**4.7 Cellulose-derived nanometal matrixes**

Cellulose is an extensively copious natural polymer and component of the "plant's skeleton" that exists on Mother Earth [1]. In fact, cellulose shares the same chemistry and molecular structures but imperative morphology and mechanical variations based on its recovery from various sources like vegetable, plants and bacteria. Nanocomposite matrixes are derived through cellulose skeleton via amalgamation with different phases of organic and inorganic materials [1, 13]. Nanofibrillated and bacteria-derived cellulose is made up of nanodimensional fibers, which impart novel and improved native qualities in resultant nanocomposites than vegetable-derived cellulose [13, 27]. Cellulose has soft matrix to accommodate inorganic/organic materials via blending diverse fillers to yield composites owing to their inherent functionality of constituents besides transporting unique functions due to biointerfacial alteration [7, 27]. Various material like nano-metals including gold silver and copper and inorganic gets easily doped/ filled in the cellulose skeleton and yield composites which own altered fibers interaction at surfaces over bulk analogues besides coalition of fillers is beneficial for improvement of opto-electronic/electrical and mechanical functions [1, 2]. Cellulose has an exclusive arrangement and discrete affinity to form intra-/ intermolecular bonding, which compacts its supramolecular ester/acetate and ether as dynamic derivatives utilized in coating, pharmaceutics, food and cosmetic industries [12, 27]. Hybrids of cellulose procured through nanometal/metal-oxides yield assorted nanocomposites like *Nowa-74* used as calorie-free dessert in food and wound dressing scaffolds in biomedical and optoelectronics. Water filtering nanomembranes are reinforced through 3D cellulose matrix owing to its brilliant characters like high purity, high polymerization degree, elevated crystallinity, high elasticity and mechanical stability and huge surface area. Certain physicochemical

**Figure 3.** *Types of cellulosic matrix [1, 2, 27].*

adaptations are facile to reinforce in nanofibrillated cellulose matrix so as to yield multipurpose paint additives and lacquer/latex. Reconfigured cellulose composites are obtained through inorganic nanoparticles/metal aggregates and/or other polymer blending via techniques of homogenized aggregation and in-situ metal-salt reduction in suspensions. Macromolecular networkings of cellulose matrix can be developed via facile templates and ensue nanometal distributions into its skeleton without further aggregations [13, 26–28]. Carbon reconfigured nanocomposite has received much attention due to reinforcement in mechanical features besides boosted electrical conductivity, which is additive for automotive fuel stroke components entailing electric conductance. The types of various cellulosic matrixes are depicted in **Figure 3**.

Cellulose attracted considerable attention as the strongest potential feedstock for bio-based polymer productions [1, 27]. Thus, noteworthy reinforcements in different cellulosic matrixes are done to get assorted nanocomposites. Cellulosic derivatives act as prominent filler/matrix in getting resourceful biosustainable options to high-quality synthetic polymeric composites besides substituting most petroleum-derived functional counterparts. Eco-sustainable cellulosic-reinforced nanostructures offer prospective functions with a wide applicability from energystorage devices to biomedical scaffolds [1, 2, 13]. Cellulose is the most plentiful natural polymer and component of cell walls of plants and is also found in diverse genus, viz. algae, fungi, bacteria and sea animal/tunicate. Cellulose substance contains linearly placed and alternate stereo-configured units of D-anhydroglucopyranose homo-polymeric bonding with 1, 4-β-glycosidic aggregations that exist as micro-fibrils [1, 2]. Morphological variations in cellulose control the degree of polymerization, which varies as per its resources. Huge hydroxyl groups on the glycosidic chain of cellulose via hydrogen bonding upshots manifold cellulosic microfibrils owing to elevated mechanical strength, rigidity, stability and biocompatibility. Hydroxyl functionality of cellulose skeleton is facile to undergo assorted physicochemical reinforcement like etherification, carboxy-methylation, cyanoethylation and hydroxyl-propylation yielding assorted derivatives for viable

