**Cultivation of Olives in Australia**

Rodney J. Mailer

*Australian Oils Research Australia* 

### **1. Introduction**

210 Olive Oil – Constituents, Quality, Health Properties and Bioconversions

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Australia, by European standards, is a very young country with the first European settlers arriving as recently as 1788. Olives were not native to Australia but it took only a short time before the species was introduced. The first introduction of an olive tree to Australia was in 1800 (Spennemann, 2000), 12 years after the country was settled. Other importations have been recorded into New South Wales (NSW) including a tree planted by John Macarthur, one of Australia's pioneers and a man considered to be the father of the Australian sheep wool industry. A remaining olive tree still stands at Elizabeth Farm where he lived.

Despite the early start in the new settlement in NSW, little development occurred in that state over subsequent years. As the colony moved to other areas in Australia, olive production was spurred on by European immigrants particularly in the states of South Australia and Victoria. The NSW Department of Agriculture was formed in 1890 with an agenda to introduce new and useful species and study orchard farming and animal husbandry. The Department established experimental farms at sites throughout NSW including Wollongbar and Hawkesbury which became sites for evaluating olive production. In 1891 several Department of Agriculture research stations established schools and experimental farms including one at Wagga Wagga in Southern NSW, which included olive growing.

One of the most significant early developments for the olive industry was through the efforts of Sir Samuel Davenport (1818 – 1906), one of the early settlers of Australia, who became a landowner and parliamentarian in South Australia. His father was an agent of the "South Australia Company" in England and purchased land in South Australia. Samuel and his wife Margaret went to Australia in 1843 and ventured into mixed farming, almonds and vines. He tried sheep-farming and in 1860 he bought land near Port Augusta, SA, and turned to ranching horses and cattle. Davenport strongly promoted agriculture in South Australia and between 1864 and 1872 he published a number of papers, some concerning the cultivation of olives and manufacture of olive oil (en.wikipedia.org). In 1891 Davenport provided the NSW Department of Agriculture and other parts of the colony with olive cuttings from four cultivars, Verdale, Pigale, Blanquette and Bouquettier, from the south of France which were trialled for fruit production at the experimental farms.

In 1894, the farm at Wagga Wagga established orchards for evaluation of various fruits including plums, pears, persimmons and others. It was decided to establish a complete collection of olive cultivars within that orchard (Wagga Wagga Advertiser, 14 June 1894

Cultivation of Olives in Australia 213

nurseries. Many trees were propagated and sold to new growers. Despite the best attempts to ensure correct identification, many of these new trees were misidentified and created

Amelon Dr Fiiaschi Pecholine

Atro Violacca Gros Redoneaux Pendulina Attica Hardy's Mammoth Pera Bore Attro Rubens Hawkesbury Agric. College Pigalle

Barouni Large Fruited Polymorpha

Big Spanish Manzanillo No.14 Regalaise de Languedoc

Belle d'Espagne Lucca Praecox

Blanquette Manzanillo No.2. Regalis Borregiola Marcocarpa Rubra Bouchine Nevadillo Blanco Saloma Bouquettier O de Gras Sevillano Boutillon Oblitza Tarascoa Columella Oblonga Verdale

Table 1. Olive Cultivars included in the historic Wagga Wagga Olive Grove. NB. *Names and spelling of cultivars are from the Spennemann report (1997). Some names are descriptive (e.g. large* 

Despite an early start, for over 100 years olive production showed only minor indications of becoming a substantial crop in Australia. Olive oil production remained only a boutique industry with the bulk of olive products being imported, almost entirely from Spain, Italy and Greece. There were several feasibility studies carried out which indicated a potential for an olive industry. These included a report published by Farnell Hobman (1995), a Senior Research Officer with the South Australian Department of Primary Industries, on the

Olives today are planted throughout Australia, from the most southern point of Western Australia to the northern tropical areas of Queensland (Fig. 2.). The trees have been found to be capable of surviving in a wide range of environments from hot tropical regions to the cold areas of Tasmania. Over many years, birds have spread seeds across the land around many of these established orchards and numerous feral trees now grow throughout olive production areas, reinforcing the suitability of the Australian environment to grow olive trees. Studies to select for new cultivars from these wild trees (Sedgley, 2000) failed to establish any outstanding new cultivars. These wild trees are now considered a pest to

economic feasibility of olive growing. This reported stimulated further interest.

native flora and in some States have been declared noxious weeds.

Arecrizza Frantojo Pecholine de St Chamis

problems for new orchardists in future years.

Corregiolla Oje Blanco Doncel Cucco Olive de Gras

*fruited) or the source of cuttings (e.g. Pera Bore).* 

from Spennemann 2000). Spennemann reports (2000) that by 1895, 8 acres of olives had been sown in Wagga Wagga "which now had the finest collection of cultivars in Australia" including many from California. By the turn of the century approximately 60 cultivars were present in the Wagga Wagga collection.

