**7. References**

412 Olive Oil – Constituents, Quality, Health Properties and Bioconversions

The ultimate consequence of the activation or inactivation of a neuron is the release of neurotransmitters and neuropeptides. Since FA decrease food intake, they might be expected to alter activity neurons specifically involved in the regulation of feeding. In fact, OA activates catabolic POMC neurons directly, apparently via ß-oxidation and inactivation of the KATP channel in hypothalamic slice preparations (Jo et al., 2009). In vivo, Obici et al. (Obici et al., 2003) reported that icv administration of OA markedly inhibits glucose production and food intake, accompanied by a decrease in the hypothalamic expression of the anabolic peptide, neuropeptide Y. This decrease in the expression of such a critical anabolic peptide might contribute to the reduced food intake associated with direct central administration of OA. On the other hand, an n-3 FA enriched diet increases food intake in anorexic tumor-bearing rats, in association with reduced tumor appearance, tumor growth and onset of anorexia (Ramos et al., 2005). In these treated rats, neuropeptide Y immunoreactivity increased 38% in ARC and 50% in paraventricular nucleus, whereas αmelanocyte stimulating hormone (a catabolic peptide cleavage product of POMC) decreased 64% in the ARC and 29% in the paraventricular nucleus (Ramos et al., 2005). Finally, in the hippocampus, docosahexaenoic acid (22:6(n-3) increased the spontaneous release of

Besides physiological regulation of energy balance by hypothalamic neuronal FA sensing, impaired regulation of such sensing might contribute to the development of metabolic diseases such as obesity and type 2 diabetes in predisposed subjects exposed to a chronic lipid overload (Luquet & Magnan, 2009; Migrenne et al., 2011). Excessive brain lipid levels may indeed alter control of glucose and lipid homeostasis through changes of autonomic nervous system activity. Increasing brain FA levels reduces sympathetic activity and increases GIIS in rats (Clement et al., 2002; Obici et al., 2003) a condition which would exacerbate the development of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Also, a lipid overload due to highfat diet intake alters both hypothalamic monoamine turnover (Levin et al., 1983) and peripheral sympathetic activity in rats (Young & Walgren, 1994). In humans, overweight is often associated with an altered sympathetic tone (Peterson et al., 1988) suggesting a

In conclusion, there is now increasing evidence that specialized neurons within hypothalamus and other areas such as the brainstem or hippocampus can detect changes in plasma FA levels by having FA directly or indirectly alter the of FA sensitive neurons involved in the regulation of energy and glucose homeostasis. Central FA effects on insulin secretion and action are related to their chain length or degree of saturation. Such effects are

The neuronal networks of these FA sensitive neurons that sense and respond to FA are likely very complex given the fact that FA can either inhibit or excite specific neurons. In addition, many of these neurons also utilize glucose as a signaling molecule and there is often an inverse responsiveness of such "metabolic sensing" neurons to FA vs. glucose.

**4.4 Which neurotransmitters or neuropeptides?** 

acetylcholine (Aid et al., 2005).

**5. Conclusion** 

**4.5 Pathological implications of excess FA** 

relationship between lipids and autonomic control centers in brain.

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**Innovative Techniques for the** 

**Production of Olive Oil Based Products** 

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