*4.4.1 Vitamin A*

Various cross-sectional and intervention studies reported regarding overweight and obese respondents that they have lower circulating carotenoids in the plasma because of a high proportion of carotenoids, as lipid-soluble compounds, being stored in adipose tissue [15, 47]. The Women's Health Study (*n* = 2895, aged ≥45 years of age) reported that higher plasma concentrations of α- and β-carotene were associated with low levels of plasma CRP. In spite of this, plasma carotenoids were associated with obesity, HDL-cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, HbA1c, and smoking [15, 48]. Another study done by Julia et al. suggested that the β-carotene status was inversely associated with low-grade inflammation [49]. Another cross-sectional meta-analysis study focusing on Syndrome X respondents showed an inverse association between total plasma carotenoids and metabolic syndrome. Respondents with the highest total circulating carotenoids had a 24% reduced risk for developing metabolic syndrome. Interestingly, when, individual carotenoids were included, and significant associations were found for β-carotene, lycopene, α-carotene, and β-cryptoxanthin [50–51].

### *4.4.2 Vitamin C*

Vitamin C is effective in strengthening the immune system, capillary blood vessels, and protecting the dental health, as well as in the convenient use of iron, calcium, thiamine, riboflavin, folic acid, and vitamins A and E in the body. Vitamin C also acts as a cofactor for 15 different enzymes and shows the antioxidant activity as an electron donor reducing agent. It acts as a powerful free radical scavenger by protecting tissues against oxidative stress and reduces inflammation [52]. Totan et al. reported that vitamin C reduces the systemic inflammation by inhibiting CRP and TNF-α pathways. In spite of this, vitamin C inhibits hypoxia in adipose tissue that has the potential for protection against free radicals and decreasing lipid peroxidation. On the other hand, the study also revealed that vitamin C inhibits mature adipocyte formation and cell growth, inhibits lipolysis, and can be considered as a treatment model for obesity to offer solutions for abnormal fat accumulation [52]. Another study reported that vitamin C may improve inflammation by reducing the pro-inflammatory and inflammatory markers such as CRP, IL-6, and TNF-α [53]. Additionally, Fumeron et al. reported in the prospective, randomized, open-label

**35**

*Weight Management: Inflammation*

*4.4.3 Magnesium*

*4.4.4 Flavonoids*

levels (*p* < 0.05) [15, 62].

*4.4.5 Phytoestrogens*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92380*

for 8 weeks) did not change blood levels of CRP [15, 54].

nondiabetic, nonhypertensive obese subjects (*n* = 371) [15, 58].

trial study (*n* = 42, 18–80 years of age) that vitamin C supplementation (750 mg/d

Magnesium is the second most abundant intracellular cation and is involved in about 300 biochemical reactions related to anabolic and catabolic actions in the body, such as glycolysis and protein and lipid metabolism [55–56]. The Women's Health Initiative Observational Study (*n* = 3713 postmenopausal women, aged 50–79 years) reported that intake of dietary magnesium was independently and inversely associated with plasma concentrations of hs-CRP, IL-6, and sVCAM-1 in postmenopausal women after an adjustment for multiple variables including dietary fiber, fruit, vegetables, folate, and saturated and trans-fatty intake [57]. Another study done by Guerrero-Romero and Rodriguez- Moran found that low serum Mg levels were independently related to elevated CRP concentration, in

Flavonoids, a group of natural substances with variable phenolic structures, are found in fruits, vegetables, grains, bark, roots, stems, flowers, tea, and wine. Nowadays, flavonoids are considered essential components in various applications such as nutraceutical, pharmaceutical, medicinal, and cosmetic. This is attributed to their anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, anti-mutagenic, and anti-carcinogenic properties coupled with their capacity to modulate key cellular enzyme function [59]. According to National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), a large, cross-sectional survey National Centre for Health Statistic (*n* = 9551 adults) showed that flavonoid consumption was inversely associated with obesity in both men and women in multivariate models. It was also observed that adults in the highest quartile of flavonoid intake had significantly lower body mass index and waist circumference than those in the lowest quartile of flavonoid intake (*P* < 0.03 and *P* < 0.04, respectively). The study also revealed that flavonoid intake was inversely related to C-reactive protein levels in women (p-trend, 0.01) [60]. The Nurses' Health Cohort Study (*n* = 2115 women, aged 43–70 years) reported that among flavonoid-rich foods, higher intake of grapefruit was significantly associated with lower concentrations of CRP and sTNF-R2. In spite of this, it was also reported in the study that flavonoids typically found in citrus fruits were modestly associated with lower plasma IL-18 concentrations [61]. Interestingly, a double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover study (*n* = 14, 35–53 years of age) reported that the supplementation of sea buckthorn flavonol extract for 4 weeks did not reduce CRP

Phytoestrogens are plant-derived dietary compounds found in beans, seeds, and grains. The structure of phytoestrogens is similar to 17-β-oestradiol (E2), the primary female sex hormone. This structural similarity to E2 enables phytoestrogens to cause (anti) oestrogenic effects by binding to the oestrogen receptors [63]. Phytoestrogens had so many health benefits such as a lowered risk of menopausal symptoms such as hot flushes and osteoporosis, obesity, metabolic syndrome, and type 2 diabetes and lowered risks of cardiovascular disease, brain function disorders, breast cancer, prostate cancer, bowel cancer, and other cancers [63]. A randomized crossover clinical trial for 8 weeks (*n* = 42, postmenopausal women with

trial study (*n* = 42, 18–80 years of age) that vitamin C supplementation (750 mg/d for 8 weeks) did not change blood levels of CRP [15, 54].