In future years significant studies were carried out on oil production and fruit pickling based on cultivars including *cvv*: Amelau, Blanquette, Bouquettier, Boutillan, Corregiola, Cucco, Dr Fiaschi, Gros Redondou, Macrocarpa, Nevadillo Blanco, Pigalle and Pleureur. Small scale commercial production and sales occurred after 1900 with the sale of olive oil and the distribution of olive cuttings for orchard development.

New cultivars continued to be introduced and the grove at Wagga Wagga expanded over subsequent years with several lines brought from Spain in 1932. Despite the excellent collection which had been established at Wagga Wagga, in 1959 it was decided to remove many of the trees due to low demand for the product. Although one of each of the cultivars was to be retained, subsequent loses through trees dying or being removed resulted in confusion about tree identification.

Fig. 1. One of over 100 trees and 60 cultivars planted at the Wagga Experimental Farm in 1891.

There was resurgence in interest in olive production in 1995 with the formation of the Australian Olive Association. At that time, Charles Sturt University, which had taken over ownership of the olive collection, made an attempt to resurrect the grove. The trees were severely pruned back from the massive size to which they had grown. A project funded by Rural Industries and Research Organisation (RIRDC) (Mailer & May, 2002) analysed DNA from leaves of the individual trees using RAPD analysis to attempt to identify the collection. This study was successful in naming many of the trees but for others there were no matches and identification was not possible. Some of the trees by this time had been named by areas in which the cuttings had been taken, such as Pera Bore or Hawkesbury Agricultural College, although logically, they were of European origin. At the same time, research on yield, oil content and oil quality was being carried out.

Based on this research, together with data from the original maps and planting diagrams, the Wagga Wagga orchard became the source of cuttings for some of Australia's leading

from Spennemann 2000). Spennemann reports (2000) that by 1895, 8 acres of olives had been sown in Wagga Wagga "which now had the finest collection of cultivars in Australia" including many from California. By the turn of the century approximately 60 cultivars were

In future years significant studies were carried out on oil production and fruit pickling based on cultivars including *cvv*: Amelau, Blanquette, Bouquettier, Boutillan, Corregiola, Cucco, Dr Fiaschi, Gros Redondou, Macrocarpa, Nevadillo Blanco, Pigalle and Pleureur. Small scale commercial production and sales occurred after 1900 with the sale of olive oil

New cultivars continued to be introduced and the grove at Wagga Wagga expanded over subsequent years with several lines brought from Spain in 1932. Despite the excellent collection which had been established at Wagga Wagga, in 1959 it was decided to remove many of the trees due to low demand for the product. Although one of each of the cultivars was to be retained, subsequent loses through trees dying or being removed resulted in

Fig. 1. One of over 100 trees and 60 cultivars planted at the Wagga Experimental Farm in

There was resurgence in interest in olive production in 1995 with the formation of the Australian Olive Association. At that time, Charles Sturt University, which had taken over ownership of the olive collection, made an attempt to resurrect the grove. The trees were severely pruned back from the massive size to which they had grown. A project funded by Rural Industries and Research Organisation (RIRDC) (Mailer & May, 2002) analysed DNA from leaves of the individual trees using RAPD analysis to attempt to identify the collection. This study was successful in naming many of the trees but for others there were no matches and identification was not possible. Some of the trees by this time had been named by areas in which the cuttings had been taken, such as Pera Bore or Hawkesbury Agricultural College, although logically, they were of European origin. At the same time, research on

Based on this research, together with data from the original maps and planting diagrams, the Wagga Wagga orchard became the source of cuttings for some of Australia's leading

present in the Wagga Wagga collection.

confusion about tree identification.

1891.

and the distribution of olive cuttings for orchard development.

yield, oil content and oil quality was being carried out.



Table 1. Olive Cultivars included in the historic Wagga Wagga Olive Grove. NB. *Names and spelling of cultivars are from the Spennemann report (1997). Some names are descriptive (e.g. large fruited) or the source of cuttings (e.g. Pera Bore).* 

Despite an early start, for over 100 years olive production showed only minor indications of becoming a substantial crop in Australia. Olive oil production remained only a boutique industry with the bulk of olive products being imported, almost entirely from Spain, Italy and Greece. There were several feasibility studies carried out which indicated a potential for an olive industry. These included a report published by Farnell Hobman (1995), a Senior Research Officer with the South Australian Department of Primary Industries, on the economic feasibility of olive growing. This reported stimulated further interest.

