects in Africa is a private game concession and has excellent year-round game viewing and is also ideally placed for annual wildebeest migration. Currently SGRL project operates three 7-star tourist lodges in the area: the Sasakwa Hilltop, Sabora plains, and Faru Faru River lodges with a total of 72 beds. The vision of SGRL is rehabilitation and maintenance of the

**183**

*Resident Hunting Ban in Serengeti District and Its Implications to People's Livelihood…*

indigenous biodiversity of the western Serengeti-Mara ecosystem for the benefit of the local communities within the Serengeti District and the nation as a whole through structures that are financially and economically sustainable, ecologically

community development, and environmental projects in Serengeti and Bunda Districts. Out of this funding, 2.8 and 2.3% have been used for community development projects and wildlife management activities, respectively. Among the community development projects include President Kikwete scholarships, provision of

From 2003 to 2011 the company had invested a huge sum of money into lodges,

In 2002 SGRL project entered a joint venture agreement with Serengeti District Council (SDC) on resident hunting ban, and Clause 4.1.6 of the contract states that: "SGRL shall compensate the District Council a sum of TZS 200 Million only for the community development quota allocated to the District Council. The amount will be allocated in a transparent and accountable manner involving all stakeholders in

However, SGRL continues with tourist hunting in the former hunting areas

Data involving humans were collected using household questionnaire and structured interviews. The main subjects were households, district officials, and village leaders. Using the village register book, a sample of 30–35 households was picked using simple random sampling technique. Gender balance was considered in

and environmentally responsible, and politically acceptable.

clean and safe water, education, and beekeeping projects.

the Serengeti District" (JVA, Pp. 12).

**3.1 Socioeconomic data collection**

**3. Methodology**

**Figure 1.**

*Location of the study area.*

incongruent to the joint venture agreement.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83827*

*Resident Hunting Ban in Serengeti District and Its Implications to People's Livelihood… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83827*

**Figure 1.** *Location of the study area.*

*Wildlife Population Monitoring*

American Model [3].

**2. Study area**

Park (7000 km<sup>2</sup>

(189.68 km2

659 km2

covering an area in excess of 250,000 km<sup>2</sup>

outfitters leasing concessions in Tanzania.

Serengeti District (10,373 km2

such as Central Asia and even Mexico [3]. For example, governance, accountability mechanisms, and state agencies are unable to capture and channel license or tax revenues to manage and support conservation programs as they do in the North

In Tanzania resident hunting is recognized by the wildlife policy [4] which states

that are licensed to conduct both tour-

that it is the right of indigenous Tanzanians to have legal access to wildlife use, and different scales of fees for tourists and residents to hunt have been established through the enabling legislation. The country has over 140 hunting concessions

ist hunting and resident hunting. These concessions are distributed throughout the country in either Game Reserves and Game Controlled Areas, open areas, or Wildlife Management Areas. Schedules of the Hunting Regulations that support the Wildlife Conservation Act specify types of animals that may or may not be hunted on a hunting license. A wide range of animals (approximately 60 species) can legally be hunted by tourist hunters in Tanzania. However, the giraffe, cheetah, rhino, and wild dog are protected game and cannot be hunted in Tanzania. The Hunting Regulations stipulate the fees for hunting every type of animal and further specify a minimum number of hunting days. Currently there are over 40 hunting

In Serengeti District before the 2002 joint venture between Serengeti District

) is located on the Eastern part of Mara

), Ikorongo Game Reserve

), and open

. About

Council (SDC) and Singita Grumeti Reserve Limited (SGRL) which banned resident hunting, the latter was undertaken using existing regulations. Resident hunting was formally carried out in Nyichoka and Sibora open areas of Serengeti District. The chapter assesses the implications of the hunting ban on local commu-

nities' livelihood and examines the wildlife population trend after the ban.

region (**Figure 1**). The district has 10 wildlife areas, viz., Serengeti National

), IKONA Wildlife Management Area (WMA) (148 km2

 is the area for agriculture, livestock keeping, and for settlements. Average rainfall in the area is about 700 mm per annum. The temperatures in the area show a relatively constant mean monthly maximum of 27–28°C. The minimum temperature varies from 16°C in the hot month of October–March to 13°C during

This study involved three communities of Natta Mbiso, Machochwe, and Park Nyigoti. The criteria for picking these communities were their traditional link to wildlife utilization and adjacency to former hunting areas and/or protected area networks in the district. As for game population, emphasis was on IKONA WMA, which entered an agreement with Singita Grumeti Reserve Limited (SGRL). SGRL under a multi-billionaire businessman Paul Tudor II was registered in 2002 and has tourism right tenure over the Grumeti Game Reserve, Ikorongo Game Reserve, and Ikoma Wildlife Management Area. The SGRL which is one of the most ambitious conservation and tourism projects in Africa is a private game concession and has excellent year-round game viewing and is also ideally placed for annual wildebeest migration. Currently SGRL project operates three 7-star tourist lodges in the area: the Sasakwa Hilltop, Sabora plains, and Faru Faru River lodges with a total of 72 beds. The vision of SGRL is rehabilitation and maintenance of the

areas—IKONA Open Area, Issenye Open Area, Issenye Reminder, Nyakitono Reminder, Robanda Open Area, and Sasakwa, having a total of 2306 km2

), Grumeti Game Reserve (68.37 km2

May–August. The relief ranges from 1144 to 1380 m above sea level.

**182**

indigenous biodiversity of the western Serengeti-Mara ecosystem for the benefit of the local communities within the Serengeti District and the nation as a whole through structures that are financially and economically sustainable, ecologically and environmentally responsible, and politically acceptable.

From 2003 to 2011 the company had invested a huge sum of money into lodges, community development, and environmental projects in Serengeti and Bunda Districts. Out of this funding, 2.8 and 2.3% have been used for community development projects and wildlife management activities, respectively. Among the community development projects include President Kikwete scholarships, provision of clean and safe water, education, and beekeeping projects.

In 2002 SGRL project entered a joint venture agreement with Serengeti District Council (SDC) on resident hunting ban, and Clause 4.1.6 of the contract states that: "SGRL shall compensate the District Council a sum of TZS 200 Million only for the community development quota allocated to the District Council. The amount will be allocated in a transparent and accountable manner involving all stakeholders in the Serengeti District" (JVA, Pp. 12).

However, SGRL continues with tourist hunting in the former hunting areas incongruent to the joint venture agreement.
