Characterization of the Youssoufia-Morocco-MineFluoride-Contaminated Water and Their Detrimental Effects on Human Health

*Moufti Ahmed*

## **Abstract**

In Youssoufia, the second phosphate mining center of our country (Morocco), the drinking water needs of the rural population are of underground origins. Indeed, most of Youssoufia's rural areas feed on traditional wells. The main purpose of this chapter is to evaluate the degree of contamination of mine water along the pumping canal by fluoride. Wells located near this channel were also analyzed to see the influence of the existence of black phosphate in this region on these wells. At the end of this analytical part, it is obvious to conclude that the dewatering waters of the black phosphate mines of Youssoufia, known as dewatering water along the canal, contain significant fluoride concentrations in the order of 3–4 mg/l on average and the waters of the wells located near this canal have fluoride concentrations higher than the standard recommended by the National Office of Drinking Water in Morocco and the World Health Organization which is 1.5 mg/l. Indeed, a number of residents residing in Youssoufia suffer from fluorosis.

**Keywords:** fluoride, characterization, Morocco, mine water, human health

## **1. Introduction**

In Morocco, the establishment of a water resources management policy both quantitatively and qualitatively is not a whim of organization but a necessity for survival. In fact, the reserves of drinking water are not infinite, and many regions suffer either from the lack or the intolerable waste of this vital density.

In Youssoufia, the second phosphate mining center of our country, the drinking water needs of the rural population are of underground origins. Indeed, most rural areas of Youssoufia feed from traditional wells, the closest to each Douar. The drinking water supply is made from four holes of the BAHIRA water table located 24 km southeast of Youssoufia.

On the other hand, there is black phosphate mine water that is not waste water, in the common sense of the term, because it has never actually been used. These are the waters of a multitude of superimposed layers drowning the different layers of phosphates in the southern zone of the Gantour deposits, which requires

predigestion to allow the exploitation of these deposits. Currently, this predigestion is carried out essentially in the recipes 7 and 9 where the average flow reaches in 6–8000 m3 /day, and at present, it exceeds 35,000 m3 /day [1].

The main purpose of this chapter is to evaluate the degree of contamination of mine water along the pumping canal by fluoride. Wells located near this channel were also analyzed to see the influence of the existence of black phosphate in this region on these wells.

## **2. Choice of the zone**

In Morocco, the phosphate areas have a geographical area extending from Khouribga, Oued Zem and Tadla to the northeast, Settat to the center, and Ben Guerir and Youssoufia to the west [2]. The choice of the Youssoufia zone is justified on the one hand by the fact that the latter contains significant concentrations of fluoride of the order of 3 mg/l on average in mine water [3–5], and on the other hand, that all the studies that have already been done on regions other than Youssoufia [6, 7].

## **3. Overview of the study area (Youssoufia)**

#### **3.1 Historical aspect**

The city of Youssoufia was born in 1930 following the discovery of a phosphate deposit in the Gantour plateau by the French geologist Lois Gentil. Since then, the city took the name of the latter until 1960, when it was renamed Youssoufia by his majesty Mohamed V following the visit he made to this locality on the same date [8].

The development, extension and exploitation of the deposit, as well as the increasing demand for labor, have given the Youssoufia center considerable economic growth and accelerated urbanization.

#### **3.2 Geographic location**

The city of Youssoufia is located east of the city of Safi, at a distance of 80 km, north of the city of Marrakech, at a distance of 100 km and south of the city of Casablanca, at a distance of 220 km. It is part of the Doukkala-Abda region, Safi province (**Figure 1**). It is also part of the Gantour plateau, one of the four main deposits of the cherifian office of phosphates (OCP) group, limited to the north by the RAHMANA, to the east by the MOISSAT hills, to the south by the Bahira, and to the west by the TASSAOUT Wadi.

The city of Youssoufia is crossed by a railway that connects the phosphate deposits of Ben Guerir and Youssoufia with the port of SAFI. It is also served by: the Jamaat Shaim road to the northwest, the road to Chemaia on one side and Ben Guerir on the other, the road that joins the main road 12 to Marrakech to the south, and the new road to Sidi Bennour to the north.

Despite this important network of roads and railway lines, the city of Youssoufia remains a locality and on the fringe of the existing clean economic activities on the roads (e.g., Ben Guerir, Sidi Bennour,…) and this is because of the hand of OCP on the city as a single manager concerned with the development-only activities related to the mining sector.

#### **3.3 The climate**

The climate of the city of Youssoufia is semicontinental, arid in winter, the average rainfall is about 272 mm per year, and the average minimum temperatures vary between 13°C in January and 25.1°C in July. Highs above 30°C can be observed in the

**5**

m3

**Figure 1.**

**3.4 Mining potentials**

*Geographic location of Youssoufia.*

, which are located in the Gantour plateau [12].

*Characterization of the Youssoufia-Morocco-MineFluoride-Contaminated Water…*

region. The coldest months are December, January, and February when the minimum average is 8.6°C. The winds are relatively weak with predominance of the northern directions during the dry season and the northeast during the wet season [8, 9]. The monthly averages (**Table 1**) show that there is a rainfall accident in November, December, January, and February, which allows a medium or wet year for a crop life until March or April due to the water potential accumulated in the ground. Outside these periods, the existence of a vegetative life is linked to the supply of water by irrigation. The months of July and August are the driest [10, 11].

In terms of phosphate, the region is full of a large amount of phosphate; it is the largest reserve of the country after Khouribga. Its reserves are estimated at 2 billion

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80547*

*Characterization of the Youssoufia-Morocco-MineFluoride-Contaminated Water… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80547*

**Figure 1.** *Geographic location of Youssoufia.*

region. The coldest months are December, January, and February when the minimum average is 8.6°C. The winds are relatively weak with predominance of the northern directions during the dry season and the northeast during the wet season [8, 9].

The monthly averages (**Table 1**) show that there is a rainfall accident in November, December, January, and February, which allows a medium or wet year for a crop life until March or April due to the water potential accumulated in the ground. Outside these periods, the existence of a vegetative life is linked to the supply of water by irrigation. The months of July and August are the driest [10, 11].

### **3.4 Mining potentials**

In terms of phosphate, the region is full of a large amount of phosphate; it is the largest reserve of the country after Khouribga. Its reserves are estimated at 2 billion m3 , which are located in the Gantour plateau [12].

*Environmental Chemistry and Recent Pollution Control Approaches*

/day, and at present, it exceeds 35,000 m3

6–8000 m3

region on these wells.

**2. Choice of the zone**

**3.1 Historical aspect**

**3.2 Geographic location**

to the mining sector.

