Review of Environmental and Public Health Impact of Automobile Wastes and Automobile Transportation in Nigeria

*John Kanayochukwu Nduka, Henrietta Ijeoma Kelle, Emeka Chima Ogoko and Perpetua Chioma Okafor*

## **Abstract**

Automobiles are machines designed for transportation; it is a self-propelled vehicle with power source for its propulsion and is used for transporting. Most vehicles imported into Nigeria are rickety and are mostly out of use, and since there is no regulation with regard to quality and quantity of vehicles to be imported coupled with lack of technology to deal with automobile waste, large volumes of automobile waste dot the Nigerian landscape. Negative environmental and public health issues of automobile waste and automobile transportation result from the fact that its several components (metals, metalloids, polymers, etc.) on decomposition or expiration release toxic substances such as phenols (C6H5OH), benzene (C6H6), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and so on into the environment, while on operation, automobiles are the most significant source of air pollution as unburnt diesel releases particulate matter (PM2.5, PM10), oxides of carbon, oxides of nitrogen, oxides of sulfur, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), smoke, soot and ash particles, metal oxides, as well as nitrate and sulfate groups. The aim of this work is to explore and draw out salient points from previous literature with regard to detrimental environmental and public health issues of automobile wastes and automobile transportation.

**Keywords:** automobile transportation, toxic chemical substances, environmental pollution, public health issues, imported auto-waste

#### **1. Introduction**

An automobile is a machine whose ultimate designed function is to transport men and goods. It is also called a motor car [1]. It is a self-propelled vehicle which contains the power source for its propulsion and is used for transporting passengers and goods on the ground, such as car, bus, trucks, articulated vehicles, etc. It is also a transportation equipment unit which consists of a frame supporting the body and certain power developing and transmitting units which are further supported by tires and wheels through springs and axles [2]. An automobile is simply

anything vehicular that has its own power source and it is mobile. Eckermann, [3] ascertained that the first automobile, i.e., steam powered, was first built in 1769 by Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot, but the first powered gasoline was developed by Karl Benz in 1885 through manufacturing processes [4]. Most automobiles today are propelled by internal combustion engines. Tremendous growth has occurred in the automobile industry, after the designing of internal combustion engines. Today, the automobile industry plays a crucial role in the social, economic, and industrial growth of any country. Automobiles offer very advantageous help to man such as movement of people and goods to their places of interest (such as city to city, city to the hinter land, church or religious activities, markets, schools, tourist sites, cross borders of countries, etc.). Sports cars are for sporting activities, sometimes for other personal interest, luxury, and entertainment. Increasing the number of automobiles on any country road means increased traffic-related problem such as road congestion, increase in ambient air temperature due to engine heating and exhausts combustion, delayed time of movement, and traffic emission pollution. Gaseous pollutants from automobiles such as carbon (IV) oxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), methane (CH4), sulfur (IV) oxide (SO2), and nitrogen (IV) dioxide (NO2) and particulate aerosols were reported in Nigeria above ambient level [5].

Another emerging problem associated with automobile transportation is the ever-increasing automobile waste, for the fact that large volumes of aging vehicles are imported into Nigeria, coupled with lack of adequate legislation on life span of vehicles to be imported into Nigeria. It become an all comers affair, and the effect is that aged, rickety, worn-out automobiles dot the Nigerian environment [6–8]. Climatic factors such as acidic rain, moisture (dew) and sun act on them as they corrode, degrade and decompose to release toxic chemicals into the environment. This in addition to others constitutes environmental and public health issue.

### **2. Classification of automobiles**

Rajput [2] and Kirpal [9] classified automobiles based on the following factors:

#### **2.1 On the basis of load**

Automobiles can be classified based on the load or their capacity. The heavy transport vehicle (HTV) or heavy motor vehicle (HMV), which carries heavy materials, possesses large mass and is bigger in size. Examples are tractor, heavyduty trucks, etc. They also have light transport vehicle (LTV) or light motor vehicle (LMV) which carries light things and is less in size (e.g., car).

#### **2.2 On the basis of wheels**

Automobiles could be two-wheeler vehicle (TWV) (e.g., scooter, motorcycle), three-wheeler vehicle (TWV) (e.g., auto rickshaw), four-wheeler vehicle (FWV) (e.g., car, jeep, trucks, busses, etc.), six-wheeler vehicle (SWV), and more depending on the carrier design.

#### **2.3 On the basis of fuel used**

In this category, we have petrol vehicles, diesel vehicle, electric vehicle, which use battery to drive (forklift, battery truck and electric car), steam vehicle (e.g., steam engine boat), and gas vehicle (i.e., vehicles that use liquefied petroleum gas and compressed natural gas).

**163**

*Review of Environmental and Public Health Impact of Automobile Wastes and Automobile…*

They can be classified based on the purpose they serve, i.e., it could be passenger-designed vehicles, goods designed vehicles, and special-purpose vehicle (such

Automobiles could be: (i) Conventional vehicles with manual transmission, whose gear ratios have to be changed manually while driving (e.g., car with five gears). (ii) Semiautomatic transmission system: Some automobiles are designed in such a way that facilitates manual gear ratios changing with a clutch pedal. (iii) Automatic transmission system: Automobiles with automatic transmission do not require gears to be changed manually, but they are capable of changing gear ratios automatically as they move.

They could be (i) left-hand drive (steering wheel fitted on the left hand), (ii) right-hand drive (steering wheel fitted on the right hand), and (iii) fluid drive

Automobiles can be classified based on the type of suspension system designed

i.The independent suspension—it allows the wheels to rise and fall on their own vertically without affecting the opposite wheels, e.g., swing axle, multi-

ii.Dependent suspension—it has a beam (a simple cart axle) or driven axle that holds the wheels parallel to each other and perpendicular to the axle e.g.,

iii.Semi-dependent system—in this case, the motion of one wheel does not affect the position of the other, but they are not rigidly attached to each

Since the seventeenth century, several attempts have been made to design and construct a practical operative automobile. To achieve the purpose of making a vehicle move, various constituents' materials combine to form an automobile. There

This includes the chassis which supports the engine, wheels, body, braking system, steering, etc. It is the main mounting support for all components including the various parts of the body of a car. It deals with the static and dynamic loads without undue deflection or distortion [2]. Other parts of the body includes the bonnet (hood), bumper, cowl screen, deck lid, fender, header panel, radiator core support,

are six major components of an automobile. They include the following:

(vehicles that employ torque converter (e.g., fluid flywheel)).

with it. We have three types of suspensions. They include:

other, e.g., a twist-beam rear suspension [12].

**3.1 The super structure or the body structure (frame)**

link suspension, trailing arm, etc. [10].

beam axle, De Dion axle [11].

**3. Components of an automobile**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88491*

**2.4 On the basis of purpose**

as armored car, ambulance, etc.).

**2.5 On the basis of transmission**

**2.6 On the basis of drive**

**2.7 On the basis of suspension system**

*Review of Environmental and Public Health Impact of Automobile Wastes and Automobile… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88491*

### **2.4 On the basis of purpose**

*Environmental Factors Affecting Human Health*

**2. Classification of automobiles**

**2.1 On the basis of load**

**2.2 On the basis of wheels**

ing on the carrier design.

**2.3 On the basis of fuel used**

and compressed natural gas).

anything vehicular that has its own power source and it is mobile. Eckermann, [3] ascertained that the first automobile, i.e., steam powered, was first built in 1769 by Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot, but the first powered gasoline was developed by Karl Benz in 1885 through manufacturing processes [4]. Most automobiles today are propelled by internal combustion engines. Tremendous growth has occurred in the automobile industry, after the designing of internal combustion engines. Today, the automobile industry plays a crucial role in the social, economic, and industrial growth of any country. Automobiles offer very advantageous help to man such as movement of people and goods to their places of interest (such as city to city, city to the hinter land, church or religious activities, markets, schools, tourist sites, cross borders of countries, etc.). Sports cars are for sporting activities, sometimes for other personal interest, luxury, and entertainment. Increasing the number of automobiles on any country road means increased traffic-related problem such as road congestion, increase in ambient air temperature due to engine heating and exhausts combustion, delayed time of movement, and traffic emission pollution. Gaseous pollutants from automobiles such as carbon (IV) oxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), methane (CH4), sulfur (IV) oxide (SO2), and nitrogen (IV) dioxide (NO2)

and particulate aerosols were reported in Nigeria above ambient level [5].

Another emerging problem associated with automobile transportation is the ever-increasing automobile waste, for the fact that large volumes of aging vehicles are imported into Nigeria, coupled with lack of adequate legislation on life span of vehicles to be imported into Nigeria. It become an all comers affair, and the effect is that aged, rickety, worn-out automobiles dot the Nigerian environment [6–8]. Climatic factors such as acidic rain, moisture (dew) and sun act on them as they corrode, degrade and decompose to release toxic chemicals into the environment. This in addition to others constitutes environmental and public health issue.

Rajput [2] and Kirpal [9] classified automobiles based on the following factors:

Automobiles can be classified based on the load or their capacity. The heavy transport vehicle (HTV) or heavy motor vehicle (HMV), which carries heavy materials, possesses large mass and is bigger in size. Examples are tractor, heavyduty trucks, etc. They also have light transport vehicle (LTV) or light motor vehicle

Automobiles could be two-wheeler vehicle (TWV) (e.g., scooter, motorcycle), three-wheeler vehicle (TWV) (e.g., auto rickshaw), four-wheeler vehicle (FWV) (e.g., car, jeep, trucks, busses, etc.), six-wheeler vehicle (SWV), and more depend-

In this category, we have petrol vehicles, diesel vehicle, electric vehicle, which use battery to drive (forklift, battery truck and electric car), steam vehicle (e.g., steam engine boat), and gas vehicle (i.e., vehicles that use liquefied petroleum gas

(LMV) which carries light things and is less in size (e.g., car).

**162**

They can be classified based on the purpose they serve, i.e., it could be passenger-designed vehicles, goods designed vehicles, and special-purpose vehicle (such as armored car, ambulance, etc.).

### **2.5 On the basis of transmission**

Automobiles could be: (i) Conventional vehicles with manual transmission, whose gear ratios have to be changed manually while driving (e.g., car with five gears). (ii) Semiautomatic transmission system: Some automobiles are designed in such a way that facilitates manual gear ratios changing with a clutch pedal. (iii) Automatic transmission system: Automobiles with automatic transmission do not require gears to be changed manually, but they are capable of changing gear ratios automatically as they move.

### **2.6 On the basis of drive**

They could be (i) left-hand drive (steering wheel fitted on the left hand), (ii) right-hand drive (steering wheel fitted on the right hand), and (iii) fluid drive (vehicles that employ torque converter (e.g., fluid flywheel)).

#### **2.7 On the basis of suspension system**

Automobiles can be classified based on the type of suspension system designed with it. We have three types of suspensions. They include:


#### **3. Components of an automobile**

Since the seventeenth century, several attempts have been made to design and construct a practical operative automobile. To achieve the purpose of making a vehicle move, various constituents' materials combine to form an automobile. There are six major components of an automobile. They include the following:

#### **3.1 The super structure or the body structure (frame)**

This includes the chassis which supports the engine, wheels, body, braking system, steering, etc. It is the main mounting support for all components including the various parts of the body of a car. It deals with the static and dynamic loads without undue deflection or distortion [2]. Other parts of the body includes the bonnet (hood), bumper, cowl screen, deck lid, fender, header panel, radiator core support,

grille, roof rack, rims and hubcap, spoiler, fuel tank door, trunk, door, door seal, door handle, door latch and hinge, door water shield, tire; central locking, window motor, window seal, windscreen, sunroof glass, fuel tank, horn, trunk accessory, and wing mirror and glass.

