**2. Consumer behaviour in purchasing food: The role of culture in the consumption of olive oil**

The study of consumer behaviour and marketing discipline has focused on analysing how individuals make decisions to spend their resources in categories related to consumption (Schiffman and Kanuk, 2001). The act of purchase is considered as an activity aimed at solving a problem (Howard and Sheth, 1986). Typically, the consumer is faced with a multitude of decisions to make, whose complexity varies depending on product and purchase situation (Lambin, 1995). Consequently, understanding consumer behaviour requires assessing how people made and make their purchasing and consumption decisions (Blackwell et al., 2001), considering that a decision is the result of selecting a choice from two or more alternative possibilities (Schiffman and Kanuk, 2001).

In the context of food products, Steenkamp (1997) proposes a conceptual model of consumer behaviour in which four stages in the purchase decision process are identified: (1) problem recognition; (2) information search; (3) evaluation of alternatives; and (4) choice. In addition, there are three groups of factors that influence this process: a) properties of foods; b) Individual-related factors (e.g., biological, psychological and demographic); and c) environmental factors (i.e., economic, cultural factors and marketing aspects (see Figure 1).

Fig. 1. Model of consumer behaviour for food (Steenkamp, 1997)

Consumer Preferences for Olive-Oil Attributes:

A Review of the Empirical Literature Using a Conjoint Approach 237

factors on consumers' preferences for basic olive oil, followed by size of container. The main role of price was recently pointed out by Dekhili and d'Hauteville (2009), who found that price was the most important choice attribute in both producing (e.g., Tunisia) and non-producing (e.g., France) countries. In this respect, although fair prices can be charged for olive oil compared with other vegetable oils, there is a limit to the price many consumers are willing to pay (Mili, 2006). The use of price as a choice criterion for consumers is a consequence of the variety of olive-oil brands. Nevertheless, it is true that aspects such as colour, packaging and product labelling are helping producers to differentiate their brands from those of competing

Moreover, aspects related to the origin of olive oil are becoming more important in consumers' choice behaviour. Dekhili and d'Hauteville (2009) showed that the region of origin was relevant in explaining consumer behaviour. Such a regional image has three components: (i) local agronomic conditions (soils, climate); (ii) traditional human knowhow; and (iii) raw product characteristics (variety). Thus, these authors found important differences between France and Tunisia in giving credence to the role of an olive-oil-specific regional image. In particular, these authors found quite significant differences regarding the relative weights of the attributes of this image valued in each country. In this respect, there is a growing segment of consumers who prefer quality food with certification of origin (both Protected Designation of Origin [PDO] and Protected Geographical Indication [PGI]). Dekhili *et al*. (2011) found that these 'official cues' are more important for those consumers belonging to non-producing olive oil countries (e.g., France), whereas in producing countries (e.g., Tunisia) consumers tend to choose olive oil based on origin and 'sensory cues' (e.g., colour and appearance). For instance, in Spain there are 32 PDOs for olive oil; that is, Andalusia, in southern Spain, the geographical area with the highest number of certifications of origin. Sanz and Macías (2005) confirmed the strategic role of Spanish olive oil PDOs. Thus, these authors found that such PDOs, effectively, add greater value to local production systems and so enhance the final quality and market differentiation of a specific-origin olive oil. In this respect, Scarpa *et al*'s. (2005) study in the context of three products (table grapes, oranges and olive oil), confirmed the importance of PDOs. According to these authors, the role of PDOs was stronger

Thompson et al. (1994) used Ajzen & Fishbein's (1980) *theory of reasoned decision* (TRA) successfully, as a mean of identifying the major issues influencing olive oil choice in the UK. These authors found that attitudes were strongly related to the user or non-user of olive oil. In this respect, the most significant attitude related to the flavour-improving attributes of

In Mediterranean countries, Saba & Di Natale (1998) surveyed 909 Italians in order to assess their attitudes towards fats and food choice. The researchers also used Ajzen & Fishbein's (1980) TRA, combined with a measure of 'habit', as a theoretical framework. The findings suggested that in Italy, culture and food habits might predict intention to consume fats and oils better than TRA. Saba *et al*. (2000) recently re-confirmed this attitudinal TRA model in

Another interesting aspect related to culture and purchase habits is the place of purchase. Delgado and Guinard's (2011) study of US consumers, reported that the majority of them bought olive oil (extra-virgin) primarily at the supermarket (68%), specialty stores (50%) and

suppliers in the distribution chain for olive oil (Van der Lans et al., 2001).

for olive oil compared to the other two categories analysed.

olive oil (e.g., improving the taste of salads and cooked meals).

the Italian context.

