**8.1 Fatty acids**

For commercial samples, the majority of oil analysis is carried out by the two Australian IOC accredited laboratories. This allows the laboratories to keep accurate records of the quality of oil being produced in Australia from year to year.

Free fatty acid value (FFA) of olive oil is a general indicator of how sound the olive fruit was at harvest and how carefully it was processed into oil. Table 4 shows a typical range for free fatty acids (FFA) and peroxide value (PV). The range shows that the majority of oils are well within acceptable limits with the median value of 0.18 FFA and 8 mEq oxygen/kg. Occasionally, due to fruit damage or climatic factors, oils may be outside of acceptable standards. However, less than 3.3% of FFA samples and 2.2% of PV samples failed to meet the IOC limits in 2006.


Table 4. Typical range of free fatty acids and peroxide value in Australian olive oil based on commercial samples in 2006.

The quality of Australian extra virgin olive oil has improved over the last decade. A summary of the FFA's of olive oils submitted to the Australian National EVOO Competition since 1997 (Table 5) shows how oil quality has improved. Between 1997 and 2002, only 34%

Cultivation of Olives in Australia 225

suitability of this cultivar to the Australian climate and its high production rate, this cultivar will continue to be a significant portion of the Australian crop. As for other parameters,

**Campesterol** 

**Average** 0.08 0.00 0.09 3.61 0.16 0.63 0.50 0.19 0.13

**Min.** 0.03 0.00 0.02 2.27 0.10 0.34 0.22 0.00 0.00

**Max.** 0.16 0.02 0.48 4.89 0.25 1.41 1.00 0.52 0.59

**Median** 0.07 0.00 0.07 3.49 0.15 0.56 0.47 0.19 0.06

**Clerosterol** 

**Average** 85.08 7.34 0.01 0.58 0.93 0.68 94.62 1.11 1537.8

**Min.** 79.45 5.21 0.00 0.20 0.28 0.21 93.83 0.64 1131.7

**Max.** 88.24 13.66 0.13 0.93 2.51 1.27 96.38 3.09 2153.8

**Median** 85.75 6.81 0.00 0.60 0.48 0.58 94.56 1.06 1520.9

Table 8. Phytosterols profile in Australian olive oil showing the range and the average and

A new agricultural industry requires significant research and development support to optimise the industry. Such was the case with the awakening of the olive industry in Australia. It created a need for Australian research scientists to develop an understanding of the agronomy and the chemistry of the crop, essential for producing the highest yield with the best quality. The research effort has been supported strongly by the Australian Olive Association and financial support from some of the larger producers. Much of the financial support has come from the Federal Governments "Rural Industries Research and

**Sitostanol** 

**D-5,24-** 

**Stigmastadienol** 

**Apparent** 

**β sitosterol** 

**Diols** 

**Total Sterols** 

**(mg/kg)** 

**Campestanol** 

**Stigmasterol** 

**D-7- Avenasterol** 

**D-7- Stigmastenol** 

**D-7-Campesterol** 

these components may exceed the international limits.

**Brassicasterol** 

**24-Methylenecholesterol** 

**Cholesterol** 

**β-Sitosterol** 

median values for each component.

**9. Research 9.1 Funding** 

**D-5- Avenasterol** 

**D-5,23-**

**Stigmastadienol** 

**Sterols (%)** 


of the oils were less than 0.19% free fatty acids. In the following six years, from 2003 to 2009, 62% were less than 0.19% FFA.

Table 5. Average free fatty acid levels of Australian olive over two periods (AOA)

The variable Australian climate and differences in temperature during fruit development has a strong influence on fatty acid profiles (FAP) as shown for oil analyses carried out in 2006 (Table 6). The profile of the fatty acids covers the full IOC range for acceptable limits but exceeds that range in several instances. Although the range is not indicative of nutritive value, the issues of compliance to international standards are significant.


Table 6. Average, minimum and maximum limits for FAP of Australian olive oil in 2006 (n=468).