## **3.2 The transmission system**

The main function of transmission system is to transfer power from engine to rear wheel via gearbox to obtain the various gear ratios [13]. The speed and torque of the wheels change in relation to the speed and torque of the engine due to the gears in the transmission. They include clutch assembly (clutch lining, clutch disk, clutch fork, clutch plate, clutch cable, clutch fan, clutch hose, clutch shaft, clutch spring and clutch pedal) [14], gear assembly (i.e., gear pump, gear ring, gear shift lever knob, gear couplings and gear box, which contains the idler gear, knuckle, master cylinder, bearings, counter or output shaft, pinion, and gear set), propeller or drive shaft, rear axle shaft, trans-axle housing, differential set (i.e., spider gears, differential seal, pinions, differential flange and differential clutch), speedometer, transmission set (i.e., transmission gear, transmission seal and transmission spring), flywheel ring gear [1], shift valve, speed reducer or governor and wheel and torque converter [9].

## **3.3 The internal engine system**

This part of the automobile is designed as an engine. It is a device which converts chemical energy from fuel through combustion with air (inside a combustion chamber) into mechanical energy with the use of other components in the engine. The internal engine supplies the power which is delivered by the transmission system to the wheels through the clutch or fluid coupling [2]. The system is subdivided into three parts:


**165**

sun visors [27].

*Review of Environmental and Public Health Impact of Automobile Wastes and Automobile…*

It comprises of the suspension, steering, and brake systems. They are control arms or A-arms, shock absorber [16], axle, spindle, springs (air spring, leaf spring, parabolic spring, ball joint, rubber, and springs), tires [17], power steering assembly [18], steering arm, steering box, steering wheel, steering column assembly, steering shaft, steering rack (rack and pinion), kingpin, steering pump, strut, chamber arm, pan-hand rod, pit-man arm, stub axle, tie rod, tie bar, toe link, track rod, suspension link and bolt, idler arm, beam axle, swing axle, wheel alignment, trailing arm [19], automatic braking system, antilock braking system (ABS), brake fluid, brake lining, disk brake, drum brake, adjuster wheel, anchor, hydraulic fluid, hydraulic brake [20], inboard brake, vacuum brake booster, dual circuit brake system, metering and combination valves, wheel cylinder, wheel stud, brake roll, brake backing plate, brake rotor, brake lever (handle), brake piston, brake pump,

brake shoe, brake hose, brake caliper pins and bracket and brake pad [21].

This part of an automobile consists of all the electrical and electronic components and battery system. They include audio/video devices (i.e., antenna assembly and cable, radio media player, video player, tuner, speaker), voltage regulator, alternator, gauges [22] (such as ammeter, odometer, manometer, hydrometer, oil pressure gauge, speedometer, water temperature gauge, pressure gauge, fuel gauge, vacuum gauge, tire pressure gauge, etc.), thermostat, ignition box, ignition coil, sparking cable, distributor cap, electronic timing controller, calibrator, remote lock, engine compartment, starting system (starter solenoid, door switch, ignition switch, switch cover, glow plug, and starter motor) [23], lightning (spotlight, interior light and lamps, headlight, fog light, trafficators, turn-signal control, license plate lamp and bulbs), sensors (air bag sensor, coolant temperature sensor, throttle position sensor, crankshaft and camshaft position sensor, fuel pressure sensor and automatic transmission speed sensor), navigation/GPS navigation device system, central locking system, battery system (battery box, battery cable, battery control system, battery plate and battery cap), sulfuric acid

Dash panels, secret compartment or trap, car seat, seat belt, seat cover, arm rest, bucket rest, head rest, carpet and floor materials, children and baby seat, and bench

These are minor accessories found in an automobile. They include air-condition system (air-conditioner clutch, compressor, hose, relay, valve, cooler, suction hose pipe, gas receiver, condenser filter, and cabin filters), bearings (i.e., grooved ball bearing, needle bearing, roller bearing, sleeve bearing, plain bearing, needle bearing, and wheel bearing), hose (fuel vapor hose, high-pressure hose, and radiator hose), adhesive tape and foil, air bag, speedometer cable, phone amount, rubber (extruded and molded), screw, nut (flange and hex nuts), fastener [25], split or cotter pin [26], rivet [25], draglink, dynamic seal, O-rings, shim, central console, glove compartment, washer, hood and trunk release cable and paint and

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88491*

**3.4 The control system**

**3.5 The auxiliaries**

and distilled water [22].

**3.7 The miscellaneous and accessories components**

**3.6 Car interiors**

rest [24].

*Review of Environmental and Public Health Impact of Automobile Wastes and Automobile… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88491*

#### **3.4 The control system**

*Environmental Factors Affecting Human Health*

and wing mirror and glass.

**3.2 The transmission system**

**3.3 The internal engine system**

into three parts:

grille, roof rack, rims and hubcap, spoiler, fuel tank door, trunk, door, door seal, door handle, door latch and hinge, door water shield, tire; central locking, window motor, window seal, windscreen, sunroof glass, fuel tank, horn, trunk accessory,

The main function of transmission system is to transfer power from engine to rear wheel via gearbox to obtain the various gear ratios [13]. The speed and torque of the wheels change in relation to the speed and torque of the engine due to the gears in the transmission. They include clutch assembly (clutch lining, clutch disk, clutch fork, clutch plate, clutch cable, clutch fan, clutch hose, clutch shaft, clutch spring and clutch pedal) [14], gear assembly (i.e., gear pump, gear ring, gear shift lever knob, gear couplings and gear box, which contains the idler gear, knuckle, master cylinder, bearings, counter or output shaft, pinion, and gear set), propeller or drive shaft, rear axle shaft, trans-axle housing, differential set (i.e., spider gears, differential seal, pinions, differential flange and differential clutch), speedometer, transmission set (i.e., transmission gear, transmission seal and transmission spring), flywheel ring gear [1],

shift valve, speed reducer or governor and wheel and torque converter [9].

chemical energy from fuel through combustion with air (inside a combustion chamber) into mechanical energy with the use of other components in the engine. The internal engine supplies the power which is delivered by the transmission system to the wheels through the clutch or fluid coupling [2]. The system is subdivided

i.The engine components, which includes engine the block [15], engine

ii.The exhaust system, which includes exhaust pipe, muffler (or silencer),

iii.The fuel system, which includes, air filter, carburetor, choke cable, fuel cap, fuel cell component, fuel distributor, fuel filter and fuel filter seal, fuel pump, fuel injector, fuel injector nozzle, fuel cooler, fuel pump and gasket, fuel pressure regulator, fuel rail, fuel intake manifold and gasket, fuel tank,

throttle body and fuel water assembly [15].

exhaust manifold and exhaust manifold gasket, heat shield, exhaust clamp and bracket, exhaust flange gasket, catalytic converter, resonator and spacer rings.

shake damper, vibration absorber, fan belt, gudgeon pin, piston (i.e., piston pins, crank pin, piston pin brush, and piston ring), engine valve, harmonic balancer, accessory belt, petrol engine, camshaft assembly (i.e., camshaft bearing, camshaft fastener, camshaft locking plate, camshaft push rods, and camshaft phase variator), air duct, connecting rod (i.e., connecting rod bearings and bolt), crankshaft [9], crank case, crank pulley, crankshaft oil seal, distributor, drive belt, cylinder head (attached with cylinder head gasket and cylinder head cover parts), rocker arm, rocker arm cover, starter motor (starter pinions and rings), air blower, turbo charger and super charger, radiator parts (radiator, radiator gasket, radiator pressure cap, overflow tank, thermostat, radiator bolt), water tank parts (water tank, water pump, pump gasket, and water pipe), oil system (oil filter, oil pan, oil gasket, oil pipe, oil pump, and oil strainer) and valve springs and valve seal.

This part of the automobile is designed as an engine. It is a device which converts

**164**

It comprises of the suspension, steering, and brake systems. They are control arms or A-arms, shock absorber [16], axle, spindle, springs (air spring, leaf spring, parabolic spring, ball joint, rubber, and springs), tires [17], power steering assembly [18], steering arm, steering box, steering wheel, steering column assembly, steering shaft, steering rack (rack and pinion), kingpin, steering pump, strut, chamber arm, pan-hand rod, pit-man arm, stub axle, tie rod, tie bar, toe link, track rod, suspension link and bolt, idler arm, beam axle, swing axle, wheel alignment, trailing arm [19], automatic braking system, antilock braking system (ABS), brake fluid, brake lining, disk brake, drum brake, adjuster wheel, anchor, hydraulic fluid, hydraulic brake [20], inboard brake, vacuum brake booster, dual circuit brake system, metering and combination valves, wheel cylinder, wheel stud, brake roll, brake backing plate, brake rotor, brake lever (handle), brake piston, brake pump, brake shoe, brake hose, brake caliper pins and bracket and brake pad [21].

#### **3.5 The auxiliaries**

This part of an automobile consists of all the electrical and electronic components and battery system. They include audio/video devices (i.e., antenna assembly and cable, radio media player, video player, tuner, speaker), voltage regulator, alternator, gauges [22] (such as ammeter, odometer, manometer, hydrometer, oil pressure gauge, speedometer, water temperature gauge, pressure gauge, fuel gauge, vacuum gauge, tire pressure gauge, etc.), thermostat, ignition box, ignition coil, sparking cable, distributor cap, electronic timing controller, calibrator, remote lock, engine compartment, starting system (starter solenoid, door switch, ignition switch, switch cover, glow plug, and starter motor) [23], lightning (spotlight, interior light and lamps, headlight, fog light, trafficators, turn-signal control, license plate lamp and bulbs), sensors (air bag sensor, coolant temperature sensor, throttle position sensor, crankshaft and camshaft position sensor, fuel pressure sensor and automatic transmission speed sensor), navigation/GPS navigation device system, central locking system, battery system (battery box, battery cable, battery control system, battery plate and battery cap), sulfuric acid and distilled water [22].

#### **3.6 Car interiors**

Dash panels, secret compartment or trap, car seat, seat belt, seat cover, arm rest, bucket rest, head rest, carpet and floor materials, children and baby seat, and bench rest [24].

#### **3.7 The miscellaneous and accessories components**

These are minor accessories found in an automobile. They include air-condition system (air-conditioner clutch, compressor, hose, relay, valve, cooler, suction hose pipe, gas receiver, condenser filter, and cabin filters), bearings (i.e., grooved ball bearing, needle bearing, roller bearing, sleeve bearing, plain bearing, needle bearing, and wheel bearing), hose (fuel vapor hose, high-pressure hose, and radiator hose), adhesive tape and foil, air bag, speedometer cable, phone amount, rubber (extruded and molded), screw, nut (flange and hex nuts), fastener [25], split or cotter pin [26], rivet [25], draglink, dynamic seal, O-rings, shim, central console, glove compartment, washer, hood and trunk release cable and paint and sun visors [27].