**3.3 The climate**

predigestion to allow the exploitation of these deposits. Currently, this predigestion is carried out essentially in the recipes 7 and 9 where the average flow reaches in

The main purpose of this chapter is to evaluate the degree of contamination of mine water along the pumping canal by fluoride. Wells located near this channel were also analyzed to see the influence of the existence of black phosphate in this

In Morocco, the phosphate areas have a geographical area extending from Khouribga, Oued Zem and Tadla to the northeast, Settat to the center, and Ben Guerir and Youssoufia to the west [2]. The choice of the Youssoufia zone is justified on the one hand by the fact that the latter contains significant concentrations of fluoride of the order of 3 mg/l on average in mine water [3–5], and on the other hand, that all the

studies that have already been done on regions other than Youssoufia [6, 7].

Mohamed V following the visit he made to this locality on the same date [8]. The development, extension and exploitation of the deposit, as well as the increasing demand for labor, have given the Youssoufia center considerable eco-

The city of Youssoufia was born in 1930 following the discovery of a phosphate deposit in the Gantour plateau by the French geologist Lois Gentil. Since then, the city took the name of the latter until 1960, when it was renamed Youssoufia by his majesty

The city of Youssoufia is located east of the city of Safi, at a distance of 80 km, north of the city of Marrakech, at a distance of 100 km and south of the city of Casablanca, at a distance of 220 km. It is part of the Doukkala-Abda region, Safi province (**Figure 1**). It is also part of the Gantour plateau, one of the four main deposits of the cherifian office of phosphates (OCP) group, limited to the north by the RAHMANA, to the east by the MOISSAT hills, to the south by the Bahira, and to the west by the TASSAOUT Wadi. The city of Youssoufia is crossed by a railway that connects the phosphate deposits of Ben Guerir and Youssoufia with the port of SAFI. It is also served by: the Jamaat Shaim road to the northwest, the road to Chemaia on one side and Ben Guerir on the other, the road that joins the main road 12 to Marrakech to the south,

Despite this important network of roads and railway lines, the city of Youssoufia remains a locality and on the fringe of the existing clean economic activities on the roads (e.g., Ben Guerir, Sidi Bennour,…) and this is because of the hand of OCP on the city as a single manager concerned with the development-only activities related

The climate of the city of Youssoufia is semicontinental, arid in winter, the average

rainfall is about 272 mm per year, and the average minimum temperatures vary between 13°C in January and 25.1°C in July. Highs above 30°C can be observed in the

**3. Overview of the study area (Youssoufia)**

nomic growth and accelerated urbanization.

and the new road to Sidi Bennour to the north.

/day [1].

**4**


#### **Table 1.**

*Average monthly rainfall (Youssoufia station, period 1933–2000).*

#### **Figure 2.**

*Average lithological section of the Youssoufia black phosphate deposit.*

Phosphate mining is carried out in two areas, clear phosphate and black phosphate. There is a drying unit with a capacity of 60 million tons per year and a black phosphate calcination unit. The O.C.P for some years directs its exploitations on

**7**

*Characterization of the Youssoufia-Morocco-MineFluoride-Contaminated Water…*

Ben Guerir where they are in open sky, when with the city of Youssoufia, they are executed in great depth. This has practically caused a stagnation of the depth since

The sedimentary basin is in the form of a subsidence basin, it is a tectonized and folded primary substratum during the New Caledonian tectonic phases and a cover ranging from quaternary to quaternary affected by attenuated tectonic replicas of the tectonic Alpine phase. Currently in the zone of Youssoufia, it is the layer 1 that is in exploitation. It also exploits the layer 0 when the interlayer layer 1-layer 0 is absent or friable. As it moves south, light phosphate is exploited in recipes 5 and 6 (discovery), where it exploits in addition to layer 1 and layer 0, groove X (see **Figure 2**; [10]). The lithological section of this deposit (**Figure 3**) shows that the black phosphate of Youssoufia is located at an average depth of more than 150 m, up to 180 m. The phosphate layer is located below the aquifer, which results in particularly delicate mining problems, which had to be controlled. The exploitation of this

Layer 1 (Montien): it is a loose sandy phosphate whose power is of the order of 2–2.5 m. The base of this layer is usually in the form of a phosphate limestone. This layer is also surmounted by a cardial spacer. This spacer separates layer 1 from layer 0. The layer 0 (Montien): it is a loose sandy phosphate less rich in view than the layer 1. The X groove is encountered in the Maastrichtian, which is characterized by an alternation of phosphate levels and sterile levels with predominantly marly levels. The phosphate levels are in the form of phosphated sands called from bottom to top: layer 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, and the groove X. The layers 0 and 1 are in the Montien,

Underground mining at Youssoufia began in 1930 with the extraction of the clear, dry phosphate that runs along the northern limit of the deposit, whose work

has bypassed the area drowned in its northern and western parts.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80547*

1970, and a very significant regression since 1984.

*Mine stations "Exhaure" and design of shallow basins.*

**Figure 3.**

deposit is done underground [11].

Sillon X in the Maastrichtian.

**4. Dewatering water (Exhaure water)**

**3.5 Overview of the hydrogeology of the Youssoufia flood zone**

*Characterization of the Youssoufia-Morocco-MineFluoride-Contaminated Water… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80547*

**Figure 3.** *Mine stations "Exhaure" and design of shallow basins.*

*Environmental Chemistry and Recent Pollution Control Approaches*

*Average monthly rainfall (Youssoufia station, period 1933–2000).*

**Month Jan. Feb. March April May June July August Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Ann.**

39 34 39 22 17 2 0 0 10 25 40 44 272

Phosphate mining is carried out in two areas, clear phosphate and black phosphate. There is a drying unit with a capacity of 60 million tons per year and a black phosphate calcination unit. The O.C.P for some years directs its exploitations on

*Average lithological section of the Youssoufia black phosphate deposit.*

**6**

**Figure 2.**

Average monthly (mm)

**Table 1.**

Ben Guerir where they are in open sky, when with the city of Youssoufia, they are executed in great depth. This has practically caused a stagnation of the depth since 1970, and a very significant regression since 1984.

## **3.5 Overview of the hydrogeology of the Youssoufia flood zone**

The sedimentary basin is in the form of a subsidence basin, it is a tectonized and folded primary substratum during the New Caledonian tectonic phases and a cover ranging from quaternary to quaternary affected by attenuated tectonic replicas of the tectonic Alpine phase. Currently in the zone of Youssoufia, it is the layer 1 that is in exploitation. It also exploits the layer 0 when the interlayer layer 1-layer 0 is absent or friable. As it moves south, light phosphate is exploited in recipes 5 and 6 (discovery), where it exploits in addition to layer 1 and layer 0, groove X (see **Figure 2**; [10]). The lithological section of this deposit (**Figure 3**) shows that the black phosphate of Youssoufia is located at an average depth of more than 150 m, up to 180 m. The phosphate layer is located below the aquifer, which results in particularly delicate mining problems, which had to be controlled. The exploitation of this deposit is done underground [11].