**109**

*Reinforce Fabricated Nano-Composite Matrixes for Modernization of S & T in New Millennium*

Cellulose-lyocell fiber/PLA Filler Unexpectedly high

**functions**

filler

Cellulose fiber/polystyrene composites Filler Increases flexural storage modulus

Cellulose particles/chitosan composite film Filler Enhances mechanical properties

Regenerated cellulose film/BiOBr composite Matrix Cellulosic film own cavity for

Cellulose/MMT clay composite films Matrix High-strength cellulose composite

Cellulose film/graphene oxide composite Matrix Superior mechanical performances

Carboxymethyl cellulose/carbon composites Matrix Reinforced cellulosic composites

Cellulose paper/carbon nanotube film/composite Matrix Reinforced composites are flexible,

Methylcellulose/keratin hydrolysate membranes Matrix Protein and polysaccharide

Cellulose fibers/iodine composite Matrix Cellulosic composites enhance

Cellulose acetate-polyaniline-derived membrane Matrix Cellulosic membranes enhance

Polyhydroxybutyrate/ethyl-cellulosic-derived films Filler Polyhydroxybutyrate/ethyl-

**Cellulose-reinforced composite** 

biodegradability, significantly high mechanical characteristics.

Increases tensile strength, dimensional stability, matrix compatibility, biodegradability.

**property**

Filler Increases thermal and mechanical performance.

and processing speed.

and adsorption capacity of

BiOBr particles and expanded specific surface area via porosity feasible for efficient photocatalysis.

films with excellent antibacterial

and excellent ultraviolet-shielding

HaP-cellulosic interactive ductility use to remediate pollutant.

own huge potential as sensors in

tough, thermally stable and own uniform electrical conductivity suitable for advanced biotech use.

reinforcement improves mechanical and thermal

photo-induced conductivity.

cellulosic reinforced formulation reduces crystallinity, promotes degradation and boosts physicochemical characters viable for sustainable biocompatibility anticipated in biomedicals and

conductivity mechanical biocompatibility.

Filler Improves thermal and mechanical properties.

chitosan film.

activities.

properties.

Matrix Reinforced matrix holds tough

bioelectronics.

properties.

coatings.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91305*

Ethylated-cellulose, hydroxypropylated-cellulose, polyacrylated-cellulose and calcium phosphated-

Cellulose fiber/high-density polyethylene

Cellulose acetate/hydroxyapatite mineral

cellulose composites

composites

composites

**Cellulosic composite Cellulose** 

Cellulose-lyocell/acetate, butyrate composites Matrix/

*Reinforce Fabricated Nano-Composite Matrixes for Modernization of S & T in New Millennium DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91305*


*Composite and Nanocomposite Materials - From Knowledge to Industrial Applications*

adaptations are facile to reinforce in nanofibrillated cellulose matrix so as to yield multipurpose paint additives and lacquer/latex. Reconfigured cellulose composites are obtained through inorganic nanoparticles/metal aggregates and/or other polymer blending via techniques of homogenized aggregation and in-situ metal-salt reduction in suspensions. Macromolecular networkings of cellulose matrix can be developed via facile templates and ensue nanometal distributions into its skeleton without further aggregations [13, 26–28]. Carbon reconfigured nanocomposite has received much attention due to reinforcement in mechanical features besides boosted electrical conductivity, which is additive for automotive fuel stroke components entailing electric conductance. The types of various cellulosic matrixes are