## **4. Chemical constituents of some parts of an automobile**

The automobile industry uses a tremendous number of materials to build cars, including iron, aluminum, plastics, steel, glass, rubber, petroleum products, copper, steel, etc. In all there are more than 6000 (>600) components of an automobile. These parts are used to create everything from the small parts such as dashboard needles and wiring to the big parts such as the engine block or the transmission gears. Due to the high demand of automobiles and technological advancement, suitable materials have been used for the production of automobile components that are durable and serve the purpose of the automobile. Some of the chemical components of the various automobile parts are tabulated below:

## **5. Environmental effect associated with automobile waste and automobile transportation**

#### **5.1 Menace of automobile workshops**

Due to poverty and the dire need to own vehicles for ease of movement, these aging vehicles still attract customers from Nigeria's middle class and those at the lower rung of the economy [8]. Large numbers are taken to automobile workshop for repair and refurbishing. Automobile workshops are important considering public health issues because they are carried out in poor environmental settings coupled with lack of safety and hygienic lifestyle (eating with unwashed hand, wearing of dirty and contaminated workshop clothes for a long time, etc.) of workshop artisans, yet it is a beehive of activities because it has become the source of employment to several informal sector workers such as auto repair, servicing and refurbishing, auto parts scavenging, car wash, tire pumping and repair, autoelectrician, wheel balancing and alignment, oil sales and servicing, spare parts sales, water and food vendor, etc. [6–8]. Apart from esthetic pollution, automobile workshop contributes significantly to environmental and public health discourse. Several literatures have documented that pollutants such as heavy metals [41], benzene, nitrobenzene, gasoline fumes, exhaust gases, particulate matter, etc. are released by activities at auto workshops and automobile and have negatively affected surface and underground water and adjacent farmlands [42–44]. In major Nigerian cities, automobile workshops are in clusters along major roads comprising unregulated activities such as automechanics and panel beaters (car body work). Large expanse of would have been arable lands are occupied and polluted. Drainage system is blocked by waste generated from automobile workshops, heavy metals, waste oils, and noxious gases that are released into the environment, adjacent farmlands and food crops, which may possibly be contaminated by heavy metals and toxic substances. Exposed subjects at automobile workshops (auto technicians) are established to have high risk of cardiovascular and pulmonary diseases [45].

#### **5.2 Automobile wastes**

Importation into Nigeria of second hand ("Belgium") cars is second to none in Africa; therefore the Nigeria landscape is replete with many rickety and not road worthy, aging, and aged vehicles. Lack of spare parts and adequate technology makes repair and refurbishing of automobiles an uphill tax coupled with unfavorable weather condition such as high temperature (Nigeria been in the tropics), acidic rainfall and high relative humidity, acidic mist and aerosols [6, 7, 46, 47],

**167**

**Table 1.**

*Review of Environmental and Public Health Impact of Automobile Wastes and Automobile…*

1 Car body Iron-carbon Al, Mg, silicon alloy, Al, Mg alloy [28] 2 Chassis Al, Mg, alloy [29]

4 Door panel Carbon, Fe, steel, or Al [30]

Polymethylmethacrylate

6 Rims Alloy wheel rims consisting of Al/Mg [29] 7 Radiator cores and tanks Alloy of Cu, Zn, and steel [30]

 Wheels Al, Mg, Si, Cu [30] Glass SiO2 [30] Sun visor Made from substrates of polypropylene [31] Racks Al alloys [32] Rivets Al alloys, steel, Cu, Fe, Ni [33]

15 Pumps and valves Cu, Co, Be, Al [30]

17 Engine block C, Si, Mn, Fe, Ni, Zn, Cu, Mg [29]

19 Engine cylinder Cast iron and Al alloy [2]

 Radiator Aluminum sheets [35] Multi-suspension system Forged from aluminum system [32] Cotter or spilt pin Cr, Fe, Cu, Zn, Al, Mg [36] Axles Cr/Mo [30]

26 Steering arms C, Fe, and Cr [38, 39]

28 Clutch assembly Cu, Sn, and P [30] 29 Gear assembly system Cu, Zn, and steel [25, 30, 40] 30 Crankshafts Mn, Cr, Mo, Ni, Si, Co, V, Al [30] *Cd = cadmium, Fe = iron, C = carbon, Al = aluminum, Si = silicon, Mg = magnesium, Cu = copper, Zn = zinc, Co = cobalt, Be = beryllium, Ni = nickel, Cr = chromium, Mg = manganese, Sn = tin, Mo = molybdenum, V = vanadium, K2O = potassium oxide, MgO = magnesium oxide, SiO2 = silicon (IV) oxide. Alloy = a combination* 

*of two or more metals, steel = an alloy of iron and carbon, and HDPE = high-density polyethylene.*

phenylene terephthalamide), K2O, MgO, Al2O3

and silica, contains natural and synthetic rubber

Ni, Cd, Pb, HDPE [22]

Cr, Ni, Si, Fe, Mn [2]

Fe, Cu, Sn, and Zn [2]

Plastics [34]

Stainless steel and Al [32, 34, 37]

Fe, Mn, Si, P, V, Ni, Cr, Sn, Zn, Al, and C [30]

(styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR))

3 Bumper/trunk Fiber glass composite or acrylonitrile butadiene styrene, steel Al

5 Window shields Consist of glass made from Kevlar (poly-parc

8 Tires and tubes Elastomers, oils, resins, carbon black, steel cord

**Chemical component References**

[29]

[30]

[30]

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88491*

**S/N Major parts of automobile**

14 Batter, battery case,

16 Automotive exhaust system components

18 Engine bearings, bushings, valves

20 Hubcap: also known as wheel cover

25 Tie rod, pinion, and steering column

27 Suspension coils and springs

*Some chemical component of automobile parts.*

plates, and connectors


*Review of Environmental and Public Health Impact of Automobile Wastes and Automobile… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88491*

*Cd = cadmium, Fe = iron, C = carbon, Al = aluminum, Si = silicon, Mg = magnesium, Cu = copper, Zn = zinc, Co = cobalt, Be = beryllium, Ni = nickel, Cr = chromium, Mg = manganese, Sn = tin, Mo = molybdenum, V = vanadium, K2O = potassium oxide, MgO = magnesium oxide, SiO2 = silicon (IV) oxide. Alloy = a combination of two or more metals, steel = an alloy of iron and carbon, and HDPE = high-density polyethylene.*

#### **Table 1.**

*Some chemical component of automobile parts.*

*Environmental Factors Affecting Human Health*

**4. Chemical constituents of some parts of an automobile**

**5. Environmental effect associated with automobile waste and** 

of the various automobile parts are tabulated below:

**automobile transportation**

**5.1 Menace of automobile workshops**

The automobile industry uses a tremendous number of materials to build cars, including iron, aluminum, plastics, steel, glass, rubber, petroleum products, copper, steel, etc. In all there are more than 6000 (>600) components of an automobile. These parts are used to create everything from the small parts such as dashboard needles and wiring to the big parts such as the engine block or the transmission gears. Due to the high demand of automobiles and technological advancement, suitable materials have been used for the production of automobile components that are durable and serve the purpose of the automobile. Some of the chemical components

Due to poverty and the dire need to own vehicles for ease of movement, these aging vehicles still attract customers from Nigeria's middle class and those at the lower rung of the economy [8]. Large numbers are taken to automobile workshop for repair and refurbishing. Automobile workshops are important considering public health issues because they are carried out in poor environmental settings coupled with lack of safety and hygienic lifestyle (eating with unwashed hand, wearing of dirty and contaminated workshop clothes for a long time, etc.) of workshop artisans, yet it is a beehive of activities because it has become the source of employment to several informal sector workers such as auto repair, servicing and refurbishing, auto parts scavenging, car wash, tire pumping and repair, autoelectrician, wheel balancing and alignment, oil sales and servicing, spare parts sales, water and food vendor, etc. [6–8]. Apart from esthetic pollution, automobile workshop contributes significantly to environmental and public health discourse. Several literatures have documented that pollutants such as heavy metals [41], benzene, nitrobenzene, gasoline fumes, exhaust gases, particulate matter, etc. are released by activities at auto workshops and automobile and have negatively affected surface and underground water and adjacent farmlands [42–44]. In major Nigerian cities, automobile workshops are in clusters along major roads comprising unregulated activities such as automechanics and panel beaters (car body work). Large expanse of would have been arable lands are occupied and polluted. Drainage system is blocked by waste generated from automobile workshops, heavy metals, waste oils, and noxious gases that are released into the environment, adjacent farmlands and food crops, which may possibly be contaminated by heavy metals and toxic substances. Exposed subjects at automobile workshops (auto technicians) are established to have high risk of cardiovascular and pulmonary

Importation into Nigeria of second hand ("Belgium") cars is second to none in Africa; therefore the Nigeria landscape is replete with many rickety and not road worthy, aging, and aged vehicles. Lack of spare parts and adequate technology makes repair and refurbishing of automobiles an uphill tax coupled with unfavorable weather condition such as high temperature (Nigeria been in the tropics), acidic rainfall and high relative humidity, acidic mist and aerosols [6, 7, 46, 47],

**166**

diseases [45].

**5.2 Automobile wastes**

#### *Environmental Factors Affecting Human Health*

unequaled and unprecedented high level road accident occasioned by poor road infrastructure and network, the net effect is that many vehicles are out of use and ultimately become waste. Recently wastes are regarded as "materials out of place" as against previous concept of "objects of non-usefulness." Automobile wastes are sometimes regarded as bulky waste, which include waste generated from servicing vehicles, automobiles, motorized trucks, and related equipment; they are made up of waste battery, scrap metal, used motor oils and lubricants, hydraulic fluids, bottom sludge, old motor parts, greases, waste engine oil, paints, petrol and diesel, which are generated and disposed indiscriminately. Abandoned vehicles dot Nigerian environment (workshops, roads, institutions, homes etc.) where they are left to the vagaries of weather to decompose and release some toxic substances, documented in **Table 1**, into the environment (**Figures 1** and **2**).

#### **Figure 1.**

*Decomposing automobile wastes along Awka portion of Enugu-Onitsha Federal Highway.*

**169**

the soil, which are K<sup>+</sup>

weaved to human health.