Layer 1 (Montien): it is a loose sandy phosphate whose power is of the order of 2–2.5 m. The base of this layer is usually in the form of a phosphate limestone. This layer is also surmounted by a cardial spacer. This spacer separates layer 1 from layer 0.

The layer 0 (Montien): it is a loose sandy phosphate less rich in view than the layer 1. The X groove is encountered in the Maastrichtian, which is characterized by an alternation of phosphate levels and sterile levels with predominantly marly levels. The phosphate levels are in the form of phosphated sands called from bottom to top: layer 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, and the groove X. The layers 0 and 1 are in the Montien, Sillon X in the Maastrichtian.

## **4. Dewatering water (Exhaure water)**

Underground mining at Youssoufia began in 1930 with the extraction of the clear, dry phosphate that runs along the northern limit of the deposit, whose work has bypassed the area drowned in its northern and western parts.


#### **Table 2.**

*Average composition of black phosphate.*

In fact, this zone is characterized on one hand by the existence of organic matter giving the phosphates their blackish color and acting on its content, which necessitates their calcination before delivery [11], and on the other hand by the presence of water in extraction sites from groundwater that have been discovered since 1960 by the exploitation of recipe 7 and then by recipes 8 and 9. This water called "mine water" is pumped to the outside of the mine to allow the exploitation of these deposits [13]. The observation in recent years of the tonnage dewatering discharge relationship predicts a flow of more than 35,000 m3 / day from the year 2000. The average composition of black phosphate is shown in **Table 2** [11].

Extraction of black phosphate in the submerged area of Youssoufia occurs between two underground aquifers. In this zone, there are two types of devices for precleaning the upper water table: surface precleaning (caving and tracing) and spot precleaning (wells and predigestion soundings) [10].

### **4.1 Exhaure "mine water"**

The water that impedes the smooth progress of phosphate extraction in the underground workings of the flooded Youssoufia zone comes from:


To ensure the smooth running of extraction, a dewatering infrastructure was set up for the evacuation of these waters to the day. The scheme adopted for evacuation consists of three phases [10]:

*First phase*: it concerns the collection of water from the various roads and sites by essentially pneumatic pumps installed in the cuvettes. The water will be evacuated to the nearest settling stations (to the headway).

*Second phase*: the water collected during the first phase is collected in the secondary basins. These waters are discharged in a 50/60 pipe where 80/90 is connected directly to the pipe 6", which is different in the main dewatering station. Typically, these pumps supply intermediate basins, and the main station consists of a succession of settling ponds (**Figures 3** and **4**).

*Third phase*: this is the main phase of dewatering; all the water from the sector collected in the settling ponds is repressed by electric pumps (GFP, Rotos, Guinard, and Deplechin). This water is discharged to the day through wells in 6 "pipes to be conveyed by gravity in 10" pipes, which reject them away from the farms to avoid any recycling of water. The position of the dewatering stations that force the inflow of water toward the day depends on the hydrogeology of the zone and the dynamics of exploitation [10] (**Figure 4**).

**9**

*Characterization of the Youssoufia-Morocco-MineFluoride-Contaminated Water…*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80547*

**5. Exhaure and quality**

turbidimeter.

**Figure 4.** *Operating method.*

**5.1 Characterization techniques for Youssoufia mine water**

equipped with a fluoride-specific electrode.

*5.1.1 Nature and methods of taking samples*

water channel were also taken (**Figure 5**).

*5.1.2 Results of characterization of mine water*

All the water samples are kept at 4°C in plastic bottles (Year 2001/2002) and analyzed in the laboratory "Water and Environment," at the Faculty of Sciences of El Jadida within 24 h according to the standard French methods (AFNOR) [14, 15]. At each sampling, the temperature, TDS, conductivity, and pH were measured in situ in the field using an HACH conductivity meter, modeled 44,600 and a WTW pH meter, modeled 522 with a combined electrode. Turbidity is measured using a

In this study, fluoride was assayed by potentiometric method using TISAB solution, a fluoride ion-specific electrode and a reference electrode (Ag/AgCl). It has the advantage of being simple, of rapid response and of being amenable to serial dosages [14, 16]. The apparatus used is a JENCO model 6209 type pH-ionometer

Samples were taken along the mine-water channel from recipe 9 "unit 9" (Douar OULED ABADE) from stations S1 to S5 and recipes (unit)7 and 8 (station S6) and the mixture of the three recipes located at neighborhood of SIDI AHMED and extend to El BIAR (stations S7, S8, and S9). Samples from wells near the dewatering

Youssoufia mine water from black phosphates corresponds to natural ground-

water characterized by a more or less variable chemical composition. **Table 3**

*Characterization of the Youssoufia-Morocco-MineFluoride-Contaminated Water… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80547*

**Figure 4.** *Operating method.*

*Environmental Chemistry and Recent Pollution Control Approaches*

In fact, this zone is characterized on one hand by the existence of organic matter giving the phosphates their blackish color and acting on its content, which necessitates their calcination before delivery [11], and on the other hand by the presence of water in extraction sites from groundwater that have been discovered since 1960 by the exploitation of recipe 7 and then by recipes 8 and 9. This water called "mine water" is pumped to the outside of the mine to allow the exploitation of these deposits [13]. The observation in recent years of the tonnage dewatering discharge relationship predicts a flow of more than 35,000 m3

**Element P2O5 CaO CO2 SiO2 Al2O3 F<sup>−</sup>** Percentage 32.5 52 3.7 3.9 0.36 3.9

day from the year 2000. The average composition of black phosphate is shown in

Extraction of black phosphate in the submerged area of Youssoufia occurs between two underground aquifers. In this zone, there are two types of devices for precleaning the upper water table: surface precleaning (caving and tracing) and

The water that impedes the smooth progress of phosphate extraction in the

To ensure the smooth running of extraction, a dewatering infrastructure was set up for the evacuation of these waters to the day. The scheme adopted for evacuation

*First phase*: it concerns the collection of water from the various roads and sites by essentially pneumatic pumps installed in the cuvettes. The water will be evacuated

*Second phase*: the water collected during the first phase is collected in the secondary basins. These waters are discharged in a 50/60 pipe where 80/90 is connected directly to the pipe 6", which is different in the main dewatering station. Typically, these pumps supply intermediate basins, and the main station consists of a succes-

*Third phase*: this is the main phase of dewatering; all the water from the sector collected in the settling ponds is repressed by electric pumps (GFP, Rotos, Guinard, and Deplechin). This water is discharged to the day through wells in 6 "pipes to be conveyed by gravity in 10" pipes, which reject them away from the farms to avoid any recycling of water. The position of the dewatering stations that force the inflow of water toward the day depends on the hydrogeology of the zone and the dynamics

spot precleaning (wells and predigestion soundings) [10].

underground workings of the flooded Youssoufia zone comes from:

/

**8**

**Table 2** [11].

**Table 2.**

**4.1 Exhaure "mine water"**

*Average composition of black phosphate.*

• lightning strikes;

• operating wells; and

• precleaning drains.

consists of three phases [10]:

to the nearest settling stations (to the headway).

sion of settling ponds (**Figures 3** and **4**).

of exploitation [10] (**Figure 4**).