Cellulose attracted considerable attention as the strongest potential feedstock for bio-based polymer productions [1, 27]. Thus, noteworthy reinforcements in different cellulosic matrixes are done to get assorted nanocomposites. Cellulosic derivatives act as prominent filler/matrix in getting resourceful biosustainable options to high-quality synthetic polymeric composites besides substituting most petroleum-derived functional counterparts. Eco-sustainable cellulosic-reinforced nanostructures offer prospective functions with a wide applicability from energystorage devices to biomedical scaffolds [1, 2, 13]. Cellulose is the most plentiful natural polymer and component of cell walls of plants and is also found in diverse genus, viz. algae, fungi, bacteria and sea animal/tunicate. Cellulose substance contains linearly placed and alternate stereo-configured units of D-anhydroglucopyranose homo-polymeric bonding with 1, 4-β-glycosidic aggregations that exist as micro-fibrils [1, 2]. Morphological variations in cellulose control the degree of polymerization, which varies as per its resources. Huge hydroxyl groups on the glycosidic chain of cellulose via hydrogen bonding upshots manifold cellulosic microfibrils owing to elevated mechanical strength, rigidity, stability and biocompatibility. Hydroxyl functionality of cellulose skeleton is facile to undergo assorted physicochemical reinforcement like etherification, carboxy-methylation, cyanoethylation and hydroxyl-propylation yielding assorted derivatives for viable

**108**

depicted in **Figure 3**.

*Types of cellulosic matrix [1, 2, 27].*

**Figure 3.**


#### **Table 2.**

*Assorted cellulosic formulations as filler for making composites [1, 2, 13].*

nanocomposites. Specific chemical formulations like ester-acetate and ethermethyl/carboxy-methylation in cellulosic hydroxyl functionality are augmented characteristics aiding in rational reconfiguration of advanced nanostructures, so it is preferred over cellulose feedstock [18, 21–23].

Visco-processing of cellulose matrix is done through derivative formation and without de-polymerization, which yields valuable products like cellophane and nitrocellulose. This cellophane acts as transparent sheet for low permeation purpose, and nitrocellulose is and excellent feedstock forming basis for rayon: the first "artificial silk" since many decades. Cellulosic derivatives were used as good feedstock for making thermoplastics since the beginning of nineteenth century. Cellulosic-reinforced formulations like cellulose acetate and cellulose esters are facile to mold as extrusion and films, besides being used in making construction materials, paints, pharmaceutical scaffolds and biodegradable plastics [1]. Cellulose-derived polymeric composites are obtained through integrating nanocellulose into assorted synthetic/natural polymeric matrixes as current advanced materials owing to their extensive applicability. Since the 1980s to the present, R&D led several innovative cellulosic reinforcements, which perk up glycol-polymeric insertion so as to yield superior functional biocomposite-derived cellulose [28]. Assorted cellulosic formulations obtained through reinforcement in host matrixes are mentioned in **Table 2**.

#### **4.8 Advances in reinforced cellulosic nanomaterials**

Currently, cellulose biopolymer can be integrated into two types of polymer nanocomposites: nanocellulose-based nanopolymer composites and nanocellulose platform-based nanocomposites. Viable applications of reconfigured cellulosic nanocomposites are shown in **Figure 4**:

Advanced biotechnology utilizes assorted biopolymer cellulosic forms including natural fibers, nanocellulose and cellulose derivatives to undergo characteristic diversified and sustainable functional variations to yield alternative composites for multifunctional usages. Copious cellulose acts as foremost natural feedstock option for fossil resources in fabricating reinforced martial matrixes [1]. Polylactic acid reinforced in cellulose matrix offers biodegradable, exceptionally sturdy and nontoxic nanocomposites called cellulosic bioplastics with superior thermal, electrical and mechanical features. Cellulosic bioplastics and functionalized nanocrystals are benign, inexpensive and robust serviceable composite owing to their wellreinforced structures of constituting matrixes for deriving electrochemical and energy-storage tools. Poly-hydroxy-alkanoate integrated/filled cellulosic matrixes yield eco-friendly composites as a substitute to synthetic polymers for food packaging, plastics and biomedical templates [1, 2]. Cellulose-reinforced composites cater to today's challenges via development of sustainable and green products through economic, environmental and social perspectives, though cellulosic biopolymeric composites fulfill partial confronts, which are to be tackled in futuristic R&D. Fully compatible two-phase polymeric composites need to be developed through materials science and process engineering in cellulose chemistry [26].