**transportation**

*Review of Environmental and Public Health Impact of Automobile Wastes and Automobile…*

Greenhouse gases are gases that are capable of absorbing infrared radiation emitted from the earth's surface and reradiate them back to the earth surface. The major component chemicals of greenhouse gases (GHGs) include hydrocarbons (HC), oxides of nitrogen (NOx—NO, NO2, N2O3, NO3), oxides of carbon (COx—CO, CO2), particulate matter, sulfur dioxide (SO2), photochemical oxidants and water vapor (H2O), ozone, and chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs) [48]. All these gases are in higher concentration released into the atmosphere by automobile emission and decomposing automobile waste irrespective of transportation mode [49]. Negative health effects associated with high concentrations of greenhouse gases already documented include asthma, respiratory distress, cancer, birth defects, low birth weight in children, genetic mutations and premature death [50, 51]. The resultant effect of higher concentration of greenhouse gases in the tropospheric region of the atmosphere is the increase in the air temperature. Anthropogenic activities destroying the ozone layer contributing to global warming stem from manmade compounds and chemicals with high global warming potentials (ozone layer destroyer) [52, 53]. Synergistic effect of global warming is much evidenced on melting of global ice stacks (glaciers), rise in sea level, and flooding of coastal regions. Three gaseous compounds (CO2, SO2, and NO2) emitted by automobiles are of the compounds known as acid anhydride of which SO2 and NO2 are outstanding for they significantly contribute to acid rain. Exposure to ambient concentrations of CO can have resultant formation of carboxyhemoglobin together with inhaled particles, which increase blood viscosity, thereby hampering oxygen delivery to the tissues [54]. A direct effect of gaseous emission by automobiles is acidic precipitation which affects terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems with attendant public health implication as has been widely reported in Nigeria [46, 47, 55]. Depending on the soil in nature, acid rain affects the soil. Acidic precipitation dissolves organic matrix and mineral matter largely present in

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88491*

**6. Greenhouse effect, global warming and acid rain**

, Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+

, and anions (HCO3

these replaces the hydrogen of the acid rain and make the soil acidic. The pH of surface water may not change much due to acid rain because of the counterbalancing effect of water chemistry. Apart from acidic precipitation caused by SO2 and NO2 emitted from automobiles, minor concentration of SO2 in air causes respiratory tract problem, irritation, secretion of mucus, and death at increased level of 500 ppm. NO2 causes lung tissue inflammation at (50– 100 ppm) exposure levels, bronchitis fibrosa obliterans (150–200 ppm) exposure, death (550 ppm) exposure [56]. Skin cancers and lesion, stomach ulcers, ocular congestion or corneal problems, and epithelial cell or leukocyte damage are possible health challenges associated with exposure to acid rain [55, 57]. The above chronicled facts show that emission from automobile transportation can synergize change in climate (alteration between balance in incoming and outgoing radiation elements over a period of time in the atmosphere leading to differed quality of air over time) [58] and that climate change is intricately

**7. Public health issues associated with automobile waste and automobile** 

For the fact that automobiles are the most important vital means of transportation owing to their ubiquitous nature, portability, flexibility, comfort,

<sup>−</sup>, SO4

<sup>2</sup><sup>−</sup>, Cl<sup>−</sup>, CO3

<sup>−</sup>);

*Review of Environmental and Public Health Impact of Automobile Wastes and Automobile… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88491*

## **6. Greenhouse effect, global warming and acid rain**

*Environmental Factors Affecting Human Health*

unequaled and unprecedented high level road accident occasioned by poor road infrastructure and network, the net effect is that many vehicles are out of use and ultimately become waste. Recently wastes are regarded as "materials out of place" as against previous concept of "objects of non-usefulness." Automobile wastes are sometimes regarded as bulky waste, which include waste generated from servicing vehicles, automobiles, motorized trucks, and related equipment; they are made up of waste battery, scrap metal, used motor oils and lubricants, hydraulic fluids, bottom sludge, old motor parts, greases, waste engine oil, paints, petrol and diesel, which are generated and disposed indiscriminately. Abandoned vehicles dot Nigerian environment (workshops, roads, institutions, homes etc.) where they are left to the vagaries of weather to decompose and release some toxic substances,

documented in **Table 1**, into the environment (**Figures 1** and **2**).

*Decomposing automobile wastes along Awka portion of Enugu-Onitsha Federal Highway.*

*Decomposing automobile wastes at Nnamdi Azikiwe university, Awka works department.*

**168**

**Figure 2.**

**Figure 1.**

Greenhouse gases are gases that are capable of absorbing infrared radiation emitted from the earth's surface and reradiate them back to the earth surface.

The major component chemicals of greenhouse gases (GHGs) include hydrocarbons (HC), oxides of nitrogen (NOx—NO, NO2, N2O3, NO3), oxides of carbon (COx—CO, CO2), particulate matter, sulfur dioxide (SO2), photochemical oxidants and water vapor (H2O), ozone, and chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs) [48]. All these gases are in higher concentration released into the atmosphere by automobile emission and decomposing automobile waste irrespective of transportation mode [49]. Negative health effects associated with high concentrations of greenhouse gases already documented include asthma, respiratory distress, cancer, birth defects, low birth weight in children, genetic mutations and premature death [50, 51]. The resultant effect of higher concentration of greenhouse gases in the tropospheric region of the atmosphere is the increase in the air temperature. Anthropogenic activities destroying the ozone layer contributing to global warming stem from manmade compounds and chemicals with high global warming potentials (ozone layer destroyer) [52, 53]. Synergistic effect of global warming is much evidenced on melting of global ice stacks (glaciers), rise in sea level, and flooding of coastal regions. Three gaseous compounds (CO2, SO2, and NO2) emitted by automobiles are of the compounds known as acid anhydride of which SO2 and NO2 are outstanding for they significantly contribute to acid rain. Exposure to ambient concentrations of CO can have resultant formation of carboxyhemoglobin together with inhaled particles, which increase blood viscosity, thereby hampering oxygen delivery to the tissues [54]. A direct effect of gaseous emission by automobiles is acidic precipitation which affects terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems with attendant public health implication as has been widely reported in Nigeria [46, 47, 55]. Depending on the soil in nature, acid rain affects the soil. Acidic precipitation dissolves organic matrix and mineral matter largely present in the soil, which are K<sup>+</sup> , Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+ , and anions (HCO3 <sup>−</sup>, SO4 <sup>2</sup><sup>−</sup>, Cl<sup>−</sup>, CO3 <sup>−</sup>); these replaces the hydrogen of the acid rain and make the soil acidic. The pH of surface water may not change much due to acid rain because of the counterbalancing effect of water chemistry. Apart from acidic precipitation caused by SO2 and NO2 emitted from automobiles, minor concentration of SO2 in air causes respiratory tract problem, irritation, secretion of mucus, and death at increased level of 500 ppm. NO2 causes lung tissue inflammation at (50– 100 ppm) exposure levels, bronchitis fibrosa obliterans (150–200 ppm) exposure, death (550 ppm) exposure [56]. Skin cancers and lesion, stomach ulcers, ocular congestion or corneal problems, and epithelial cell or leukocyte damage are possible health challenges associated with exposure to acid rain [55, 57]. The above chronicled facts show that emission from automobile transportation can synergize change in climate (alteration between balance in incoming and outgoing radiation elements over a period of time in the atmosphere leading to differed quality of air over time) [58] and that climate change is intricately weaved to human health.

### **7. Public health issues associated with automobile waste and automobile transportation**

For the fact that automobiles are the most important vital means of transportation owing to their ubiquitous nature, portability, flexibility, comfort,

and affordable cost (when compared with trains, ships, and airplanes), more and more people all over the world are purchasing vehicles for their personal, office, and company use. Some families have as much as two, three, four, etc. depending on their purchasing power. In Nigeria, the Federal Road Safety Corps (FRSC) stated that there are more than seven [8] million vehicles on Nigeria road [59]. The automobiles are helpful to human population, and they can transport people and goods to places of need such as offices, markets, schools, sporting events, hospitals, leisure centers, etc. This is made possible by adequate road network interconnecting the cities and the rural communities. The inevitable effect is the numerous public health issues associated with automobile transportation. The use of premium motor spirit, diesel, paints, and other gaseous materials [45] has led to the increased pollution and negative health effect. Incomplete combustion of fuel due to lack of air, poor mixing of air with combustion gases, and low combustion temperature lead to particulate matter emission; the whole property is a function of operating condition of the engine, lubricant oil, fuel composition, and the gas filtering equipment [60]. Substances that can be emitted from automobile exhaust include CO, H2, CO2, H2O, hydrocarbons (CHn), volatile organic compound (VOCs), oxides of sulfur (SOx), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), soot [61], and metals such as vanadium, lead, nickel, cadmium, potassium, sodium, phosphorus, lead, zinc, copper, manganese, iron, barium, etc. [60, 62]. Other possible constituents of automobile exhaust emission include benzenes, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, etc. The list above is considered as the exhaust emission, while the evaporative emissions are the vapors of fuel which are released into the atmosphere unburnt. The car exhaust emission has a great deal of negative effect on the human health and the environment. Car exhaust pollutants cause coughing, breathing difficulties, eye irritation, and distress to the respiratory system (throat, lungs, and chest). Specifically, heavy metals such as lead cause an occupational potent widespread human and environmental toxicant produced by burning leaded fuel and can interferes with normal functioning of red blood cells, thus hampering important enzymes in the body, damages and shortens the lifespan of red blood cell and cause anemia. Serious exposure burden can cause renal dysfunction, fatigue, arthritis, birth defects, hallucination, psychosis, autism, etc. [63]. Severe exposures to cadmium cause tracheobronchitis, pneumonitis, pulmonary edema, contacting cadmium by inhaling of cadmium-laden smoke fast rack respiratory, kidney, liver and bone damage. The bone becomes tender (osteomalacia), depletion of mineral density (osteoporosis) which accentuate backbone and joint pain, thereby increasing the risk of fractures [64]. Irritation of the nose and throat, headaches, dizziness, body weakness, cough, chest pain, and chills are inflammatory symptoms. Cadmium and its compounds are also carcinogenic. Nickel, when in the body, can alter its chemical nature but cannot be destroyed, and its binding to form ligands and transportation throughout the body depicts nickel metabolism. Interference of nickel with zinc, manganese, magnesium, and calcium physiologically is regarded as its toxicity [65, 66]. Myocardial infarction, acute stroke, and burn injury are disease conditions linked with altered serum concentration and transport of nickel [67] inhaling automobile smoke laden with nickel can lead to high accumulation in the lungs, nasal septum, liver, and kidney [68]. Erythrocytes and leukocytes inhibited production, blood vessel damage, vomiting, irregular and abnormal heartbeat, which are caused by short-term exposure to reduced concentration of arsenic. Malfunctioning of cells, respiration, enzyme cell, and mitosis are caused by arsenic because it is a protoplasmic poison; the main effect is on the sulfhydryl group of cell [69]. Documented toxicological and health

**171**

**8. Conclusion**

*Review of Environmental and Public Health Impact of Automobile Wastes and Automobile…*

effect of manganese include decrease in semen quality [70] and Parkinsonism [71, 72]. For the fact that manganese is recognized to have different neuronal deficits such as learning disabilities, emotional liability, hallucination, compulsive behaviors, attention disorders, low fetal birth weight, and infant mortality [72–74], it is regarded as a potent toxin. The mucous membrane is the major target of inhaled hexavalent chromium or chromium-containing compounds, and then it synergizes asthmatic reaction, bronchial cancer, ulceration, and perforation of the nasal septum [75]. Although the human body for its physiological process requires copper in trace amount, increased exposure to copper through inhalation of automobile smokes/fumes will lead to copper toxicity such as early childhood liver cirrhosis (ECLC) and gastrointestinal symptoms [76]. The ubiquitous nature of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons emanates from natural processes such as forest fires, oxidation of biogenic precursors, unburnt petroleum products and other anthropogenic factors, which are released into the environment [77]. PAHs are hazardous chemicals that negatively impair human health [78, 79]. Accordingly, automobile transportation is a veritable source of PAHs in the environment being an anthropogenic pollutant, and the urban atmosphere is laden with PAHs originating from incomplete combustion of fuel in the transportation engine [80]. PAHs being highly lipophilic and insoluble in water persist in the environment (air, water, and land), and many of its compound are known carcinogenic, mutagenic, and teratogenic to organism [81]. Particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10) are tiny suspended microscopic particles like dust, soot, ash, solid/liquid objects, gases, and aerosols that can originate from daily life activity. They can travel long distance in air been less dense than air. Those that originate from automobile/diesel engine exhaust may consist of complex mixture of organic molecules (conjugated and straight chain), incompletely burnt carbon, oxides of metals, acid anhydrides, and phosphate, nitrate, and sulfate group. The respiratory system is the major attack site of inhaled particulate matter. Penetration of inhaled airborne particles through the airways increases with the increasing reduction in particle size for those >0.5 μm [82]. The health effect from inhaled particulate matter may be affected by the site of deposition within the respiratory system. Deposited particles within the respiratory system are influenced by biological, physical, and chemical process which includes dissolution into body fluids with absorption by blood, migration into cells by phagocytosis, and movement with mucus and blood fluid [83]. Cancer, asthmatic allergies, inflammation, cardiovascular and respiratory disease, and mutagenic and teratogenic effects are health issues associated with particulate matter inhalation [84]. Bronchovascular disease has been reported among subjects exposed to welding aerosol [85]. Cancers of larynx, nasal cavities, and paranasal sinuses were established in subjects exposed to and inhaled chromate paints [86, 87]. Pollution keratoconjunctivitis (PKC) was reported among children in hydrocarbon processing in Niger Delta area of Nigeria [88]. Among automobiles, it is established that twowheeled vehicles (motorcycles) emit more particulate matter into the ambient air than four-wheeled vehicles (cars) and therefore more polluting effect. This fact can be exacerbated in cities with high traffic gridlock (traffic congestion) as vehicular emission poses great threat to environmental and public health. The united nation (UN) 1998 report states that over 600 million people are exposed to hazardous effect

of traffic-associated pollutants after 21 years; this figure must have increased.