As Figure 1 shows, culture is a key concept for understanding consumer behaviour. According to Solomon *et al*. (1999), this is a consequence of culture representing the collective memory of society and the prism through which such society develops its perception. Culture includes a complex of values, ideas, attitudes and other meaningful symbols that allow humans to communicate, interpret and evaluate as members of a society (Blackwell *et al.,* 2001). According to Schiffman and Kanuk (2001), it is the sum of learned beliefs, values and customs helping to determine the behaviour of members of a given society as a consumer. Undoubtedly, culture is a key element not only because it affects all stages of consumer choice, but also because it exerts a major influence on the reasons why people of different cultures buy and consume products (Blackwell *et al*., 2001). In this manner, culture helps to explain the behavioural differences between them. Specifically, during the evaluation stage, culture mainly influences the way in which consumers assign a greater value to certain attributes of the product over others. As Solomon and colleagues (1999) indicate, a consumer culture determines the priorities of certain products and the success or failure thereof.

When consumers buy a product, they expect it to perform their need. But these needs are different between cultures. This is, for instance, the case of olive oil. There are big differences between olive oil producing, Mediterranean countries and non-producing countries. For the former, olive oil can be considered as a traditional food product. In this respect, the literature shows some important associations between the consumption of such traditional products and cultural aspects such as values, beliefs and life-style orientations (Vanhonacker et al., 2010). In this respect, as noted by Govers and Schoormans (2005), some studies have tested how consumers prefer products or brands with a particular symbolic meaning, compatible with the image they wish to convey of themselves. In some cases, this is intended to resemble the kind of people who normally use the product (Heath and Scott, 1998). Thus, traditional food consumers are generally not caught up in modern ways of life (Guerrero et al., 2009), where time pressure, business and convenience orientation dominate. Housewives are usually portrayed in the literature as typical consumers. In addition, traditional food consumers are also portrayed as liking the familiar; one expression of this preference being the consumption of familiar dishes (Dagevos, 2005). According to this author, these consumers have fairly conservative food habits, maintaining culinary customs across generations. In addition, they are concerned about their health. In this context, olive oil plays an important role.

There exist several studies analysing the role of culture and food habits in the behaviour of consumers regarding such products. Thus, Nielsen *et al.'s* (1998) cross-cultural study showed that there were large differences in the perceptions of virgin olive oils across UK, Denmark and France. Olive oil users from all three countries agreed on the health benefits of virgin olive oil, which led to the feeling of good health and a long life. Therefore, both hedonistic and sensory aspects of virgin olive oil appeared the most varied between countries.

In the UK, García *et al.* (2002) used focus groups and conjoint analysis to analyse the product attribute trade-offs that consumers make when choosing olive-oil products. One of this paper's main findings was that British consumers continue to regard olive oil as a set of individual attributes (e.g., size, taste and health) instead of a product that is perceived as encapsulating all these attributes. They found that price was one of the most influential

As Figure 1 shows, culture is a key concept for understanding consumer behaviour. According to Solomon *et al*. (1999), this is a consequence of culture representing the collective memory of society and the prism through which such society develops its perception. Culture includes a complex of values, ideas, attitudes and other meaningful symbols that allow humans to communicate, interpret and evaluate as members of a society (Blackwell *et al.,* 2001). According to Schiffman and Kanuk (2001), it is the sum of learned beliefs, values and customs helping to determine the behaviour of members of a given society as a consumer. Undoubtedly, culture is a key element not only because it affects all stages of consumer choice, but also because it exerts a major influence on the reasons why people of different cultures buy and consume products (Blackwell *et al*., 2001). In this manner, culture helps to explain the behavioural differences between them. Specifically, during the evaluation stage, culture mainly influences the way in which consumers assign a greater value to certain attributes of the product over others. As Solomon and colleagues (1999) indicate, a consumer culture determines the priorities of certain products and the

When consumers buy a product, they expect it to perform their need. But these needs are different between cultures. This is, for instance, the case of olive oil. There are big differences between olive oil producing, Mediterranean countries and non-producing countries. For the former, olive oil can be considered as a traditional food product. In this respect, the literature shows some important associations between the consumption of such traditional products and cultural aspects such as values, beliefs and life-style orientations (Vanhonacker et al., 2010). In this respect, as noted by Govers and Schoormans (2005), some studies have tested how consumers prefer products or brands with a particular symbolic meaning, compatible with the image they wish to convey of themselves. In some cases, this is intended to resemble the kind of people who normally use the product (Heath and Scott, 1998). Thus, traditional food consumers are generally not caught up in modern ways of life (Guerrero et al., 2009), where time pressure, business and convenience orientation dominate. Housewives are usually portrayed in the literature as typical consumers. In addition, traditional food consumers are also portrayed as liking the familiar; one expression of this preference being the consumption of familiar dishes (Dagevos, 2005). According to this author, these consumers have fairly conservative food habits, maintaining culinary customs across generations. In addition, they are concerned about their health. In this context, olive