• tracing;

## **5. Exhaure and quality**

## **5.1 Characterization techniques for Youssoufia mine water**

All the water samples are kept at 4°C in plastic bottles (Year 2001/2002) and analyzed in the laboratory "Water and Environment," at the Faculty of Sciences of El Jadida within 24 h according to the standard French methods (AFNOR) [14, 15]. At each sampling, the temperature, TDS, conductivity, and pH were measured in situ in the field using an HACH conductivity meter, modeled 44,600 and a WTW pH meter, modeled 522 with a combined electrode. Turbidity is measured using a turbidimeter.

In this study, fluoride was assayed by potentiometric method using TISAB solution, a fluoride ion-specific electrode and a reference electrode (Ag/AgCl). It has the advantage of being simple, of rapid response and of being amenable to serial dosages [14, 16]. The apparatus used is a JENCO model 6209 type pH-ionometer equipped with a fluoride-specific electrode.

## *5.1.1 Nature and methods of taking samples*

Samples were taken along the mine-water channel from recipe 9 "unit 9" (Douar OULED ABADE) from stations S1 to S5 and recipes (unit)7 and 8 (station S6) and the mixture of the three recipes located at neighborhood of SIDI AHMED and extend to El BIAR (stations S7, S8, and S9). Samples from wells near the dewatering water channel were also taken (**Figure 5**).

## *5.1.2 Results of characterization of mine water*

Youssoufia mine water from black phosphates corresponds to natural groundwater characterized by a more or less variable chemical composition. **Table 3**

#### *Environmental Chemistry and Recent Pollution Control Approaches*

#### **Figure 5.**

*Dewatering water sampling stations. S10 et S11 : Welles.*

summarizes the results of physicochemical analyzes carried out along the canal. It is noted that these waters have electrical conductivities ranging from 1.2 to 1.4 ms/cm at 25°C and pH from 7.67 to 8.22, so we can conclude that these groundwater (mine water) are slightly alkaline.

#### *5.1.2.1 Evolution of the fluoride content for the different stations*

**Table 4** presents fluoride standards for drinking water as a function of average annual temperature obtained from daytime daily maximums [17].

According to **Table 4**, the world Health Organization (WHO) standard for water with an average temperature of 21.66–27.77°C (average temperature of mine water) is set at 0.8 mg/l. Examination of the results obtained shows that the Youssoufia mine water along the canal has high levels of F<sup>−</sup> of the order of 3.5 mg/l on average, thus much higher than the norms published by the WHO. It can be added that these important levels decrease along the canal, moving away from the recipe 9 (station 1) to the mixture of the three recipes 7, 8, and 9 (station 9) located near the village of Charige, the content of F<sup>−</sup> decreases from 4.06 to 2.36 mg/l (**Figure 6**). The same results were found by Falgata [1].

This abnormal fluoride content is due to the fact that leaching of the black phosphate from this region contains from 3 to 4% of fluoride [18]. This was well verified in the study conducted by ARAFAN [19] on the monitoring of the release of fluoride ions by black phosphates, which shows that they release between 3 and 3.5 mg/l of fluoride for a stirring time greater than 100 up to 300 h for the different masses used (**Figure 7**). This quantity of fluorides released by black phosphate is greater than that released by white phosphate [20–22].

#### *5.1.2.2 Orthophosphates and magnesium*

From station 1 (S1) to station 9 (S9), the contents of orthophosphates (**Figure 8**) and those of magnesium (**Figure 9**) decrease along the dewatering channel, except that in the case of (Mg2+), there is a slight increase in the station 6 (S6) and this is because the mine water of recipes 7 and 8 (station 6) are more concentrated in Mg2+.

Moreover, we can note that the contents of (PO4 <sup>3</sup>−) and (Mg2+) do not exceed the standards published by WHO [23].

**11**

**Stations/parameter**

pH T (°C) E.C (ms/cm)

TDS (g/l) Turbidity Cl− (mg/l) Hardness (mg/l)

Ca2+ (mg/l) Mg2+ (mg/l) Nitrate (mg/l)

Nitrite (mg/l)

AT CAT (méq/l)

PO4

3− (mg/l) Oxydabilité (mg/l)

Fluoride (mg/l)

**Table 3.**

*The average of physicochemical parameters of Youssoufia mine water (year 2001/2002).*

2.8 4.06

3.82

3.4

3.35

3.26

2.76

3.04

2.89

2.36

1.51

1.63

2.2

1.4

2.2

2

1.4

2.2

2

1.6

1.4

1.6

**S1** 7.67 25.4 1.21 0.58 120 110.9 135.70 48.49 87.21

28 0.23

0 4.4 0.5

0.44

0.38

0.31

0.22

0.2

0.21

0.13

0.03

0.12

0

4.6

4.8

4.6

4.8

4.3

4.6

5.2

5.4

5.4

6.2

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0.011

0.15

0.105

0.064

0

0.01

0

0

0.044

0

8

14

16

8

28

20

6

4

18

6

82.66

65.64

60.78

55.37

72.94

60.78

58.07

55.92

68.76

77.8

80.19

94.39

98.02

100.7

84.17

94.18

96

100.1

72.14

84.2

174.85

160.3

158.80

160.4

157.11

154.96

154.96

156.08

140.90

120.01

150.1

150.2

200

180

200

220

230

150.1

170

120

122

122

122

0

14

0

1

46

0

0.58

0.61

063

0.58

0.58

0.57

0.68

0.65

0.44

0.75

1.23

1.25

1.31

1.32

1.34

1.25

1.28

1.25

1.26

25.3

25.3

25.5

25.4

25

25

24.9

24.9

25.3

25.1

7.73

7.87

7.93

7.99

7.86

7.83

8.10

8.20

7.89

7.92

**S2**

**S3**

**S4**

**S5**

**S6**

**S7**

**S8**

**S9**

**S10**

**S11**

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162

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80547*

1.36


#### *Characterization of the Youssoufia-Morocco-MineFluoride-Contaminated Water… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80547*

**Table 3.**

*The average of physicochemical parameters of Youssoufia mine water (year 2001/2002).*

*Environmental Chemistry and Recent Pollution Control Approaches*

water) are slightly alkaline.

*Dewatering water sampling stations. S10 et S11 : Welles.*

**Figure 5.**

results were found by Falgata [1].