High voluminous importation of aging and rickety automobiles with engines of questionable combustion efficiency, weak and deplorable road

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88491*

*Review of Environmental and Public Health Impact of Automobile Wastes and Automobile… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88491*

effect of manganese include decrease in semen quality [70] and Parkinsonism [71, 72]. For the fact that manganese is recognized to have different neuronal deficits such as learning disabilities, emotional liability, hallucination, compulsive behaviors, attention disorders, low fetal birth weight, and infant mortality [72–74], it is regarded as a potent toxin. The mucous membrane is the major target of inhaled hexavalent chromium or chromium-containing compounds, and then it synergizes asthmatic reaction, bronchial cancer, ulceration, and perforation of the nasal septum [75]. Although the human body for its physiological process requires copper in trace amount, increased exposure to copper through inhalation of automobile smokes/fumes will lead to copper toxicity such as early childhood liver cirrhosis (ECLC) and gastrointestinal symptoms [76]. The ubiquitous nature of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons emanates from natural processes such as forest fires, oxidation of biogenic precursors, unburnt petroleum products and other anthropogenic factors, which are released into the environment [77]. PAHs are hazardous chemicals that negatively impair human health [78, 79]. Accordingly, automobile transportation is a veritable source of PAHs in the environment being an anthropogenic pollutant, and the urban atmosphere is laden with PAHs originating from incomplete combustion of fuel in the transportation engine [80]. PAHs being highly lipophilic and insoluble in water persist in the environment (air, water, and land), and many of its compound are known carcinogenic, mutagenic, and teratogenic to organism [81].

Particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10) are tiny suspended microscopic particles like dust, soot, ash, solid/liquid objects, gases, and aerosols that can originate from daily life activity. They can travel long distance in air been less dense than air. Those that originate from automobile/diesel engine exhaust may consist of complex mixture of organic molecules (conjugated and straight chain), incompletely burnt carbon, oxides of metals, acid anhydrides, and phosphate, nitrate, and sulfate group. The respiratory system is the major attack site of inhaled particulate matter. Penetration of inhaled airborne particles through the airways increases with the increasing reduction in particle size for those >0.5 μm [82]. The health effect from inhaled particulate matter may be affected by the site of deposition within the respiratory system. Deposited particles within the respiratory system are influenced by biological, physical, and chemical process which includes dissolution into body fluids with absorption by blood, migration into cells by phagocytosis, and movement with mucus and blood fluid [83]. Cancer, asthmatic allergies, inflammation, cardiovascular and respiratory disease, and mutagenic and teratogenic effects are health issues associated with particulate matter inhalation [84]. Bronchovascular disease has been reported among subjects exposed to welding aerosol [85]. Cancers of larynx, nasal cavities, and paranasal sinuses were established in subjects exposed to and inhaled chromate paints [86, 87]. Pollution keratoconjunctivitis (PKC) was reported among children in hydrocarbon processing in Niger Delta area of Nigeria [88]. Among automobiles, it is established that twowheeled vehicles (motorcycles) emit more particulate matter into the ambient air than four-wheeled vehicles (cars) and therefore more polluting effect. This fact can be exacerbated in cities with high traffic gridlock (traffic congestion) as vehicular emission poses great threat to environmental and public health. The united nation (UN) 1998 report states that over 600 million people are exposed to hazardous effect of traffic-associated pollutants after 21 years; this figure must have increased.

#### **8. Conclusion**

High voluminous importation of aging and rickety automobiles with engines of questionable combustion efficiency, weak and deplorable road

*Environmental Factors Affecting Human Health*

and affordable cost (when compared with trains, ships, and airplanes), more and more people all over the world are purchasing vehicles for their personal, office, and company use. Some families have as much as two, three, four, etc. depending on their purchasing power. In Nigeria, the Federal Road Safety Corps (FRSC) stated that there are more than seven [8] million vehicles on Nigeria road [59]. The automobiles are helpful to human population, and they can transport people and goods to places of need such as offices, markets, schools, sporting events, hospitals, leisure centers, etc. This is made possible by adequate road network interconnecting the cities and the rural communities. The inevitable effect is the numerous public health issues associated with automobile transportation. The use of premium motor spirit, diesel, paints, and other gaseous materials [45] has led to the increased pollution and negative health effect. Incomplete combustion of fuel due to lack of air, poor mixing of air with combustion gases, and low combustion temperature lead to particulate matter emission; the whole property is a function of operating condition of the engine, lubricant oil, fuel composition, and the gas filtering equipment [60]. Substances that can be emitted from automobile exhaust include CO, H2, CO2, H2O, hydrocarbons (CHn), volatile organic compound (VOCs), oxides of sulfur (SOx), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), soot [61], and metals such as vanadium, lead, nickel, cadmium, potassium, sodium, phosphorus, lead, zinc, copper, manganese, iron, barium, etc. [60, 62]. Other possible constituents of automobile exhaust emission include benzenes, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, etc. The list above is considered as the exhaust emission, while the evaporative emissions are the vapors of fuel which are released into the atmosphere unburnt. The car exhaust emission has a great deal of negative effect on the human health and the environment. Car exhaust pollutants cause coughing, breathing difficulties, eye irritation, and distress to the respiratory system (throat, lungs, and chest). Specifically, heavy metals such as lead cause an occupational potent widespread human and environmental toxicant produced by burning leaded fuel and can interferes with normal functioning of red blood cells, thus hampering important enzymes in the body, damages and shortens the lifespan of red blood cell and cause anemia. Serious exposure burden can cause renal dysfunction, fatigue, arthritis, birth defects, hallucination, psychosis, autism, etc. [63]. Severe exposures to cadmium cause tracheobronchitis, pneumonitis, pulmonary edema, contacting cadmium by inhaling of cadmium-laden smoke fast rack respiratory, kidney, liver and bone damage. The bone becomes tender (osteomalacia), depletion of mineral density (osteoporosis) which accentuate backbone and joint pain, thereby increasing the risk of fractures [64]. Irritation of the nose and throat, headaches, dizziness, body weakness, cough, chest pain, and chills are inflammatory symptoms. Cadmium and its compounds are also carcinogenic. Nickel, when in the body, can alter its chemical nature but cannot be destroyed, and its binding to form ligands and transportation throughout the body depicts nickel metabolism. Interference of nickel with zinc, manganese, magnesium, and calcium physiologically is regarded as its toxicity [65, 66]. Myocardial infarction, acute stroke, and burn injury are disease conditions linked with altered serum concentration and transport of nickel [67] inhaling automobile smoke laden with nickel can lead to high accumulation in the lungs, nasal septum, liver, and kidney [68]. Erythrocytes and leukocytes inhibited production, blood vessel damage, vomiting, irregular and abnormal heartbeat, which are caused by short-term exposure to reduced concentration of arsenic. Malfunctioning of cells, respiration, enzyme cell, and mitosis are caused by arsenic because it is a protoplasmic poison; the main effect is on the sulfhydryl group of cell [69]. Documented toxicological and health

**170**

infrastructure, and high road accidents leading to automobile breakdown and favorable elements of weather (high temperature, acidic rain fall, dew, etc.), decomposition of automobiles, and release of toxic substances into the environment is inevitable, and this is coupled with toxic substances emitted by combustion of fuel/diesel during transportation. For the fact that Nigeria lacks adequate technology to deal with automobile waste, including recycling, there is a need to put in place, strengthen, and implement legislation regime so as to regulate the importation of automobiles into the country. Nigeria with a population of over 180 million people provides a large market for auto manufacturers. The government can negotiate with the manufacturers to establish a recycling plants, and this can remove large volume of auto-waste from the roads. The government can also assist the citizens to purchase new vehicles rather than fairly used ones through car loans. Adequate monitoring program by vehicle inspectorate officers to ensure road worthiness of vehicles. Tax incentives can be given to citizens who agree to limit car ownership to one. The government can also establish a comprehensive mass transportation network system that can convey large number of people on a daily basis. This can reduce the number of vehicles plying the road on a daily basis. Periodic air quality monitoring can be carried out to determine the levels of carbon (II) oxide, carbon (IV) oxide, oxides of nitrogen and sulfur, particulate matter, etc. in the air. Alternatively, non-fuel means of transportation such as beast of burden, bicycles, and trucks can be resuscitated and can lead to a significant reduction in number of vehicles on the road, meaning a decrease in pollution level and minimal health risk. The conclusion is that automobile waste and automobile transportation have some negative effect on the environment and public health.

## **Acknowledgements**

The authors would like to thank the Federal Government of Nigeria, through its agency, the tertiary education trust fund (TETFund), for funding this research, covering 2016–2017 (merged) institutional-based research project (RP) intervention.

**173**

**Author details**

John Kanayochukwu Nduka1

Perpetua Chioma Okafor3

University, Abuja, Nigeria

Oko, Nigeria

*Review of Environmental and Public Health Impact of Automobile Wastes and Automobile…*

\*, Henrietta Ijeoma Kelle2

1 Environmental Chemistry and Toxicology Research Unit, Pure and Industrial Chemistry Department, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Anambra, Nigeria

2 Department of Pure and Applied Science, Faculty of Sciences, National Open

\*Address all correspondence to: johnnduka2000@yahoo.co.uk

provided the original work is properly cited.

3 Department of Natural Sciences, School of General Studies, Federal Polytechnic,

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

, Emeka Chima Ogoko2

and

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88491*

*Review of Environmental and Public Health Impact of Automobile Wastes and Automobile… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88491*

## **Author details**

*Environmental Factors Affecting Human Health*

effect on the environment and public health.