There exist several studies analysing the role of culture and food habits in the behaviour of consumers regarding such products. Thus, Nielsen *et al.'s* (1998) cross-cultural study showed that there were large differences in the perceptions of virgin olive oils across UK, Denmark and France. Olive oil users from all three countries agreed on the health benefits of virgin olive oil, which led to the feeling of good health and a long life. Therefore, both hedonistic and sensory aspects of virgin olive oil appeared the most varied between

In the UK, García *et al.* (2002) used focus groups and conjoint analysis to analyse the product attribute trade-offs that consumers make when choosing olive-oil products. One of this paper's main findings was that British consumers continue to regard olive oil as a set of individual attributes (e.g., size, taste and health) instead of a product that is perceived as encapsulating all these attributes. They found that price was one of the most influential

success or failure thereof.

oil plays an important role.

countries.

factors on consumers' preferences for basic olive oil, followed by size of container. The main role of price was recently pointed out by Dekhili and d'Hauteville (2009), who found that price was the most important choice attribute in both producing (e.g., Tunisia) and non-producing (e.g., France) countries. In this respect, although fair prices can be charged for olive oil compared with other vegetable oils, there is a limit to the price many consumers are willing to pay (Mili, 2006). The use of price as a choice criterion for consumers is a consequence of the variety of olive-oil brands. Nevertheless, it is true that aspects such as colour, packaging and product labelling are helping producers to differentiate their brands from those of competing suppliers in the distribution chain for olive oil (Van der Lans et al., 2001).

Moreover, aspects related to the origin of olive oil are becoming more important in consumers' choice behaviour. Dekhili and d'Hauteville (2009) showed that the region of origin was relevant in explaining consumer behaviour. Such a regional image has three components: (i) local agronomic conditions (soils, climate); (ii) traditional human knowhow; and (iii) raw product characteristics (variety). Thus, these authors found important differences between France and Tunisia in giving credence to the role of an olive-oil-specific regional image. In particular, these authors found quite significant differences regarding the relative weights of the attributes of this image valued in each country. In this respect, there is a growing segment of consumers who prefer quality food with certification of origin (both Protected Designation of Origin [PDO] and Protected Geographical Indication [PGI]). Dekhili *et al*. (2011) found that these 'official cues' are more important for those consumers belonging to non-producing olive oil countries (e.g., France), whereas in producing countries (e.g., Tunisia) consumers tend to choose olive oil based on origin and 'sensory cues' (e.g., colour and appearance). For instance, in Spain there are 32 PDOs for olive oil; that is, Andalusia, in southern Spain, the geographical area with the highest number of certifications of origin. Sanz and Macías (2005) confirmed the strategic role of Spanish olive oil PDOs. Thus, these authors found that such PDOs, effectively, add greater value to local production systems and so enhance the final quality and market differentiation of a specific-origin olive oil. In this respect, Scarpa *et al*'s. (2005) study in the context of three products (table grapes, oranges and olive oil), confirmed the importance of PDOs. According to these authors, the role of PDOs was stronger for olive oil compared to the other two categories analysed.

Thompson et al. (1994) used Ajzen & Fishbein's (1980) *theory of reasoned decision* (TRA) successfully, as a mean of identifying the major issues influencing olive oil choice in the UK. These authors found that attitudes were strongly related to the user or non-user of olive oil. In this respect, the most significant attitude related to the flavour-improving attributes of olive oil (e.g., improving the taste of salads and cooked meals).

In Mediterranean countries, Saba & Di Natale (1998) surveyed 909 Italians in order to assess their attitudes towards fats and food choice. The researchers also used Ajzen & Fishbein's (1980) TRA, combined with a measure of 'habit', as a theoretical framework. The findings suggested that in Italy, culture and food habits might predict intention to consume fats and oils better than TRA. Saba *et al*. (2000) recently re-confirmed this attitudinal TRA model in the Italian context.

Another interesting aspect related to culture and purchase habits is the place of purchase. Delgado and Guinard's (2011) study of US consumers, reported that the majority of them bought olive oil (extra-virgin) primarily at the supermarket (68%), specialty stores (50%) and

Consumer Preferences for Olive-Oil Attributes:

the success of European olive oil production.

consequence of improving the taste of salads and meals.

1993). Hair *et al.* (2009) define conjoint analysis as:

of overall preference'.

conjoint Analysis of Multivariate technique, is most appropriate.