*5.1.2.2 Orthophosphates and magnesium*

standards published by WHO [23].

summarizes the results of physicochemical analyzes carried out along the canal. It is noted that these waters have electrical conductivities ranging from 1.2 to 1.4 ms/cm at 25°C and pH from 7.67 to 8.22, so we can conclude that these groundwater (mine

**Table 4** presents fluoride standards for drinking water as a function of average

According to **Table 4**, the world Health Organization (WHO) standard for water with an average temperature of 21.66–27.77°C (average temperature of mine water) is set at 0.8 mg/l. Examination of the results obtained shows that the Youssoufia mine water along the canal has high levels of F<sup>−</sup> of the order of 3.5 mg/l on average, thus much higher than the norms published by the WHO. It can be added that these important levels decrease along the canal, moving away from the recipe 9 (station 1) to the mixture of the three recipes 7, 8, and 9 (station 9) located near the village of Charige, the content of F<sup>−</sup> decreases from 4.06 to 2.36 mg/l (**Figure 6**). The same

This abnormal fluoride content is due to the fact that leaching of the black phosphate from this region contains from 3 to 4% of fluoride [18]. This was well verified in the study conducted by ARAFAN [19] on the monitoring of the release of fluoride ions by black phosphates, which shows that they release between 3 and 3.5 mg/l of fluoride for a stirring time greater than 100 up to 300 h for the different masses used (**Figure 7**). This quantity of fluorides released by black phosphate is

From station 1 (S1) to station 9 (S9), the contents of orthophosphates (**Figure 8**) and those of magnesium (**Figure 9**) decrease along the dewatering channel, except that in the case of (Mg2+), there is a slight increase in the station 6 (S6) and this is because the mine water of recipes 7 and 8 (station 6) are more concentrated in Mg2+.

<sup>3</sup>−) and (Mg2+) do not exceed the

*5.1.2.1 Evolution of the fluoride content for the different stations*

greater than that released by white phosphate [20–22].

Moreover, we can note that the contents of (PO4

annual temperature obtained from daytime daily maximums [17].

**10**


#### *Environmental Chemistry and Recent Pollution Control Approaches*

#### **Table 4.**

*The fluoride level standards of drinking water at different temperatures.*

**13**

*5.1.2.3 Calcium*

**Figure 7.**

**Figure 8.**

*Characterization of the Youssoufia-Morocco-MineFluoride-Contaminated Water…*

*5.1.2.2.1 Relationship between the evolution of concentration of fluorides,* 

showed that these three elements decrease in the same way since the correlations is linear. So, they undergo the same phenomenon along the channel, and this can be explained by the precipitation of **Mg5**−**<sup>x</sup> Cax (PO4)3 F, OH,** which is insoluble in water.

For calcium, the acceptable limit set by WHO is 75 mg/l. In the study area, mine waters have significant calcium contents, that continue to increase away from station 9 (S9), from station 2 (S2), toward the mixture of the three recipes R7, R8 and

) and orthophosphate (PO4

) and magnesium (Mg2+) (**Figure 11**). The results

3−

) contents

*magnesium, and orthophosphates concentration*

*Releasing fluorides as a function of time to different masses of black phosphate.*

A correlation is made between fluoride (F<sup>−</sup>

(**Figure 10**) and between fluoride (F<sup>−</sup>

*Evolution of orthophosphates along the canal.*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80547*

**Figure 6.** *Evolution of fluorides concentration along the mine water channel.*

*Characterization of the Youssoufia-Morocco-MineFluoride-Contaminated Water… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80547*

**Figure 7.**

*Environmental Chemistry and Recent Pollution Control Approaches*

**Optimal levels of fluorides (ppm)**

10 1 1.074 1.640 10.55 0.956 1.024 1.548 11.11 0.916 0.979 1.465 11.67 0.880 0.940 1.393 12.22 0.849 0.905 1.329 12.78 0.821 0.873 1.270 13.33 0.796 0.844 1.218 13.89 0.773 0.819 1.170 14.45 0.752 0.795 1.127 15 0.733 0.774 1.088 15.55 0.714 0.752 1.048 16.11 0.698 0.734 1.015 16.67 0.682 0.716 0.983 17.22 0.667 0.700 0.953 17.78 0.654 0.685 0.925 18.33 0.640 0.670 0.897 18.89 0.629 0.657 0.874 19.45 0.618 0.644 0.850 20 0.6 0.632 0.28 20.55 0.597 0.621 0.807 21.11 0.587 0.610 / 21.66 to 27.77 0.800 28.33 to 32.22 0.700

**Maximum allowable levels of fluorides (ppm)**

**Limit levels of fluorides (ppm)**

**Average annual temperature (°C) of water from daytime** 

**maximums daily**

**12**

**Figure 6.**

**Table 4.**

*Evolution of fluorides concentration along the mine water channel.*

*The fluoride level standards of drinking water at different temperatures.*

*Releasing fluorides as a function of time to different masses of black phosphate.*

## *5.1.2.2.1 Relationship between the evolution of concentration of fluorides, magnesium, and orthophosphates concentration*

A correlation is made between fluoride (F<sup>−</sup> ) and orthophosphate (PO4 3− ) contents (**Figure 10**) and between fluoride (F<sup>−</sup> ) and magnesium (Mg2+) (**Figure 11**). The results showed that these three elements decrease in the same way since the correlations is linear. So, they undergo the same phenomenon along the channel, and this can be explained by the precipitation of **Mg5**−**<sup>x</sup> Cax (PO4)3 F, OH,** which is insoluble in water.

### *5.1.2.3 Calcium*

For calcium, the acceptable limit set by WHO is 75 mg/l. In the study area, mine waters have significant calcium contents, that continue to increase away from station 9 (S9), from station 2 (S2), toward the mixture of the three recipes R7, R8 and

**Figure 9.** *Evolution of magnesium along the canal.*

**Figure 10.** *Relationship between the evolution of concentration of fluorides and orthophosphates.*

**15**

*Characterization of the Youssoufia-Morocco-MineFluoride-Contaminated Water…*

R9 (**Figure 12**). These levels are higher than the standard published by WHO. The low value of Calcium in station 6 (S6) is due to the fact that the dewatering water of

In order to study the impact of the phosphatic layers on the water table, we sampled two wells (stations 10 and 11) located near the dewatering channel.

To better interpret the results, we have drawn figures that represent the concentration of the element considered in stations 5, 6, and 7 and we compared them with that of stations 10 and 11 to better make a comparison between dewatering water of recipe 9 before mixing (station 5), water of recette 7 and 8 (station 6), the mixture of the three recipes "recette" (station 7), and the well waters (stations 10 and 11).