Olives today are planted throughout Australia, from the most southern point of Western Australia to the northern tropical areas of Queensland (Fig. 2.). The trees have been found to be capable of surviving in a wide range of environments from hot tropical regions to the cold areas of Tasmania. Over many years, birds have spread seeds across the land around many of these established orchards and numerous feral trees now grow throughout olive production areas, reinforcing the suitability of the Australian environment to grow olive trees. Studies to select for new cultivars from these wild trees (Sedgley, 2000) failed to establish any outstanding new cultivars. These wild trees are now considered a pest to native flora and in some States have been declared noxious weeds.

Cultivation of Olives in Australia 215

Australia produces mostly extra virgin olive oil. The natural diversity of the Australian environment along with the selection of the most productive cultivars, harvested and processed under optimal conditions, is responsible for the exciting range of high quality

The first national symposium on olive growing was held at the Roseworthy Campus of the Adelaide University in 1994, with strong interest spurred on by the economic feasibility report by Farnell Hobman (1995). The symposium was attended by over 100 participants. A decision was made to form an "olive industry group". Over the next two years this olive group drafted a constitution which was to become the Australian Olive Association (AOA). The AOA committee had identified several issues which were critical to the development of

The constitution was adopted by the committee in Mildura in May, 1995. Of the 100 participants at that meeting, 65 became members of the new AOA. The committee adopted a

Following the formation of the AOA, several State industry organisations were then formed. The first publication of the AOA magazine, the Olive Press, was printed in 1995. By the end of 1995 regional grower groups had been established in Queensland (Qld), New South

The International Olive Oil Council (IOC) provided assistance to the developing industry in Australia. The IOC funded olive experts to attend workshops held in Wagga Wagga NSW and Roseworthy, SA and provided information to further encourage the industry in Australia. This included the development of Australia's first organoleptic panel, in South Australia in 1997. The AOA and State Departments also held industry and grower

The AOA developed a five year strategic plan for the industry in 1997. This plan described the AOA as an "umbrella organisation" with a national industry structure (Rowe & Parsons 2005) overseeing State grower groups. In 1999 the Association was well established with

**2. Formal development of an Australian Olive Association** 

a new industry (Rowe and Parsons 2005). These included:

a. To promote interest in olive growing and processing b. To foster cooperation between regional groups

e. Develop and distribute superior genetic olive material

Wales (NSW), South Australia (SA) and Tasmania (Tas).

workshops throughout the country on oil quality and production.

the creation of 27 Regional Olive Associations and 1000 members.

d. Encourage education and information

f. Market research and promotion

Strong optimism about growing olives in Australia

The lack of any Australian or State quality standard for olives

A lack of knowledge about cultivars suited to the large range of environments

A network needed to be established for the free transfer of information.

olive oil products from Australia.

number of objectives:

c. To facilitate research

g. Quality assurance

Fig. 2. Olive growing regions and intensity in Australia.

Today, the Australian olive industry is a modern production system for excellent quality oil. High yields have been achieved with low production costs. It is estimated that in the late 1990s, Australia had only 2,000 hectares of traditional olive groves, producing about 400 tonnes of oil. By 2008, Australia produced approximately 12,000 tonnes of oil. By 2013 it is expected that this production will have doubled. Most of this new oil production comes from 30,000 hectares of modern olive groves planted since 2000. There have been significant improvements in mechanical harvesting to achieve high levels of efficiency and economy which is comparable with any in the world. In traditional olive growing regions mechanical harvesting using trunk shakers was once considered as the best and most reliable method for reducing labour costs over the past decade. Today, continuous straddle harvesting machines are used which have been adapted or developed for Australian conditions with great success. These are currently used for more than 75% of Australian production.

Fig. 2. Olive growing regions and intensity in Australia.

Today, the Australian olive industry is a modern production system for excellent quality oil. High yields have been achieved with low production costs. It is estimated that in the late 1990s, Australia had only 2,000 hectares of traditional olive groves, producing about 400 tonnes of oil. By 2008, Australia produced approximately 12,000 tonnes of oil. By 2013 it is expected that this production will have doubled. Most of this new oil production comes from 30,000 hectares of modern olive groves planted since 2000. There have been significant improvements in mechanical harvesting to achieve high levels of efficiency and economy which is comparable with any in the world. In traditional olive growing regions mechanical harvesting using trunk shakers was once considered as the best and most reliable method for reducing labour costs over the past decade. Today, continuous straddle harvesting machines are used which have been adapted or developed for Australian conditions with great success. These are currently used for more than 75% of Australian production. Australia produces mostly extra virgin olive oil. The natural diversity of the Australian environment along with the selection of the most productive cultivars, harvested and processed under optimal conditions, is responsible for the exciting range of high quality olive oil products from Australia.