**111**

*Reinforce Fabricated Nano-Composite Matrixes for Modernization of S & T in New Millennium*

Cellulose is the copious bioproduct through plants, animals, bacteria and flora-fauna. Its extensive linear chain polymer is composed of 1,4-β-linked D-glucopyranose assembly in the hierarchy of microfibrils with excellent strength and stiffness. Nanoscale/dimensional cellulosic matrixes are reconfigured in

functionality provides designed and desired applications in S&T [28].

assorted forms like nanocrystal, nanofibers or flakes. Nanocellulose matrixes appear safe, versatile, biodegradable and biocompatible without any side effects on health and environment. Reconfigured cellulose matrixes own small thermal expansion coefficient, huge aspect ratio, and superior mechanical, optical and tensile strength features. Thus, they are preferred for special utility including thermo-reversibly tenable hydrogel, paper making, coating, additives, food/drug packaging, lithe screens/films and lightweight ballistic protection beside usages in automobile windows. Assorted cellulosic composites are reconfigured, viz. dispersed phase nanofillers, dispersed phase matrix, and interfacial region hybrids owing to their potential biomedical significance, namely targeted drug/gene/cell delivery/carrying and fabricating temporary implants with PHB sutures besides making stents. Cellulose skeleton is fragile to reinforce with diverse nanometals via innate hydrogen bonding so as to yield supramolecular nanoclusters as best utilized in textiles due to native antimicrobial, antibacterial and improved catalytic parameters [26]. Nanocellulosic reinforced polymeric matrixes owe undo recombined dynamic covalent mechanophoric linking which imparts self-healing capacity due to surface modification via scissile chemical bonding [1]. The reinforcement of material phases and skeletal faces is found to boost its surface activity in the ensuing matrixes, and due to self-supported healing, it further gifts superior sensitivity to mechanical stress transports [2]. Typical nano-cellulose composites have compacted lingo-cellulosic biomass and alter its innate characteristics like fibrils have crystalline features and high strength and mechanical rigidity. Certain nano-cellulose-based matrixes have especial features like light-weight, highly dense (1.6 g/cc) and lofty tensile strength (10 GPa at par with cast iron), e.g., nano-cellulosic matrix with proactive hydroxyl

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91305*

**4.9 Cellulose nanocomposites**

*Viable applications of reconfigured cellulosic nanocomposites [1, 2].*

**Figure 4.**

*Reinforce Fabricated Nano-Composite Matrixes for Modernization of S & T in New Millennium DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91305*

**Figure 4.** *Viable applications of reconfigured cellulosic nanocomposites [1, 2].*

### **4.9 Cellulose nanocomposites**

*Composite and Nanocomposite Materials - From Knowledge to Industrial Applications*

**Cellulosic composite Cellulose** 

*Assorted cellulosic formulations as filler for making composites [1, 2, 13].*

Polyhydroxybutyrate/polyhydroxyalkanoate-

cellulosic composites

**Table 2.**

nanocomposites. Specific chemical formulations like ester-acetate and ethermethyl/carboxy-methylation in cellulosic hydroxyl functionality are augmented characteristics aiding in rational reconfiguration of advanced nanostructures, so it

**functions**

**Cellulose-reinforced composite** 

physical-mechanical strength as suitable for packaging.

**property**

Filler Cellulosic reinforcement boosts

Visco-processing of cellulose matrix is done through derivative formation and without de-polymerization, which yields valuable products like cellophane and nitrocellulose. This cellophane acts as transparent sheet for low permeation purpose, and nitrocellulose is and excellent feedstock forming basis for rayon: the first "artificial silk" since many decades. Cellulosic derivatives were used as good feedstock for making thermoplastics since the beginning of nineteenth century. Cellulosic-reinforced formulations like cellulose acetate and cellulose esters are facile to mold as extrusion and films, besides being used in making construction materials, paints, pharmaceutical scaffolds and biodegradable plastics [1]. Cellulose-derived polymeric composites are obtained through integrating nanocellulose into assorted synthetic/natural polymeric matrixes as current advanced materials owing to their extensive applicability. Since the 1980s to the present, R&D led several innovative cellulosic reinforcements, which perk up glycol-polymeric insertion so as to yield superior functional biocomposite-derived cellulose [28]. Assorted cellulosic formulations obtained through reinforcement in host matrixes are mentioned in **Table 2**.