**3.1 Study of consumer preferences of olive oil through conjoint analysis** 

The measurement of attitudes/preferences using a multi-attribute methodology, especially a

In fact, this methodology has become an important tool to assess the preferences that a consumer assigns to the various attributes of a specific product/brand (Ruiz and Munuera,

'a multivariate technique used specifically to understand how respondents develop preferences about products or services, and is based on the simple premise that consumers assess the value of a product/service idea (real or hypothetical) combining separate amounts of value provided by each attribute. The utility, which is the conceptual basis for measuring this value, is a subjective preference unique to each individual which includes all the features of a product or service, both tangible and intangible, and as such, is the measure

The most direct application of conjoint analysis is as a tool to find the weight or importance that different levels or categories of product attributes play on the formation of consumer preferences (Múgica, 1989). Therefore, conjoint analysis seeks to establish the relative importance of attributes and levels, inferring the utility (satisfaction) that consumers express when they are presented with a series of product concepts that vary in a systematic way (Walley *et al.,* 1999). The application of this methodology in the field of food has, until recently, been quite limited (Van der Pol and Ryan, 1996), starting in the 1990s when it began to generate a relevant scientific production. This confirms the suitability of this methodology to improve knowledge about consumer behaviour when purchasing food. Thus, when reviewing the literature, it appears that it has only been in recent years that

A Review of the Empirical Literature Using a Conjoint Approach 239

appropriateness of such claims. Nevertheless, homogeneous regulation is expected to set clear parameters across Europe for health claims, and they will be allowed only if they are substantiated scientifically (Tamsin *et al.,* 2005). Given the increasing number of countries being integrated into the EU in the last few years, this seems to be even more important for

New olive oil consumers seem to be more interested in olive oil for two main reasons: health benefits and flavour (Santosa, 2010). Olive oil is claimed to be beneficial for health, as it is rich in vitamin E and it does not contain preservatives (Blery and Sfetsiou, 2008). Among health benefits, lowering the risk of coronary disease, preventing certain kinds of cancer and reducing inflammation have been highlighted (Medeiros and Hampton, 2007). For these reasons, Duff (1998) pointed out that the preference for olive oil is a result of health reasons because the replacement of saturated fats by olive oil results in a lowering of the rate of heart disease. Nevertheless, it is true that there other cheaper seed oils being used as substitutes (Bernabéu et al., 2009). In this respect, olive oil has a high price, although it depends on its origin and its quality (Bourdieu, 1984). For instance, virgin and extra-virgin olive oils are more expensive than standard olive oil. With regard to flavour, Santosa and Guinard (2011) recently reported that this is an important aspect in both the consumption and purchase motivations for olive oil, especially for extra-virgin olive oil, where sensory characteristics are even more important. According to Thompson *et al.* (1994), this is also a

farmers' markets (43%), in contrast with the ways in which Mediterranean consumers most frequently buy their olive oil. Thus, Fotopoulos and Krystallis (2001) reported that 41% of Cretan consumers buy olive oil at the supermarket, while 38% buy in bulk directly from the producer or farm, and 21% make oil from their own olive orchards. Similar figures can be associated with other Mediterranean producing countries such as Italy or Spain. This habit is a consequence of the consumer experience, of belonging to producing countries and the role of olive oil in their intrinsic cultures. Thus, in buying olive oil at supermarkets or hypermarkets, consumers are not exposed to the sensory properties of the product, as they are at farmers' markets or direct from the producers or farms, and so their decisions are based on extrinsic factors such as packaging materials, bottle material and label design (Delgado and Guinard, 2011). This is the case of US consumers.

This is probably the reason why US consumers prefer Italian oil more than Spanish oil. In our opinion, Italian oil possesses a lower quality than Spanish olive oil. However, Italian oil's marketing strategy, from a general point of view, is stronger than the strategies used by Spanish producers. In contrast, when consumers buy oil in bulk directly from the producer, as is the case with consumers belonging to producing countries, they experience the properties of the oil and can make purchasing decisions based on sensory factors. This is the case for consumers living in Mediterranean countries. Even, nowadays these 'experienced consumers' show a greater interest in organic olive oil, given the increasing interest of consumers in ecologically clean products for health and environmental reasons (Gavruchenko et al., 2003). Consumers' need for safer, good quality food has increased over the last years and thus, healthiness and nutritional value are the basic reasons given by consumers for purchasing organic olive oil. In this way, more consumers are willing to pay a higher price, since they take into account organic olive oil's contribution (Sandalidou et al., 2002:405). Nevertheless, Sandalidou *et al*. (2003) pointed out that there is a large number of people who still do not know what an organic product is. For this reason, these authors suggest that the systematic provision of information, mainly through advertising, is necessary, in order to enhance consumers' awareness of organic olive oil's features and nutritional content.