**Acknowledgements**

intervention.

infrastructure, and high road accidents leading to automobile breakdown and favorable elements of weather (high temperature, acidic rain fall, dew, etc.), decomposition of automobiles, and release of toxic substances into the environment is inevitable, and this is coupled with toxic substances emitted by combustion of fuel/diesel during transportation. For the fact that Nigeria lacks adequate technology to deal with automobile waste, including recycling, there is a need to put in place, strengthen, and implement legislation regime so as to regulate the importation of automobiles into the country. Nigeria with a population of over 180 million people provides a large market for auto manufacturers. The government can negotiate with the manufacturers to establish a recycling plants, and this can remove large volume of auto-waste from the roads. The government can also assist the citizens to purchase new vehicles rather than fairly used ones through car loans. Adequate monitoring program by vehicle inspectorate officers to ensure road worthiness of vehicles. Tax incentives can be given to citizens who agree to limit car ownership to one. The government can also establish a comprehensive mass transportation network system that can convey large number of people on a daily basis. This can reduce the number of vehicles plying the road on a daily basis. Periodic air quality monitoring can be carried out to determine the levels of carbon (II) oxide, carbon (IV) oxide, oxides of nitrogen and sulfur, particulate matter, etc. in the air. Alternatively, non-fuel means of transportation such as beast of burden, bicycles, and trucks can be resuscitated and can lead to a significant reduction in number of vehicles on the road, meaning a decrease in pollution level and minimal health risk. The conclusion is that automobile waste and automobile transportation have some negative

The authors would like to thank the Federal Government of Nigeria, through

research, covering 2016–2017 (merged) institutional-based research project (RP)

its agency, the tertiary education trust fund (TETFund), for funding this

**172**

John Kanayochukwu Nduka1 \*, Henrietta Ijeoma Kelle2 , Emeka Chima Ogoko2 and Perpetua Chioma Okafor3

1 Environmental Chemistry and Toxicology Research Unit, Pure and Industrial Chemistry Department, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Anambra, Nigeria

2 Department of Pure and Applied Science, Faculty of Sciences, National Open University, Abuja, Nigeria

3 Department of Natural Sciences, School of General Studies, Federal Polytechnic, Oko, Nigeria

\*Address all correspondence to: johnnduka2000@yahoo.co.uk

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

## **References**

[1] Ifediora GSA. Plant Machinery and Valuation. Enugu: Ezu Books Ltd; 2009. pp. 65-69

[2] Rajput RK. Automobile Engineering. 1st ed. New Delhi: Laxmi Publications (P), Ltd; 2007. pp. 1-57, 401-560

[3] Eckermann E. World History of Automobile. Portland, USA: Society of Automotive Engineers Press; 2001. pp. 14-304

[4] Georgano GN, Thorkil RA, editors. The New Encyclopedia of Motors, 1885 to the Present. Dutton: New York; 1982. p. 688

[5] Abam FI, Unachukwu GO. Vehicular emission and air quality standards in Nigeria. European Journal of Scientific Research. 2009;**34**(4):550-560

[6] Nduka JK, Amuka JO, Onwuka JC, Ndowelle NA, Orisakwe OE. Human health risk assessment of lead, manganese and copper from scrapped car paint dust from a automobile workshops in Nigeria. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2016;**23**(20):20341-20349

[7] Nduka JK, Amuka JO, Sale JF. Health risk assessment of environmental lead exposures through scrapped car paint dusts from fairly used car painting workshops in Nigeria. International Journal of Medical and Biological Frontier. 2015;**21**(2):163-187

[8] Nduka JK, Kelle IJ, Amuka JO. Health risk assessment of cadmium, chromium and nickel from car paint dust from used automobiles at auto-panel workshop in Nigeria. Toxicology Reports. 2019;**6**:449-456. DOI: 10.1016/j. toxrep. 2019.05.007

[9] Singh K. Automobile Engineering. 7th ed. Vol. 1 and 2. New Delhi: Standard Publishers; 1997. pp. 1-76

[10] McLellan D. Corvette from the Inside. Cambridge, MA: Bentley Publishers; 2002. pp. 86-87

[11] Setright LJK. De Dion Axle: The First Step to Independence in Ward, World of Automobiles. Vol. 5. London: Orbis; 1974. pp. 500-515

[12] Crolla D. Encyclopedia of Automotive Engineering. West Sussex, United Kingdom: John Wiley & Sons; 2015. p. 2003

[13] Bhanuse CG, Kawde VH, Nare AS, Patil NP, Zaware PK. Design, analysis and fabrication of automatic transmission system. International Journal of Engineering Science and Computing. 2017;**7**(5):11777

[14] Kaleem SS, Madhu S. Design of manual clutch control system. Journal of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2016;**5**:240-241

[15] Williams R. Understanding Automotive Electronics. 6th ed. Oxford, United Kingdom: Butterworth-Heinemann, Elsevier Science; 2003. pp. 8-22

[16] Hiller VAW. 60: Independent front suspension. In: Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology. 4th ed. Calex, United Kingdom: Stanley Thornes; 1991. pp. 368-369

[17] Jazar RN. Vehicle Dynamics & Theory and Applications. Texas, USA: Springer; 2008. p. 455

[18] Schultz M. Steering: A century of progress. Popular Mechanics. 1985;**162**(5):59

[19] Cook ME. Revere the Gear, Good Landings Are More than the Ego-Boosters; they Are Kind to your Airplane's Landing Gear Flight Training.

**175**

*Review of Environmental and Public Health Impact of Automobile Wastes and Automobile…*

2005. p. 132

2017;**4**(5):460

1992. pp. 39-41

pp. 3-22

2005

[34] European Aluminium

Interiors. Minesota, USA: Motor books;

[32] Saini VK, Sunil KA, Shakya K, Mishra H. Design methodology of steering system for all terrain vehicles.

[33] Gayle VM, Look DW, Waite JG. Monel. In: Metals in America's Historic Buildings: Uses and Preservation Treatments. USA: DIANE Publishing;

Association. The Aluminium Motive Manual: Applications—Chassis and Suspension—Steering System2011.

[35] Nagar UT, Trivedi BM. Performance analysis and design of automobile radiator. International Journal of Advance Engineering and Research Development. 2017;**4**(11):921

[36] Soled J. Fasteners Handbooks. Chicago, USA: Reinhold Publication

[37] Cheta D, Adityamasur AW, Aditya S. Selection, modification and analysis of steering mechanism for an all-terrain vehicle. International Journal on Theoretical and Applied Research in Mechanical Engineering. 2013;**2**(4):72

[38] Sharma PC, Aggarwaa AC. Machine Design. New Delhi: SK Kataria & Sons;

[39] Singh N. Suspension system. International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Studies.

[40] Sclater N. Gears: Devices, drives and mechanisms. In: Mechanisms and Mechanical Devices Sourcebook. 5th ed. New York: McGraw Hill; 2011.

2013;**III**(I):115-122

pp. 131-174

Corporation; 1957. p. 312

International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88491*

Frederick, Maryland: Aircrafts Owners

[20] Bhandri VB. Design of Machine Elements. London: Tata McGraw-Hill;

[21] Henderson B, Haynes JK. Disc brakes. In: The Haynes Automotive Brake Manual. North America: Haynes;

[22] Hartmut A. Auto-Electric Basic Technology—Part 1. German: Namibian

[23] Horst B. Bosch Automotive Handbook. 4th ed. Stuttgart: Robert Bosch GmbH; 1996. pp. 543-544

[24] Allen J. Jeep. MBI Publishing; 2004.

[25] Smith Z. Plastic Gears Are more Reliable when Engineers Account for Material Properties and Manufacturing Processes during Design. Motion System

[26] Welsh R. From Tinkering to Torquing: A Beginner's Guide to Tractors and Tools. USA: Voyageur Publishers, MBI Publishing Company;

[27] Forrester S. Upholstery Basics. USA:

Tupaj M, Trytek A. Materials used in the automotive industry. Archives of Foundry Engineering. 2015;**15**(2):75-78

[29] Hirsch J. Automotive trends in aluminum-the European perspective. Materials Forum. 2004;**28**:17-21

[30] Kalpakjian S, Schmidt SR. Manufacturing Engineering and Technology. 5th ed. Chicago: Pearson Prentice Hall; 2006. pp. 156-210

[31] Park DW. How to Restore and Customize Auto Upholstery and

and Pilots Association; 2014

2010. p. 472

1994. pp. 1-20

p. 152

Design. 2000

2005. p. 141

Lulu; 1991. pp. 112-113

[28] Orłowics AW, Mróz M,

project. 1997. pp. 10-30

*Review of Environmental and Public Health Impact of Automobile Wastes and Automobile… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88491*

Frederick, Maryland: Aircrafts Owners and Pilots Association; 2014

[20] Bhandri VB. Design of Machine Elements. London: Tata McGraw-Hill; 2010. p. 472

[21] Henderson B, Haynes JK. Disc brakes. In: The Haynes Automotive Brake Manual. North America: Haynes; 1994. pp. 1-20

[22] Hartmut A. Auto-Electric Basic Technology—Part 1. German: Namibian project. 1997. pp. 10-30

[23] Horst B. Bosch Automotive Handbook. 4th ed. Stuttgart: Robert Bosch GmbH; 1996. pp. 543-544

[24] Allen J. Jeep. MBI Publishing; 2004. p. 152

[25] Smith Z. Plastic Gears Are more Reliable when Engineers Account for Material Properties and Manufacturing Processes during Design. Motion System Design. 2000

[26] Welsh R. From Tinkering to Torquing: A Beginner's Guide to Tractors and Tools. USA: Voyageur Publishers, MBI Publishing Company; 2005. p. 141

[27] Forrester S. Upholstery Basics. USA: Lulu; 1991. pp. 112-113

[28] Orłowics AW, Mróz M, Tupaj M, Trytek A. Materials used in the automotive industry. Archives of Foundry Engineering. 2015;**15**(2):75-78

[29] Hirsch J. Automotive trends in aluminum-the European perspective. Materials Forum. 2004;**28**:17-21

[30] Kalpakjian S, Schmidt SR. Manufacturing Engineering and Technology. 5th ed. Chicago: Pearson Prentice Hall; 2006. pp. 156-210

[31] Park DW. How to Restore and Customize Auto Upholstery and

Interiors. Minesota, USA: Motor books; 2005. p. 132

[32] Saini VK, Sunil KA, Shakya K, Mishra H. Design methodology of steering system for all terrain vehicles. International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology. 2017;**4**(5):460

[33] Gayle VM, Look DW, Waite JG. Monel. In: Metals in America's Historic Buildings: Uses and Preservation Treatments. USA: DIANE Publishing; 1992. pp. 39-41

[34] European Aluminium Association. The Aluminium Motive Manual: Applications—Chassis and Suspension—Steering System2011. pp. 3-22

[35] Nagar UT, Trivedi BM. Performance analysis and design of automobile radiator. International Journal of Advance Engineering and Research Development. 2017;**4**(11):921

[36] Soled J. Fasteners Handbooks. Chicago, USA: Reinhold Publication Corporation; 1957. p. 312

[37] Cheta D, Adityamasur AW, Aditya S. Selection, modification and analysis of steering mechanism for an all-terrain vehicle. International Journal on Theoretical and Applied Research in Mechanical Engineering. 2013;**2**(4):72

[38] Sharma PC, Aggarwaa AC. Machine Design. New Delhi: SK Kataria & Sons; 2005

[39] Singh N. Suspension system. International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Studies. 2013;**III**(I):115-122

[40] Sclater N. Gears: Devices, drives and mechanisms. In: Mechanisms and Mechanical Devices Sourcebook. 5th ed. New York: McGraw Hill; 2011. pp. 131-174

**174**

*Environmental Factors Affecting Human Health*

[1] Ifediora GSA. Plant Machinery and Valuation. Enugu: Ezu Books Ltd; 2009. [10] McLellan D. Corvette from the Inside. Cambridge, MA: Bentley Publishers; 2002. pp. 86-87

[11] Setright LJK. De Dion Axle: The First Step to Independence in Ward, World of Automobiles. Vol. 5. London:

Automotive Engineering. West Sussex, United Kingdom: John Wiley & Sons;

Nare AS, Patil NP, Zaware PK. Design, analysis and fabrication of automatic transmission system. International Journal of Engineering Science and Computing. 2017;**7**(5):11777

[14] Kaleem SS, Madhu S. Design of manual clutch control system. Journal of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences.