Currently, cellulose biopolymer can be integrated into two types of polymer nanocomposites: nanocellulose-based nanopolymer composites and nanocellulose platform-based nanocomposites. Viable applications of reconfigured cellulosic

Advanced biotechnology utilizes assorted biopolymer cellulosic forms including natural fibers, nanocellulose and cellulose derivatives to undergo characteristic diversified and sustainable functional variations to yield alternative composites for multifunctional usages. Copious cellulose acts as foremost natural feedstock option for fossil resources in fabricating reinforced martial matrixes [1]. Polylactic acid reinforced in cellulose matrix offers biodegradable, exceptionally sturdy and nontoxic nanocomposites called cellulosic bioplastics with superior thermal, electrical and mechanical features. Cellulosic bioplastics and functionalized nanocrystals are benign, inexpensive and robust serviceable composite owing to their wellreinforced structures of constituting matrixes for deriving electrochemical and energy-storage tools. Poly-hydroxy-alkanoate integrated/filled cellulosic matrixes yield eco-friendly composites as a substitute to synthetic polymers for food packaging, plastics and biomedical templates [1, 2]. Cellulose-reinforced composites cater to today's challenges via development of sustainable and green products through economic, environmental and social perspectives, though cellulosic biopolymeric composites fulfill partial confronts, which are to be tackled in futuristic R&D. Fully compatible two-phase polymeric composites need to be developed through materi-

is preferred over cellulose feedstock [18, 21–23].

**4.8 Advances in reinforced cellulosic nanomaterials**

als science and process engineering in cellulose chemistry [26].

nanocomposites are shown in **Figure 4**:

**110**

Cellulose is the copious bioproduct through plants, animals, bacteria and flora-fauna. Its extensive linear chain polymer is composed of 1,4-β-linked D-glucopyranose assembly in the hierarchy of microfibrils with excellent strength and stiffness. Nanoscale/dimensional cellulosic matrixes are reconfigured in assorted forms like nanocrystal, nanofibers or flakes. Nanocellulose matrixes appear safe, versatile, biodegradable and biocompatible without any side effects on health and environment. Reconfigured cellulose matrixes own small thermal expansion coefficient, huge aspect ratio, and superior mechanical, optical and tensile strength features. Thus, they are preferred for special utility including thermo-reversibly tenable hydrogel, paper making, coating, additives, food/drug packaging, lithe screens/films and lightweight ballistic protection beside usages in automobile windows. Assorted cellulosic composites are reconfigured, viz. dispersed phase nanofillers, dispersed phase matrix, and interfacial region hybrids owing to their potential biomedical significance, namely targeted drug/gene/cell delivery/carrying and fabricating temporary implants with PHB sutures besides making stents. Cellulose skeleton is fragile to reinforce with diverse nanometals via innate hydrogen bonding so as to yield supramolecular nanoclusters as best utilized in textiles due to native antimicrobial, antibacterial and improved catalytic parameters [26]. Nanocellulosic reinforced polymeric matrixes owe undo recombined dynamic covalent mechanophoric linking which imparts self-healing capacity due to surface modification via scissile chemical bonding [1]. The reinforcement of material phases and skeletal faces is found to boost its surface activity in the ensuing matrixes, and due to self-supported healing, it further gifts superior sensitivity to mechanical stress transports [2]. Typical nano-cellulose composites have compacted lingo-cellulosic biomass and alter its innate characteristics like fibrils have crystalline features and high strength and mechanical rigidity. Certain nano-cellulose-based matrixes have especial features like light-weight, highly dense (1.6 g/cc) and lofty tensile strength (10 GPa at par with cast iron), e.g., nano-cellulosic matrix with proactive hydroxyl functionality provides designed and desired applications in S&T [28].