The results of the physicochemical analyzes carried out on the water of the well in question showed that these waters are contaminated by several elements, which influences their conductivity (CE) and the hardness (TH) (**Figures 13** and **14**). We can therefore conclude that the phosphatic layer influences the wells (S10 and S11), since the black phosphatic minewater has concentrations with a much higher hardness (135 <[TH] <175 mg/l), this is due may be leaching phosphatic soils. The same

**Figure 15** shows that the well waters (S10 and S11) are contaminated with fluoride; the concentration of fluoride concentration [F<sup>−</sup> (S10) = 1.51 and F<sup>−</sup> (S11) = 1.63] is greater than the limit set by the WHO of 1.5 mg/l, which is in good agreement with previous results obtained by Mr. Mountadar and his collaborators [20] in a study of Khouribga well waters have shown that these waters are contaminated with fluoride [(F<sup>−</sup>) > 1.5 mg/l], and also by Hassani et al. [19], who showed that the well waters in the vicinity of the Youssoufia calcination units have fluoride

recipe 7 (R7) is not very well concentrated in this element.

*5.1.3 Impact of the phosphatic layer on the groundwater*

The results are as follows.

*Evolution of calcium levels along the canal.*

**Figure 12.**

remark is noted for conductivity.

*5.1.3.1 Fluoride concentration*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80547*

**Figure 11.** *Relationship between the evolution of concentration of fluoride and magnesium.*

*Characterization of the Youssoufia-Morocco-MineFluoride-Contaminated Water… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80547*

**Figure 12.** *Evolution of calcium levels along the canal.*

*Environmental Chemistry and Recent Pollution Control Approaches*

*Relationship between the evolution of concentration of fluorides and orthophosphates.*

*Relationship between the evolution of concentration of fluoride and magnesium.*

**14**

**Figure 11.**

**Figure 10.**

**Figure 9.**

*Evolution of magnesium along the canal.*

R9 (**Figure 12**). These levels are higher than the standard published by WHO. The low value of Calcium in station 6 (S6) is due to the fact that the dewatering water of recipe 7 (R7) is not very well concentrated in this element.

#### *5.1.3 Impact of the phosphatic layer on the groundwater*

In order to study the impact of the phosphatic layers on the water table, we sampled two wells (stations 10 and 11) located near the dewatering channel.

To better interpret the results, we have drawn figures that represent the concentration of the element considered in stations 5, 6, and 7 and we compared them with that of stations 10 and 11 to better make a comparison between dewatering water of recipe 9 before mixing (station 5), water of recette 7 and 8 (station 6), the mixture of the three recipes "recette" (station 7), and the well waters (stations 10 and 11). The results are as follows.

The results of the physicochemical analyzes carried out on the water of the well in question showed that these waters are contaminated by several elements, which influences their conductivity (CE) and the hardness (TH) (**Figures 13** and **14**). We can therefore conclude that the phosphatic layer influences the wells (S10 and S11), since the black phosphatic minewater has concentrations with a much higher hardness (135 <[TH] <175 mg/l), this is due may be leaching phosphatic soils. The same remark is noted for conductivity.

#### *5.1.3.1 Fluoride concentration*

**Figure 15** shows that the well waters (S10 and S11) are contaminated with fluoride; the concentration of fluoride concentration [F<sup>−</sup> (S10) = 1.51 and F<sup>−</sup> (S11) = 1.63] is greater than the limit set by the WHO of 1.5 mg/l, which is in good agreement with previous results obtained by Mr. Mountadar and his collaborators [20] in a study of Khouribga well waters have shown that these waters are contaminated with fluoride [(F<sup>−</sup>) > 1.5 mg/l], and also by Hassani et al. [19], who showed that the well waters in the vicinity of the Youssoufia calcination units have fluoride

#### *Environmental Chemistry and Recent Pollution Control Approaches*

#### **Figure 13.**

*Comparison between the conductivity of the waters along the canal and that of neighboring wells.*

**17**

*Characterization of the Youssoufia-Morocco-MineFluoride-Contaminated Water…*

At the end of this analytical part, it is obvious to conclude that:

concentrations between 1.5 and 2.8 mg/l. The consumption of such fluoride-laden water has negative health effects: dental fluorosis and skeletal disorders [3].

For the other elements, it can be said that they are comparable to those obtained for Youssoufia mine water and they do not exceed the standards set by the World

• Youssoufia mine water contains high concentrations of fluorides of the order of 3–4 mg/l on average; this is due to the fact that the black phosphate of Youssoufia contains 3–4% of F<sup>−</sup>. This abnormal fluoride content is due to the fact that leaching of the black phosphate from this region contains 3–4% of F<sup>−</sup> [3]. This was well verified in the study conducted by Garmes [2] on the monitoring of the release of fluoride ions by black phosphates, which shows that they release between 3 and 3.5 mg/l of for a stirring time greater than 100 h up to 300 h for the different masses used. This quantity of fluorides released by black phosphate is greater than that released by white

dewatering channel. This is probably due to the precipitation of magnesium

(F<sup>−</sup> → 1.5 mg/l), and the same result was observed by Hassani and his collaborators [24] in a study made on wells located in the vicinity of the Youssoufia calcination units, which showed that these wells have F<sup>−</sup> concentrations of between 1.5 and 2.8 mg/l. Indeed, a number of residents reside in Youssoufia suffer from fluorosis. Therefore, there is a permanent risk for the population using the groundwater near the phosphate mining plants in Youssoufia. In addition, Fandi [3] noted during a study (questionnaire) carried out on the

1.Caries is the most common dental disease and is more prevalent in urban than in rural areas, meaning that the diet consumed in cities can also affect

2.With regard to the state of the teeth, people from rural areas seem to be the most affected; in fact 36% of these subjects have a form of hyperplastic tooth compared to 9.67% of urban people, 45.33 and 49.33% of rural people, respectively, have yellow and rusty pigmentation against 40.32 and

3.For bone disorders, they are present in 61.3% in urban areas while this

We, therefore, note the main health problem resulting from the possibility of using mine water as drinking water where irrigation resides in the clinical manifestation of mottled enamel called "Darmous" in Morocco and "Disease of the factories." In France [3, 8], this causes psychological problems for thousands of people

• The waters of the wells near the canal are contaminated by fluoride

<sup>3</sup>−−) are eliminated in the same way along the

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80547*

Health Organization (WHO).

phosphate [20].

orthophosphates.

• The ions (F<sup>−</sup>), (Mg2+), and (PO4

inhabitants of the city of Youssoufia that:

38.71%, respectively, for urban people.

figure reaches 77.33% in rural areas.

residing in the phosphate zones.

the condition of the teeth.

**6. Conclusion**

**Figure 15.** *Comparison between fluoride levels in mine water and neighboring wells.*

## *Characterization of the Youssoufia-Morocco-MineFluoride-Contaminated Water… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80547*

concentrations between 1.5 and 2.8 mg/l. The consumption of such fluoride-laden water has negative health effects: dental fluorosis and skeletal disorders [3].