[15] Williams R. Understanding Automotive Electronics. 6th ed.

Oxford, United Kingdom: Butterworth-Heinemann, Elsevier Science; 2003.

[16] Hiller VAW. 60: Independent front suspension. In: Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology. 4th ed. Calex, United Kingdom: Stanley Thornes; 1991.

[17] Jazar RN. Vehicle Dynamics & Theory and Applications. Texas, USA:

[18] Schultz M. Steering: A century of progress. Popular Mechanics.

[19] Cook ME. Revere the Gear, Good Landings Are More than the Ego-Boosters; they Are Kind to your Airplane's Landing Gear Flight Training.

Orbis; 1974. pp. 500-515

2015. p. 2003

2016;**5**:240-241

pp. 8-22

pp. 368-369

Springer; 2008. p. 455

1985;**162**(5):59

[12] Crolla D. Encyclopedia of

[13] Bhanuse CG, Kawde VH,

[2] Rajput RK. Automobile Engineering. 1st ed. New Delhi: Laxmi Publications (P), Ltd; 2007. pp. 1-57, 401-560

[3] Eckermann E. World History of Automobile. Portland, USA: Society of Automotive Engineers Press; 2001.

[4] Georgano GN, Thorkil RA, editors. The New Encyclopedia of Motors, 1885 to the Present. Dutton: New York; 1982.

[5] Abam FI, Unachukwu GO. Vehicular emission and air quality standards in Nigeria. European Journal of Scientific

[6] Nduka JK, Amuka JO, Onwuka JC, Ndowelle NA, Orisakwe OE. Human health risk assessment of lead,

manganese and copper from scrapped car paint dust from a automobile workshops in Nigeria. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2016;**23**(20):20341-20349

[7] Nduka JK, Amuka JO, Sale JF.

Health risk assessment of environmental lead exposures through scrapped car paint dusts from fairly used car painting workshops in Nigeria. International Journal of Medical and Biological Frontier. 2015;**21**(2):163-187

[8] Nduka JK, Kelle IJ, Amuka JO. Health risk assessment of cadmium, chromium and nickel from car paint dust from used automobiles at auto-panel workshop in Nigeria. Toxicology

Reports. 2019;**6**:449-456. DOI: 10.1016/j.

[9] Singh K. Automobile Engineering. 7th ed. Vol. 1 and 2. New Delhi: Standard

toxrep. 2019.05.007

Publishers; 1997. pp. 1-76

Research. 2009;**34**(4):550-560

pp. 65-69

**References**

pp. 14-304

p. 688

[41] Idugboe SO, Twawari-Fufeyin P, Midonu AA. Soil pollution in two auto—Mechanic villages in Benin City, Nigeria. IOSR Journal of Environmental Science, Toxicology and Food Technology. 2014;**8**(1):9-14

[42] Ilemobayo OK, Kolade I. Profile of heavy from automobile workshops in Akure Nigeria. Journal of Environmental Science and Technology. 2008;**1**:19-26

[43] Iwegbue CM. Metal fraction in soil profiles at automobile mechanic waste dumps around port, Harcourt. Waste Management Resources. 2007;**25**(6):585-593

[44] Nwachukwu MA, Feng H, Achilike O. Integrated studies for automobile waste management and environmentally friendly mechanic villages in the Imo River basin, Nigeria. African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology. 2010;**4**(4):234-249

[45] Junadu MK. Occupational health problems of motor vehicle mechanics, welders and painters in Nigeria. Royal Society of Health Journal. 1982;**102**(3):130-132

[46] Nduka JKC, Orisakwe OE, Ezenweke LO, Ezenwa TE, Chendo MW, Ezeabasili NA. Acid rain phenomenon in Niger delta region of Nigeria economy, biodiversity and public health concern. The Scientific World Journal. 2008;**8**:811-818

[47] Nduka JK, Orisakwe OE. Precipitation chemistry and occurrence of acid rain over oil—Producing Niger delta region of Nigeria. The Scientific World Journal. 2010;**10**:528-534

[48] Soneye AS. Concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs) around tank farms and petroleum tankers depots, Lagos, Nigeria. Journal of Geography and Regional Planning. 2012;**5**(41):108-114

[49] Chernyshev VV, Zakharenko AM, Ugay SM, Hein TT, Hai LH, Olasik SM, et al. Morphologic and chemical composition of particulate matter in buses exhaust. Toxicology Reports. 2019;**5**:224-230

[50] Tanimowo MO. Air pollution and respiratory health in African: A review. East African Medical Journal. 2000;**77**(2):5-71

[51] Berstein JA, Alexis N, Bacchus H, Bernstein IL, Fritz P, Horner E. The health effects of non-industrial indoor air pollution. The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 2008;**121**(3):585-591

[52] Nwaichi EO, Uzazobona C. Estimation of the CO2 level due to gas flaring in the Niger delta. Research Journal of Environmental Sciences. 2011;**5**(6):565-572

[53] Chevron. Climate Change; Our Action Plan on Climate Change. 2010. Available from: www.Chevron.com/ climateChange/globaluses [Accessed: 12 June 2010]

[54] Maisonet M, Correa A, Misra D, Juakkola JJK. A review of the literature on the effects of ambients air pollution on fetal growth. Environmental Research. 2004;**95**:106-115

[55] Nduka JK, Okafor VN, Omoche IO. Impact of oil and gas activities on the acidity of rain and surface water of Niger delta Nigeria: An environmental and public health review. Journal of Environmental Protection. 2016;**7**:566-581

[56] Bhatia SC. Environmental Chemistry. New Delhi: BS Publishers and Distributors, PVT; 2010

[57] Jeffs DN. Acid rain and the Eye; Director Water Resources Branch, Ontario Ministry of Environment, Personal Communication. 1980

**177**

*Review of Environmental and Public Health Impact of Automobile Wastes and Automobile…*

[67] Agency for Toxic Substances and disease Registry (ATSDR). Toxicological Profile for Nickel. ATSDR/TP-88/19. Atlanta, GA, USA: ATSDR/US Public

Health Service; 1988

[68] Andersen I, Svenes KB. Determination of nickel in lung specimens of thirty—Nine antopsied nickel workers. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental

Health. 1989;**61**:289-295

2008;**128**:436-447

[69] Mazumder G. Chronic arsenic toxicity and human health. The Indian Journal of Medical Research.

[70] Meeker JD, Rossano MG, Protas B, Diamond MP, Puscheck E, Daly D, et al. Cadmium, lead and other metals in relation to semen quality: Human evidence for molyboenum as a male reproductive toxicant. Environmental Health Perspectives.

2008;**161**(11):1473-1479

[72] Sahni V, Leger Y,

2007;**115**:1776-1779

[71] Aschner M, Erikson KM, Tjalkens RB. Manganese and its role in Parkinson disease: From transport to neuropathology. Neuromolecular Medicine. 2009;**11**(4):252-266

Panaro L, Allen M, Giffin S, Fury D, et al. Case report: A metabolic disorder presenting as pediatric manganism. Environmental Health Perspectives.

[73] Henn BC, Schnaas L, Etlinger AS, Schwartz J, Lamadrid-Figueroa H, Hermandez-Avillamm M, et al. Associations of early childhood manganese and lead coexposure with neuro-development. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2011;**120**:126-131

[74] Sprangler AH, Sprangler JG. Groundwater manganese and infant mortality rate by country in North Carolina: An ecological analysis. Ecosystem Health. 2009;**6**(4):596-600

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88491*

[58] Bond RG. Air Pollution. New York:

Roads FRSC. Leadership Nigerian Muse. 2007. Available from: http://www.

[60] Golokhvast KS, Chernyshev VV, Ugay SM. Car exhausts and human ecology (literature review). Human

[61] Wardoyo AYP, Juswono UP, Noor JAE. Varied dose exposures to ultrafine particles in motorcycle smoke cause kidney cell damages in male mice. Toxicology Reports.

[62] Saarikoski S et al. Investigating the chemical species in submicrons particles emitted by city buses. Aerosol Science and Technology.

[63] Jan AT, Azam M, Siddiqui K, Ali A, Inho C, Haq QMR. Heavy metals and human health: Mechanistic insight into toxicity and counter defense system of antioxidants. International Journal of Molecular Sciences.

New York Press; 1972

nigeriamuse.com

Ecology. 2016;**1**:9-14

2018;**5**:383-389

2017;**51**(3):317-329

2015;**16**:29592-29630

1998;**24**:11-51

1989. pp. 341-384

[64] Jarup L. Health effects of cadmium exposure, a review of the literature and a risk estimate. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and Health.

[65] Das KK, Das SN, Dhundasi SA. Nickel, its adverse health effects and oxidative stress. The Indian Journal of Medical Research. 2008;**128**:412-425

[66] Coogan TP, Latta DM, Snow ET, Costa M. Toxicity and carcinogenicity of nickel compounds. In: Mcclellan RO, editor. Critical Reviews in Toxicology. Vol. 19. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press;

[59] Mbawike N. 7 Million Vehicles Operate on Nigeria *Review of Environmental and Public Health Impact of Automobile Wastes and Automobile… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88491*

[58] Bond RG. Air Pollution. New York: New York Press; 1972

*Environmental Factors Affecting Human Health*

[41] Idugboe SO, Twawari-Fufeyin P, Midonu AA. Soil pollution in two auto—Mechanic villages in Benin City, Nigeria. IOSR Journal of Environmental [49] Chernyshev VV, Zakharenko AM, Ugay SM, Hein TT, Hai LH, Olasik SM, et al. Morphologic and chemical composition of particulate matter in buses exhaust. Toxicology Reports.

[50] Tanimowo MO. Air pollution and respiratory health in African: A review. East African Medical Journal.

[51] Berstein JA, Alexis N, Bacchus H, Bernstein IL, Fritz P, Horner E. The health effects of non-industrial indoor air pollution. The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology.

2019;**5**:224-230

2000;**77**(2):5-71

2008;**121**(3):585-591

2011;**5**(6):565-572

12 June 2010]

2016;**7**:566-581

[52] Nwaichi EO, Uzazobona C. Estimation of the CO2 level due to gas flaring in the Niger delta. Research Journal of Environmental Sciences.

[53] Chevron. Climate Change; Our Action Plan on Climate Change. 2010. Available from: www.Chevron.com/ climateChange/globaluses [Accessed:

[54] Maisonet M, Correa A, Misra D, Juakkola JJK. A review of the literature on the effects of ambients air pollution on fetal growth. Environmental Research. 2004;**95**:106-115

[55] Nduka JK, Okafor VN, Omoche IO. Impact of oil and gas activities on the acidity of rain and surface water of Niger delta Nigeria: An environmental and public health review. Journal of Environmental Protection.

[56] Bhatia SC. Environmental Chemistry. New Delhi: BS Publishers

and Distributors, PVT; 2010

[57] Jeffs DN. Acid rain and the Eye; Director Water Resources Branch, Ontario Ministry of Environment, Personal Communication. 1980

[42] Ilemobayo OK, Kolade I. Profile of heavy from automobile workshops

[43] Iwegbue CM. Metal fraction in soil profiles at automobile mechanic waste dumps around port, Harcourt. Waste Management Resources.

