**9. Research**

### **9.1 Funding**

A new agricultural industry requires significant research and development support to optimise the industry. Such was the case with the awakening of the olive industry in Australia. It created a need for Australian research scientists to develop an understanding of the agronomy and the chemistry of the crop, essential for producing the highest yield with the best quality. The research effort has been supported strongly by the Australian Olive Association and financial support from some of the larger producers. Much of the financial support has come from the Federal Governments "Rural Industries Research and

Cultivation of Olives in Australia 227

Fig. 4. Dendrogram created with 10 RAPD primers illustrating differences in seed morphology of 11 trees identified by the historic map as *cv* Manzanillo (Mailer

Perhaps the main issue for Australian oils was the very variable environmental conditions under which the crop was being grown. Oil quantity and quality rely heavily on crop management, moisture availability, harvest timing, processing methodology and storage. As a result of these differences Australian oils showed a wide range in the fatty acid profiles (Mailer, 2005b). The diversity in other quality characteristics and sensory analysis were also

In the initial stages of the development of this industry, there was little understanding of the intricacies of these crop management practices and the resultant crop yield, chemical quality and sensory attributes such as taste, colour and odour. For these reasons, several studies have been undertaken to look at the relationship between oil quality and harvest timing,

As a result of the low rainfall and unpredictable nature of the Australian environment, almost all Australian olive groves are irrigated. Irrigation provides more predictable yields and harvest timing unlike dryland groves. Due to the importance of irrigation, research has focussed on water requirements, particularly in the stages from planting to commercial harvesting (De Barro, 2005). This research has been aimed at increasing the understanding of olive water use and requirements in the period from planting to early fruit bearing. As most Australian olive groves are irrigated several studies have focussed on variation in maturity, yield, oil quality and sensory attributes under variable moisture availability

Environmental effects on oil production have created unexpected issues for Australian producers. The variation in quality and sensory has created a new spectrum of oils with unique qualities and sometimes more variable attributes than has been produced in Mediterranean climates. This sometimes results in the oil being outside the limited range of

irrigation treatments, yield and sensory characteristics (Mailer 2007).

(Ayton et al., 2007) and with different harvest times.

existing international standards (Mailer, 2007).

unpublished).

significant.

**9.3 Environment** 

Development Council" (www.rirdc.gov.au) which has consistently supported projects the olive industry considered to be of significant value.

Although most Australian agricultural industries pay a levy to the Federal Government to support research, olives have always been considered a new crop and have been exempt from a levy. However, in 2011, through support from the Australian Olive Association, the industry has agreed to contribute to a crop levy. This guarantees ongoing funding for the research and development of this industry in the future.

#### **9.2 Cultivar selection**

Determining which cultivars to grow was an early requirement for growers. At the early stages of development one of Australia's best resources was the historic olive orchard at Wagga Wagga. This orchard, with over 50 cultivars and trees which, in some cases, were over 100 years old, provided an ideal resource for study. Such was one of the first research projects funded by RIRDC (Ayton et al., 2001) in which oil content, oil quality and initial attempts to identify cultivars by DNA were carried out. The range of trees, some of which were grafting experiments and others with varying levels of irrigation, appeared to be an ideal study. Although the trees were producing reasonable crops due to poor maintenance for such a long period, and the variable conditions under which each of the trees were grown, the use of the data was limited.

There remained considerable confusion about cultivars being grown in Australia and if they were true to type. After many years, maps of the grove had been altered and many trees removed. Using RAPD DNA methods to discriminate between the cultivars (Mailer & May, 2002), dendrograms were constructed showing the relationship of the cultivars to each other. Although some trees were identified, it was not possible to obtain reference standards for many of the cultivars and they remained unknown. Errors in this labelling on the map became evident as shown by the dendrogram of trees labelled as *cv* Manzanillo in Fig 4. The comparison of trees, reportedly to be the same cultivar, was clearly different, based on DNA patterns and seed morphology.

There was little data on the performance of any olive variety for optimal yields and quality under Australian conditions and the industry has relied on information from the Northern hemisphere, particularly from Mediterranean sources. Performance characteristics of cultivars are the basis on which a selection is made for a particular use or physical situation. The National Olive Variety Assessment (NOVA) project was established to help resolve the confusion in olive variety identity and to evaluate the performance, in different climatic regions of Australia, of the majority of known commercial olive varieties. (Sweeney, 2005). The establishment of a national varietal grove at Roseworthy provided an opportunity for growers to evaluate different cultivars, grown at that site.

At the same time studies were being undertaken on wild olive trees which had become established in the Adelaide Hills to attempt to identify feral olives which may be better adapted to the Australian conditions (Sedgley, 2000). Despite these investigations, the Australian industry has been established on common European cultivars and some more recently introduced including *cv* Barnea from Israel.

Development Council" (www.rirdc.gov.au) which has consistently supported projects the

Although most Australian agricultural industries pay a levy to the Federal Government to support research, olives have always been considered a new crop and have been exempt from a levy. However, in 2011, through support from the Australian Olive Association, the industry has agreed to contribute to a crop levy. This guarantees ongoing funding for the

Determining which cultivars to grow was an early requirement for growers. At the early stages of development one of Australia's best resources was the historic olive orchard at Wagga Wagga. This orchard, with over 50 cultivars and trees which, in some cases, were over 100 years old, provided an ideal resource for study. Such was one of the first research projects funded by RIRDC (Ayton et al., 2001) in which oil content, oil quality and initial attempts to identify cultivars by DNA were carried out. The range of trees, some of which were grafting experiments and others with varying levels of irrigation, appeared to be an ideal study. Although the trees were producing reasonable crops due to poor maintenance for such a long period, and the variable conditions under which each of the trees were

There remained considerable confusion about cultivars being grown in Australia and if they were true to type. After many years, maps of the grove had been altered and many trees removed. Using RAPD DNA methods to discriminate between the cultivars (Mailer & May, 2002), dendrograms were constructed showing the relationship of the cultivars to each other. Although some trees were identified, it was not possible to obtain reference standards for many of the cultivars and they remained unknown. Errors in this labelling on the map became evident as shown by the dendrogram of trees labelled as *cv* Manzanillo in Fig 4. The comparison of trees, reportedly to be the same cultivar, was clearly different, based on DNA

There was little data on the performance of any olive variety for optimal yields and quality under Australian conditions and the industry has relied on information from the Northern hemisphere, particularly from Mediterranean sources. Performance characteristics of cultivars are the basis on which a selection is made for a particular use or physical situation. The National Olive Variety Assessment (NOVA) project was established to help resolve the confusion in olive variety identity and to evaluate the performance, in different climatic regions of Australia, of the majority of known commercial olive varieties. (Sweeney, 2005). The establishment of a national varietal grove at Roseworthy provided an opportunity for

At the same time studies were being undertaken on wild olive trees which had become established in the Adelaide Hills to attempt to identify feral olives which may be better adapted to the Australian conditions (Sedgley, 2000). Despite these investigations, the Australian industry has been established on common European cultivars and some more

olive industry considered to be of significant value.

research and development of this industry in the future.

**9.2 Cultivar selection** 

grown, the use of the data was limited.

patterns and seed morphology.

growers to evaluate different cultivars, grown at that site.

recently introduced including *cv* Barnea from Israel.


Fig. 4. Dendrogram created with 10 RAPD primers illustrating differences in seed morphology of 11 trees identified by the historic map as *cv* Manzanillo (Mailer unpublished).