For the other elements, it can be said that they are comparable to those obtained for Youssoufia mine water and they do not exceed the standards set by the World Health Organization (WHO).

## **6. Conclusion**

*Environmental Chemistry and Recent Pollution Control Approaches*

1,34

*Comparison between the conductivity of the waters along the canal and that of neighboring wells.*

1,25

5 6 7 10 11 Staons

1,26

1,36

1,32

**16**

**Figure 15.**

**Figure 14.**

**Figure 13.**

*Evolution of hardness in the study area.*

1.18 1.2 1.22 1.24 1.26 1.28 1.3 1.32 1.34 1.36 1.38

E.C (ms/cm)

*Comparison between fluoride levels in mine water and neighboring wells.*

At the end of this analytical part, it is obvious to conclude that:

	- 1.Caries is the most common dental disease and is more prevalent in urban than in rural areas, meaning that the diet consumed in cities can also affect the condition of the teeth.
	- 2.With regard to the state of the teeth, people from rural areas seem to be the most affected; in fact 36% of these subjects have a form of hyperplastic tooth compared to 9.67% of urban people, 45.33 and 49.33% of rural people, respectively, have yellow and rusty pigmentation against 40.32 and 38.71%, respectively, for urban people.
	- 3.For bone disorders, they are present in 61.3% in urban areas while this figure reaches 77.33% in rural areas.

We, therefore, note the main health problem resulting from the possibility of using mine water as drinking water where irrigation resides in the clinical manifestation of mottled enamel called "Darmous" in Morocco and "Disease of the factories." In France [3, 8], this causes psychological problems for thousands of people residing in the phosphate zones.

## **Acknowledgements**

Thank you to all my teachers and colleagues from the Water and Environment Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Chouaib Doukhali University, El Jadida, Morocco.

## **Author details**

Moufti Ahmed1,2

1 Regional Center for the Professions of Education and Training, Settat, Morocco

2 Laboratory for Water and the Environment, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Chemistry, El Jadida, Morocco

\*Address all correspondence to: amoufti@gmail.com

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**19**

*Characterization of the Youssoufia-Morocco-MineFluoride-Contaminated Water…*

II; 1990

de la fluorose dentaire dans la province de Khouribga [Thèse médecine]. Casablanca, Maroc: Université Hassan

[9] Mountadar M, Garmes H, Bouraji M. Défluoruration d'une eau chargée en fluorures : Cas du rejet de la laverie des phosphates (Khouribga-Maroc). In: Acte du colloque International Membranes et Procédés de Séparation (CIMP). Vol. 1. 1999. pp. 89-94

[10] Royaume du Maroc, Ministre des Travaux Publics et des Communications, Direction de l'hydraulique, Division des Ressources en Eau. Ressources en eau du Maroc. In: Plaines et bassins du Maroc atlantique, édition du service géologique

du Maroc, Rabat. 1975;**2**:367-392

[11] Groupe Office Chérifien des Phosphates. Bultein d'information, no.

[12] Groupe Office Chérifien des Phosphates, Direction de la Formation et de la Communication, Division Formation et Perfectionnement du Personnel OE P TAMCA: Technique de

54. Décembre; 1992. pp. 7-13

[13] Oumhijane S. Recherche documentaire: Géologie et

[14] Association Française De

Normalisation. Qualité de l'eau. Tome 1: Terminologie, échantillonnage et évaluation des méthodes. 3e édition.

[15] DEGRÉMONT SA. Mémento technique de l'eau, édition du

cinquantenaire, 9e édition. LAVOISIER (Éditeur), Paris, France, tomes 1 et 2;

hydrogéologie de la zone noyée de Youssoufia (recensement et synthèse). Rapport de fin de stage effectué à Office Chérifienne du Phosphate (O.C.P)

dénoyage; 1993

Youssoufia; 1999

Paris, France; 1997

1989

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[2] Garmes H. L'analyse des interférences

développement de la fluorose (province de Khouribga); Défluoruration par des procédés conventionnelles et

membranaires [Thèse de Doctorat d'état]. El Jadida, Maroc: Université Chouaib Doukkali, Faculté des Sciences; 2002

[3] Fandi R. Etude de la relation entre les teneurs en fluor au niveau de l'eau, du sol et des urines humaines dans les régions Darmous (Youssoufia) [Thèse de Doctorat en pharmacie]. Université Mohammed V, Faculté de Médecine et

de Pharmacie de Rabat; 1994

[4] Mountadar M, Garmes H, Moufti A. Défluoruration d'une eau souterraineYoussoufia-Maroc'. Annales Chimie Science Matériaux.

Fluoride retention by kaolin clay. Contaminant Hydrology.

[6] Moufti A, Mountadar M.

[7] Groupe Office Chérifien des Phosphates. Rapport de présentation d'activité du groupe OCP. Réalisation

[8] Yousrani K. Enquête épidémiologique sur l'évolution de la fluorose dentaire

Technique-SDG/MG/I; 1987

[5] Kau PMH, Smith DW, Binning P.

Valorisation d'une cendre volante par la défluoruration des eaux souterraines, cas de Youssoufia-Maroc. In: 2éme colloque de Groupe Marocain de Recherche pour l'Environnement (GMRE) et le XXXII éme Congrès du Groupe Français des Pesticides (GFP); Mai, Marrakech, Maroc. 2002. pp. 29-31

2001;**26**:S341-S344

1997;**28**:89-108

[1] Falgata S. Les possibilités de traitement et l'utilisation des Eaux d'Exhaure du phosphate noir de Youssoufia. Revue Marocaine du Génie

**References**

Civil. 1990;**27**(Janvier):5-9

naturelles et anthropiques sur le

*Characterization of the Youssoufia-Morocco-MineFluoride-Contaminated Water… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80547*

## **References**

*Environmental Chemistry and Recent Pollution Control Approaches*

Thank you to all my teachers and colleagues from the Water and Environment Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Chouaib Doukhali

**Acknowledgements**

University, El Jadida, Morocco.

