**3. Urban waste separate collection systems**

Separate collection is part of the comprehensive urban waste management system, which covers everything from collection to disposal (Tchobanoglous *et al*., 1994), but which can be

waste. As such, its separate collection is expected to be enhanced in all European Union

When planning the management of municipal solid waste in a particular area or region, the various actions and initiatives must be arranged hierarchically in accordance with the needs imposed by the environment. The hierarchy thus established will essentially depend on the policies of each region or state at a particular moment in time. Under Directive 2008/98/EC, European Union member states must observe the following hierarchy in waste management; it can be also used as a list of priorities for legislation and policies concerning

However, the Directive also states that when this waste hierarchy is applied, the member states shall take steps to foster the options that provide the best overall environmental outcomes. This could mean that certain waste streams have to be removed from the hierarchy when a life cycle

As far as the evolution of the legislation on packaging and packaging waste is concerned, the recovery targets in the first Directive passed on this subject (Directive 94/62/EC) were:

Recycling of 25-45%, by weight, of packaging waste, with a minimum of 15% for each

The following Directive (Directive 2004/12/EC) is far stricter and raised the recovery targets

The progressive changes introduced into the legislation have meant that town councils have also had to evolve in terms of the separate collection methods and programmes they use in

Separate collection is part of the comprehensive urban waste management system, which covers everything from collection to disposal (Tchobanoglous *et al*., 1994), but which can be

 Recovery: minimum 60% by weight (includes incineration with energy recovery) Recycling: between 55-80%, by weight, of the total amount of packaging waste. With the

approach to the global impacts of waste generation and management calls for it.

Recovery of 50-65%, by weight, of packaging waste before 2001.

order to adapt to the new limits established by the legislation.

**3. Urban waste separate collection systems** 

countries, in order to use it and minimize its deposit into landfill.

**2. Legislation** 

Prevention

Recycling

Disposal

Preparing for re-use

material, before 2001.

to be achieved in 2008, which now stand at:

following minimum values:

60% by weight of paper/cardboard

22.5% by weight of recyclable plastic

60% by weight of glass

50% by weight of metal

15% by weight of wood

waste prevention and management:

Other recovery, e.g. energy recovery

studied as a separate subsystem consisting of the pre-collection and collection stages (Figure 1). When studied separately, it can be considered an independent system, in which the input consists of a stream of urban waste and the output is several streams of selected materials, which go to the next management stage where it is subjected to different recovery methods. Separate collection is influenced by a number of environmental factors that influence the choice of the alternatives in the two elements of the system.

Fig. 1. Separate collection diagram.

Pre-collection includes handling, processing and storage of urban waste by citizens before it is deposited at the collection points, where there are different types of containers (Figure 2). After it has been deposited and stored at these points, the waste is collected and transported to the next facility in the urban waste management system. Most recovery methods, such as recycling or incineration, require separation into different fractions at source in order to achieve the minimum quality levels required in these processes. To that end, there is a wide range of fractioning at source, which can range from level zero, i.e. unfractioned or "all in one" collection, to a high level of specific separation of materials (Table 1).

Fig. 2. Urban waste collection containers in Spain.

Separate Collection Systems for Urban Waste (UW) 119

door" level, which is the most convenient alternative from the citizen's standpoint. The managing agent is responsible for separation and recovery, which is more expensive and very inefficient in terms of recovery of materials. At the other extreme is collection with specific fractioning (paper, glass, packaging, batteries, etc.) at establishment and facility level. In this case, citizens have greater responsibility for separation, and materials with

Fig. 3. Collection at drop-off points in Switzerland (left) and Spain (right).

In order to determine the level of efficiency of a separate collection system, it is necessary to define some indicators. This efficiency has been defined in terms of the level of recovery of clean materials at source, deposited in the container, which is in turn expressed in terms of a

 *Fractioning Rate* (*FRi*): the ratio between the amount by weight of the raw material separated and the total amount of urban waste. This rate is used to measure the various

·100(%) *<sup>i</sup>*

*Gross amount of wastecollected incontainer for i FR Total amount of urban waste*

added value for the manager are obtained.

Fig. 4. Ecopark or clean point in Spain.

series of indicators (Gallardo *et al*. 2010):

**3.1 Efficiency indicators** 

collection streams.

Table 1. Types of fractioning at source.

Once the waste has been separated, the question is what to do with it until it is collected. It is usually stored at home or at collection points located on the street (Figure 2). There are several levels of storage, depending on the distance travelled by the citizen to the deposit point:


Combining the different types of separation at source with storage levels can create a wide range of pre-collection systems. At one extreme is "all in one" pre-collection and the "door to

Once the waste has been separated, the question is what to do with it until it is collected. It is usually stored at home or at collection points located on the street (Figure 2). There are several levels of storage, depending on the distance travelled by the citizen to the deposit point:

 *The door to door system.* The bins or containers are located at each door, courtyard or other area accessible from the home or building. The distance that the citizen has to

 *The kerbside system*. The deposit points are no longer located at the door, but every 50-60 m on kerbsides. Citizens do not have to travel very far and acceptance is good. This

 *The drop-off points system*. Collection points are located at greater distances in order to reduce management costs. The areas may have a range of between 100 and 300 m. The system relies on citizens' willingness to travel longer distances on foot. Figure 3 shows two drop-off points for dropping off paper-cardboard, glass and lightweight packaging

 *Deposit at establishment level*. Some establishments (shops, public institutions, etc.) collaborate in the separate collection of some types of waste, particularly hazardous

 *Deposit at facility level*. Deposit points are located in facilities away from the residential area. These facilities are called "Clean points", "Ecoparks" and "Recovery and Recycling Centres" (Household Waste Recycling Centres in the United Kingdom). They are able to selectively collect all types of waste, especially those that are not collected at other

Combining the different types of separation at source with storage levels can create a wide range of pre-collection systems. At one extreme is "all in one" pre-collection and the "door to

Total urban waste

Mixed Organic

Mixed Organic Lightweight

Mixed Specific

Without fractioning

waste

specific waste

Table 1. Types of fractioning at source.

Two fractions: organic and mixed

Three fractions: organic, lightweight and mixed waste

Specific separation: mixed and

travel to deposit the waste is minimal.

system is applied in cities with high population densities.

(plastic, metal and liquid packaging board) separately.

waste such as batteries, fluorescent lamps and drugs.

levels. An ecopark in Spain is shown in Figure 4.

door" level, which is the most convenient alternative from the citizen's standpoint. The managing agent is responsible for separation and recovery, which is more expensive and very inefficient in terms of recovery of materials. At the other extreme is collection with specific fractioning (paper, glass, packaging, batteries, etc.) at establishment and facility level. In this case, citizens have greater responsibility for separation, and materials with added value for the manager are obtained.

Fig. 3. Collection at drop-off points in Switzerland (left) and Spain (right).

Fig. 4. Ecopark or clean point in Spain.
