**4. Prevention and control measures**

It is important to remember that in developed countries, where canine rabies is eliminated, the virus may circulate in wildlife. In contrast, in most developing countries, the principal reservoir is dogs. The major rabies control strategies are vaccination of susceptible animals, mainly dogs and cats, elimination or control of stray dogs, and pre- and post-exposure vaccination of humans at risk. For rabies vaccination in animals, inactivated virus (for companion animals and livestock), live attenuated virus (for wildlife and free-roaming dogs), or recombinant vaccines (for

wildlife, cats, and dogs) are used [41]. In China, local rabies vaccines have been used for emergency immunization of beef and dairy cattle and Bactrian (two-humped) camels [8]. In Ukraine, vaccination of domestic dogs and cats, besides oral vaccination of wild animals, mainly foxes, is adopted to control rabies [37]. In Latin America, due to attacks of bats, rabies is a significant problem, especially in cattle; many countries tend to vaccinate cattle but with an inadequate response from owners. In Guatemala, cattle vaccination coverage was estimated to be 11% [34]. In Latin America (e.g., Guatemala), vampire bat control activities (poisoning or culling) are used to control rabies in cattle, besides vaccination of cattle, although it is not widely used due to high cost [34]. In Morocco, free annual rabies vaccination campaigns for dogs are practiced; nevertheless, only around 6% vaccination coverage rate is achieved. Elimination of stray dogs is done by shooting or using strychnine poison [43]. In Algeria, a mean of 131 positive dog rabies cases were reported annually; this is considered extremely high compared to neighboring Tunisia and Morocco. Elimination of stray dogs and vaccination of canines are the main control measures adopted [44].

Vaccination of livestock in affected areas was implemented in 2012 in Bela Vista city, Arkansas state, USA, where a rabies outbreak was reported. More than 200 cattle were vaccinated with two doses of the vaccine to prevent the disease in bovine, equine, goat, and sheep (reviewed by [29]).