[44] Nwachukwu MA, Feng H, Achilike O. Integrated studies for automobile waste management and environmentally friendly mechanic villages in the Imo River basin, Nigeria. African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology.

[45] Junadu MK. Occupational health problems of motor vehicle mechanics, welders and painters in Nigeria. Royal Society of Health Journal.

Environmental Science and Technology.

Science, Toxicology and Food Technology. 2014;**8**(1):9-14

in Akure Nigeria. Journal of

2008;**1**:19-26

2007;**25**(6):585-593

2010;**4**(4):234-249

1982;**102**(3):130-132

2008;**8**:811-818

2012;**5**(41):108-114

[46] Nduka JKC, Orisakwe OE,

[47] Nduka JK, Orisakwe OE.

Ezenweke LO, Ezenwa TE, Chendo MW, Ezeabasili NA. Acid rain phenomenon in Niger delta region of Nigeria

economy, biodiversity and public health concern. The Scientific World Journal.

Precipitation chemistry and occurrence of acid rain over oil—Producing Niger delta region of Nigeria. The Scientific World Journal. 2010;**10**:528-534

[48] Soneye AS. Concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs) around tank farms and petroleum tankers depots, Lagos, Nigeria. Journal of Geography and Regional Planning.

**176**

[59] Mbawike N. 7 Million Vehicles Operate on Nigeria Roads FRSC. Leadership Nigerian Muse. 2007. Available from: http://www. nigeriamuse.com

[60] Golokhvast KS, Chernyshev VV, Ugay SM. Car exhausts and human ecology (literature review). Human Ecology. 2016;**1**:9-14

[61] Wardoyo AYP, Juswono UP, Noor JAE. Varied dose exposures to ultrafine particles in motorcycle smoke cause kidney cell damages in male mice. Toxicology Reports. 2018;**5**:383-389

[62] Saarikoski S et al. Investigating the chemical species in submicrons particles emitted by city buses. Aerosol Science and Technology. 2017;**51**(3):317-329

[63] Jan AT, Azam M, Siddiqui K, Ali A, Inho C, Haq QMR. Heavy metals and human health: Mechanistic insight into toxicity and counter defense system of antioxidants. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2015;**16**:29592-29630

[64] Jarup L. Health effects of cadmium exposure, a review of the literature and a risk estimate. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and Health. 1998;**24**:11-51

[65] Das KK, Das SN, Dhundasi SA. Nickel, its adverse health effects and oxidative stress. The Indian Journal of Medical Research. 2008;**128**:412-425

[66] Coogan TP, Latta DM, Snow ET, Costa M. Toxicity and carcinogenicity of nickel compounds. In: Mcclellan RO, editor. Critical Reviews in Toxicology. Vol. 19. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 1989. pp. 341-384

[67] Agency for Toxic Substances and disease Registry (ATSDR). Toxicological Profile for Nickel. ATSDR/TP-88/19. Atlanta, GA, USA: ATSDR/US Public Health Service; 1988

[68] Andersen I, Svenes KB. Determination of nickel in lung specimens of thirty—Nine antopsied nickel workers. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health. 1989;**61**:289-295

[69] Mazumder G. Chronic arsenic toxicity and human health. The Indian Journal of Medical Research. 2008;**128**:436-447

[70] Meeker JD, Rossano MG, Protas B, Diamond MP, Puscheck E, Daly D, et al. Cadmium, lead and other metals in relation to semen quality: Human evidence for molyboenum as a male reproductive toxicant. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2008;**161**(11):1473-1479

[71] Aschner M, Erikson KM, Tjalkens RB. Manganese and its role in Parkinson disease: From transport to neuropathology. Neuromolecular Medicine. 2009;**11**(4):252-266

[72] Sahni V, Leger Y, Panaro L, Allen M, Giffin S, Fury D, et al. Case report: A metabolic disorder presenting as pediatric manganism. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2007;**115**:1776-1779

[73] Henn BC, Schnaas L, Etlinger AS, Schwartz J, Lamadrid-Figueroa H, Hermandez-Avillamm M, et al. Associations of early childhood manganese and lead coexposure with neuro-development. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2011;**120**:126-131

[74] Sprangler AH, Sprangler JG. Groundwater manganese and infant mortality rate by country in North Carolina: An ecological analysis. Ecosystem Health. 2009;**6**(4):596-600 [75] Langard S, Norseth T. Chromium. In: Frigberg L, Nordberg GF, Vouk VB, editors. Handbook on the Toxicology of Metals. 2nd ed. Amsterdan: Elsevier Science Publisher BV; 1986. pp. 185-210

[76] Pizzaro F, Olivares M, Gidi V, Araya M. The gastrointestinal tract and acute effects of copper in drinking water and beverages. Reviews on Environmental Health. 2001;**14**:231-238

[77] Mastral AM, Callen MS, Lopez JM, Merillo R, Garcia T, Navarro MV. Critical review on atmospheric pafts. Assessment of reported data in the Mediterranean basin. Fuel Processing Technology. 2003;**80**:183-193

[78] Orisakwe OE, Igweze ZN, Okolo KO, Udowelle NA. Human health hazards of polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Nigeria smokeless tobacco. Toxicology Reports. 2015;**2**:1019-1023

[79] Tongo I, Ogbeide O, Ezenionye I. Human health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in smoked fish species from markets in southern Nigeria. Toxicology Reports. 2017;**4**:55-61

[80] Chernyshev VV, Zakharenko AM, Ugay SM, Hein TT, Hai LH, Kholodov AS, et al. Morphologic and chemical composition of particulate matter in motorcycle engine exhaust. Toxicology Reports. 2018;**5**:224-230

[81] Haritash AK, Kaushik CP. Biodegradation aspects of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs): A review. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2002;**169**(1-3):1-15

[82] Gormer P, Fabries J-F. Industrial aerosol measurement according to the new sampling conventions. Occupational Hygiene. 1996;**3**:361-376

[83] Raabe OJ. Respiratory exposure to air pollutants. In: Switch DL,

Foster WM, editors. Air Pollutants and the Respiratory Tract. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker, Inc; 1999. ISBN 08247 95210

[84] Hung JL, Tsai SS, Chen PS, Yang HY, Liou SH, Wu TN, et al. Traffic air pollution and risk of death from breast cancer in Taiwan fine particulate matter (PM2.5) as a proxy marker. Aerosol and Air Quality Research. 2012;**12**(2):275-282

[85] Komarova TA. X-ray changes in the lung at contemporary forms of occupational Broncho vascular diseases from exposure to welding aerosol: Candidate of Medical Science [thesis]. Moscow; 2009. p. 106 (in Russian)

[86] Alexander BH, Checkoway H, Wechsler L, et al. Lung cancer in chromatic-exposed aerospace workers. Journal of Occupational Medicine. 1996;**22**:520-526

[87] Brinton L, Blut WJ, Kecker JA, et al. A case—Control study of cancers of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1984;**119**:896-906

[88] Asonye CC, Bello ER. The blight of pollution keratoconjunctivitis among children in oil—Producing industrial areas of Delta state Nigeria. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 2004;**59**:244-248

*Environmental Factors Affecting Human Health*

[75] Langard S, Norseth T. Chromium. In: Frigberg L, Nordberg GF, Vouk VB, editors. Handbook on the Toxicology of Metals. 2nd ed. Amsterdan: Elsevier Science Publisher BV; 1986. pp. 185-210 Foster WM, editors. Air Pollutants and the Respiratory Tract. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker, Inc; 1999. ISBN 08247

Yang HY, Liou SH, Wu TN, et al. Traffic air pollution and risk of death from breast cancer in Taiwan fine particulate matter (PM2.5) as a proxy marker. Aerosol and Air Quality Research.

[85] Komarova TA. X-ray changes in the lung at contemporary forms of occupational Broncho vascular diseases from exposure to welding aerosol: Candidate of Medical Science [thesis]. Moscow; 2009. p. 106 (in Russian)

[86] Alexander BH, Checkoway H, Wechsler L, et al. Lung cancer in chromatic-exposed aerospace workers. Journal of Occupational Medicine.

[87] Brinton L, Blut WJ, Kecker JA, et al. A case—Control study of cancers of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses. American Journal of Epidemiology.

[88] Asonye CC, Bello ER. The blight of pollution keratoconjunctivitis among children in oil—Producing industrial areas of Delta state Nigeria. Ecotoxicology and Environmental

[84] Hung JL, Tsai SS, Chen PS,

2012;**12**(2):275-282

1996;**22**:520-526

1984;**119**:896-906

Safety. 2004;**59**:244-248

95210

[76] Pizzaro F, Olivares M, Gidi V, Araya M. The gastrointestinal tract and acute effects of copper in drinking water and beverages. Reviews on Environmental Health. 2001;**14**:231-238

[77] Mastral AM, Callen MS, Lopez JM, Merillo R, Garcia T, Navarro MV. Critical review on atmospheric pafts. Assessment of reported data in the Mediterranean basin. Fuel Processing Technology.

[78] Orisakwe OE, Igweze ZN,

Okolo KO, Udowelle NA. Human health hazards of polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Nigeria smokeless tobacco. Toxicology Reports. 2015;**2**:1019-1023

[79] Tongo I, Ogbeide O, Ezenionye I. Human health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in smoked fish species from markets in southern Nigeria. Toxicology

[80] Chernyshev VV, Zakharenko AM,

Kholodov AS, et al. Morphologic and chemical composition of particulate matter in motorcycle engine exhaust. Toxicology Reports. 2018;**5**:224-230

[82] Gormer P, Fabries J-F. Industrial aerosol measurement according to the new sampling conventions. Occupational Hygiene. 1996;**3**:361-376

[83] Raabe OJ. Respiratory exposure to air pollutants. In: Switch DL,

2003;**80**:183-193

Reports. 2017;**4**:55-61

Ugay SM, Hein TT, Hai LH,

[81] Haritash AK, Kaushik CP. Biodegradation aspects of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs): A review. Journal of Hazardous Materials.

2002;**169**(1-3):1-15

**178**

## *Edited by Ivan Uher*

Raising the average human lifespan by a decade or more will change our world. The future is not about whether this will happen; it is about what we should do when it happens. Even the most pessimistic assertions about the future of our environment are underestimating the extent of the problem. There is simply no model in which more years of life does not equate to more people and in which that does not lead to more crowding, environmental degradation, more consumption, and more waste. Hence, as we prolong life, these environmental crises will be further exacerbated. With current diets and production practices, feeding 7,6 billion people is degrading terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, depleting water resources, and driving climate changes. The challenges of today are not just population, and it's not just consumption, it is waste also. Thanks to things such as cars, planes, big homes, deforestation and so forth, the annual carbon dioxide emissions of an average are three times as high as it should be. It is likely that this signals that the current level of dividends is unsustainable, hence, we use and return little of value to our natural world. In our book, we address the questions related to environmental health challenges that include contamination of air, water, and soil, and car transportation. In order to better understand natural, industrial, and social-environmental hazards, we have to think of them in a broader context (i.e., physical, chemical, biological, and cultural). We hope that the presented publication gives the reader a broader perspective on the issues related to environmental health challenges in contemporary society in the coming years.

Published in London, UK © 2020 IntechOpen © skrotov / iStock

Environmental Factors Affecting Human Health

Environmental Factors

Affecting Human Health

*Edited by Ivan Uher*