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

1 Regional Center for the Professions of Education and Training, Settat, Morocco

2 Laboratory for Water and the Environment, Faculty of Sciences, Department of

**18**

**Author details**

Moufti Ahmed1,2

Chemistry, El Jadida, Morocco

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*Address all correspondence to: amoufti@gmail.com

[1] Falgata S. Les possibilités de traitement et l'utilisation des Eaux d'Exhaure du phosphate noir de Youssoufia. Revue Marocaine du Génie Civil. 1990;**27**(Janvier):5-9

[2] Garmes H. L'analyse des interférences naturelles et anthropiques sur le développement de la fluorose (province de Khouribga); Défluoruration par des procédés conventionnelles et membranaires [Thèse de Doctorat d'état]. El Jadida, Maroc: Université Chouaib Doukkali, Faculté des Sciences; 2002

[3] Fandi R. Etude de la relation entre les teneurs en fluor au niveau de l'eau, du sol et des urines humaines dans les régions Darmous (Youssoufia) [Thèse de Doctorat en pharmacie]. Université Mohammed V, Faculté de Médecine et de Pharmacie de Rabat; 1994

[4] Mountadar M, Garmes H, Moufti A. Défluoruration d'une eau souterraineYoussoufia-Maroc'. Annales Chimie Science Matériaux. 2001;**26**:S341-S344

[5] Kau PMH, Smith DW, Binning P. Fluoride retention by kaolin clay. Contaminant Hydrology. 1997;**28**:89-108

[6] Moufti A, Mountadar M. Valorisation d'une cendre volante par la défluoruration des eaux souterraines, cas de Youssoufia-Maroc. In: 2éme colloque de Groupe Marocain de Recherche pour l'Environnement (GMRE) et le XXXII éme Congrès du Groupe Français des Pesticides (GFP); Mai, Marrakech, Maroc. 2002. pp. 29-31

[7] Groupe Office Chérifien des Phosphates. Rapport de présentation d'activité du groupe OCP. Réalisation Technique-SDG/MG/I; 1987

[8] Yousrani K. Enquête épidémiologique sur l'évolution de la fluorose dentaire

de la fluorose dentaire dans la province de Khouribga [Thèse médecine]. Casablanca, Maroc: Université Hassan II; 1990

[9] Mountadar M, Garmes H, Bouraji M. Défluoruration d'une eau chargée en fluorures : Cas du rejet de la laverie des phosphates (Khouribga-Maroc). In: Acte du colloque International Membranes et Procédés de Séparation (CIMP). Vol. 1. 1999. pp. 89-94

[10] Royaume du Maroc, Ministre des Travaux Publics et des Communications, Direction de l'hydraulique, Division des Ressources en Eau. Ressources en eau du Maroc. In: Plaines et bassins du Maroc atlantique, édition du service géologique du Maroc, Rabat. 1975;**2**:367-392

[11] Groupe Office Chérifien des Phosphates. Bultein d'information, no. 54. Décembre; 1992. pp. 7-13

[12] Groupe Office Chérifien des Phosphates, Direction de la Formation et de la Communication, Division Formation et Perfectionnement du Personnel OE P TAMCA: Technique de dénoyage; 1993

[13] Oumhijane S. Recherche documentaire: Géologie et hydrogéologie de la zone noyée de Youssoufia (recensement et synthèse). Rapport de fin de stage effectué à Office Chérifienne du Phosphate (O.C.P) Youssoufia; 1999

[14] Association Française De Normalisation. Qualité de l'eau. Tome 1: Terminologie, échantillonnage et évaluation des méthodes. 3e édition. Paris, France; 1997

[15] DEGRÉMONT SA. Mémento technique de l'eau, édition du cinquantenaire, 9e édition. LAVOISIER (Éditeur), Paris, France, tomes 1 et 2; 1989

[16] Rodier J, Bazin C, Broutin JP, Chambon P, Champsaur H, et Rodi L. L'analyse de l'eau, 8e édition. Dunod (Éditeur), Paris, France; 1996

[17] AFNOR. Eau, Méthodes d'essais. 1er édition. Paris, France; 1979

[18] O.M.S. Fluor et santé. In: Série de monographie. Genève: Organisation mondiale de la Santé; 1972. p. 59

[19] Arafan A, Erraji M, Hassani E, Chik A. Traitement Thermique d'un Phosphate Très Riche En Matières Organiques Et Valorisation du Phosphate Calcine Y2. Rapport nom édité du Groupe OCP, Maroc, Maroc-Phosphore et Cerphos, 30 Juin; 1998

[20] Mountadar M, Garmes H, Bouraji M, Lhadi EK. Défluoruration d'une eau chargée en fluorures: cas du rejet de la laverie des phosphates (Khouribga-Maroc). In: Acte du colloque International : Gestion des Rejets Industriels pour un Développement Durable (GRIDD). 1997

[21] Moufti A, Annouar S, Mountadar S, Mountadar M. The regeneration of the pre used ashes in the elimination fluorides ions from the underground waters. Journal of Materials and Environmental Science. 2016;**7**(6):2069-2073

[22] Annouar S, Mountada M, Soufian A, Elmidaoui A, Menkouchi Sahli MA. Defluoridation of underground water by adsorption on the chitosan and by electrodialysis. Desalination. 2004;**165**:437

[23] O.M.S. Directives de qualité de l'eau de boisson, v: 1, Recommendation. 2ème édition. Genève: Organisation mondiale de la Santé; 1994

[24] Hassani EA, Znibar A, Bouhiaoui H. Traitement du phosphate noir de Youssoufia: Amélioration du système de traitement des rejets fins et préservation de l'environnement. Annales Chimie Science Matériaux. 2001;**26**:S465-S470

**21**

**Chapter 2**

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

qualifications.

co-responsible for climate change.

mitigation from this sector.

Analysis

*Dionisio Rodríguez*

Greenhouse Gas Emissions of

Greenhouse gas emissions are accounted by greenhouse gases inventories, which must be produced by common accounting rules, called Guidelines, which are endorsed by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). These inventories are fundamental to analyze the impact of agriculture on emissions, and as example of the difficulty and complexity of implementation of the guidelines, a comparative study is made on emissions from Agricultural Soil Management (CRF category 3D source) utilizing biological nitrogen fixation. The analysis carried out for the N2O emissions under this section of the agrarian sector of Spain, Europe, New Zealand, Canada and the USA, inventories and national communications from Argentina and Brazil permit to observe the wide spectrum of approaches and the importance of the management of the accounting rules to be used mainly if we need that the impact of mitigation policies are captured in a direct way by the inventory. New technologies could introduce changes in the rules

and can be utilized for reducing emissions, and examples are also analyzed.

**Keywords:** inventory of agriculture greenhouse gas emissions, N2O emissions,

Agriculture is one of the economic sectors that make up the economic structure of a country and, as such economic activity, contributes to generate part of greenhouse gas of the total emissions of each country and, therefore, is an activity

Emissions of greenhouse gas (GHG) are accounted by greenhouse gases inventories and allow us to characterize both the emitting sources and the amount emitted and must be made respecting common rules designed with high technical

and should be a useful tool for the design of agricultural policies for emissions

nications from various countries is made in this chapter.

This accounting of emissions from the agricultural sector is particularly complex

To be able to check the difficulty and complexity of application of accounting guidelines and, also, the wide spectrum of options that you can use, a comparative study of the treatment of emissions from a series of inventories or national commu-

biological nitrogen fixation, benchmark of countries, new technologies

Agriculture: A Comparative

## **Chapter 2**