The range of fatty acids is further demonstrated with the analysis of samples from New Zealand, a cooler climate to that of the Australian olive producing areas. The FAP of 56 randomly selected samples in 2006 (Table 7) show that the oleic acid level often (23%) exceeds the IOC values which suggest these oils are nutritionally superior to those with high levels of saturated fat. However, these oils would officially fail the IOC standard. Many samples are lower (17%) than the IOC standard for palmitic (saturated) acid.


Table 7. Fatty acid profile of 56 randomly selected New Zealand oils from 2006.

#### **8.2 Phytosterols**

There is also a significant range in the phytosterol content and profile in Australian olive oil (Table 8). In particular, the level of campesterol often exceeds 4.0%, generally due to the production level of *cv* Barnea which is higher in campesterol than other cultivars. Due to the

of the oils were less than 0.19% free fatty acids. In the following six years, from 2003 to 2009,

**1997-2002 2003-2009**  <0.19 34% <0.19 62% 0.20-0.29 33% 0.20-0.29 26% 0.30-0.39 14% 0.30-0.3 8% >0.40 19% >0.40 4%

The variable Australian climate and differences in temperature during fruit development has a strong influence on fatty acid profiles (FAP) as shown for oil analyses carried out in 2006 (Table 6). The profile of the fatty acids covers the full IOC range for acceptable limits but exceeds that range in several instances. Although the range is not indicative of nutritive

Sample C16:0 C16:1 C17:0 C17:1 C18:0 C18:1 C18:2 C18:3 C20:0 C20:1 C22:0

limits 7.5- 20.0 0.3-3.5 <sup>≤</sup> 0.3 ≤ 0.3 0.5 - 5.0 55.0 - 83.0 3.5 - 21.0 <sup>≤</sup> 1.0 ≤ 0.6 ≤ 0.4 ≤ 0.2 Average 12.3 0.9 0.1 0.1 2.1 74.1 8.9 0.7 0.3 0.3 0.1 Min 7.4 0.4 0.0 0.0 1.1 55.7 2.7 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.0 Max 18.3 1.9 0.4 0.6 4.0 84.9 23.4 1.5 0.5 0.5 0.2 Table 6. Average, minimum and maximum limits for FAP of Australian olive oil in 2006

The range of fatty acids is further demonstrated with the analysis of samples from New Zealand, a cooler climate to that of the Australian olive producing areas. The FAP of 56 randomly selected samples in 2006 (Table 7) show that the oleic acid level often (23%) exceeds the IOC values which suggest these oils are nutritionally superior to those with high levels of saturated fat. However, these oils would officially fail the IOC standard. Many

**Fatty Acids C16:0 C16:1 C17:0 C17:1 C18:0 C18:1 C18:2 C18:3 C20:0 C20:1 C22:0**  Max 12.4 0.9 0.06 0.11 2.59 **85.5** 7.6 0.9 0.4 0.4 0.2 Min **6.4** 0.3 0.03 0.06 1.12 78.2 3.0 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.1

There is also a significant range in the phytosterol content and profile in Australian olive oil (Table 8). In particular, the level of campesterol often exceeds 4.0%, generally due to the production level of *cv* Barnea which is higher in campesterol than other cultivars. Due to the

samples are lower (17%) than the IOC standard for palmitic (saturated) acid.

Table 7. Fatty acid profile of 56 randomly selected New Zealand oils from 2006.

Table 5. Average free fatty acid levels of Australian olive over two periods (AOA)

value, the issues of compliance to international standards are significant.

62% were less than 0.19% FFA.

IOC

(n=468).

**8.2 Phytosterols** 

suitability of this cultivar to the Australian climate and its high production rate, this cultivar will continue to be a significant portion of the Australian crop. As for other parameters, these components may exceed the international limits.


Table 8. Phytosterols profile in Australian olive oil showing the range and the average and median values for each component.
