**4. Examples on the application of pressing for obtaining oil from cotton, peanut and sunflower**

In this last part of the chapter some practical examples are shown. Results were obtained from the author's thesis developed at the Campinas State University. The objective of this work was to evaluate the production of vegetable oils, i.e. cotton, peanuts and sunflower, for biodiesel production. The process adopted is small screw press with capacity of 40 kg of oilseeds per hour. For a better evaluation of the process and results, experimental design and the methodology of surface response was chosen to use to analyze the results. The parameters chosen to evaluate the oil yield were shaft screw press speed, moisture content and temperature of the grains. Based on the lipid content found for each grain, it was possible to calculate the mass of oil corresponding to 5 kg of kernels that was pressed and so, the oil yield.

#### **4.1 Peanut (***Arachis hypogaea* **L.)**

The peanuts used in the experiments have 18.25% of hulls and 81.75% of grains, with a moisture content of 6.20% and lipid content, determined only for the grain of 39%. The experiments were conducted with the grain in its initial moisture content (6.20% wb) and with hulls. Table 2 shows the yields of crude oil, obtained experimentally.

For higher temperatures and smaller speeds, yields are higher. In the speed range between 80 and 90 rpm, the oil yield tended to increase, regardless of the temperature range used. What was observed in the experimental design was confirmed by observations during pressing. At lower screw press speeds, the grains had more time inside the press and the contact of grain with an additional heating provided by the equipment favors oil expelling. High speeds render difficult to the press to crush the grains properly, undermining the elimination of the oil from inside the seeds. It is important to note that there is a minimum permissible speed, which was the one used in this work. Values less than this minimum generate an increase in particulates in the oil.


Oil Presses 49

No. Speed (rpm) Temperature (oC) Oil yield (%)

experiments it was observed that at higher RPMs, the oil yield attained was higher even when the temperature was kept constant. Since the statistical analysis showed that for lower values of temperature the oil yield was higher, a new experimental design was proposed

No. Speed (rpm) Temperature (oC) Oil yield (%)

The analysis of all experimental data obtained for sunflower oil expelling help to define value ranges for each operating variables. Regarding the screw press speeds, sunflower requires higher RPMs than the peanuts and cottonseed, around 100 to 115 rpm. This difference can be explained by the geometry of the grain and the absence of a significant element of friction, such as the hulls of peanuts and cottonseed lint. During the pressings it was possible to observe how the operation was better conducted at faster speeds, allowing a shorter pressing time. Temperatures close to room temperature (25 and 30 °C) are

Vegetable oils are of great importance to human health as well as to the development of oil chemistry. It can be produced from many technological processes, chemical and mechanical.

1 90 30 54.77 2 90 55 61.49 3 114 30 68.38 4 114 55 64.38 5 85 42.5 51.70 6 119 42.5 62.72 7 102 25 61.11 8 102 60 64.85 9 102 42.5 68.04 10 102 42.5 66.13

Table 4. Oil yields from sunflower (*Helianthus annuus* L.) – new design.

appropriate, leading to energy saving in the process.

**5. Conclusion** 

1 90 72 67.28 2 90 107 53.96 3 114 72 48.81 4 114 107 59.45 5 85 85 67.23 6 119 85 62.17 7 102 60 66.89 8 102 110 54.94 9 102 85 66.60 10 102 85 65.45

Table 3. Oil yields from sunflower (*Helianthus annuus* L.)

with another temperature range (Table 4).


Table 2. Oil yields from peanut (*Arachis hypogaea* L.)

Regarding the screw press speeds, a value between 80 and 90 rpm showed the better performance in oil yield and also at this range it was possible to observe an improved performance of the press, producing a cake with a proper consistency and oil with no particulates. Tests 7 to 10 showed that for the same speed an increase in temperature leads to increase in oil yield. However, the temperature factor was not considered significant from a statistical viewpoint. Although temperature, statistically did not influence the oil yield, it was observed that the press worked better with the grains heated, reducing the pressing time and the press operation cost. As the heating step is costly, it is recommended to heat the grains at lower temperatures, between 40 and 50 oC. The moisture content which favored the press, without contaminating the oil with water, is within the range of peanut commercialization (8 and 12 % wb), thus not requiring any step prior to pressing, such as drying.

#### **4.2 Cottonseed (***Gossypium* **L.)**

The cottonseed with lint has moisture content of 5.58 % (wb) and 16.9 % of lipid content. Data analysis according to the methodology of surface response indicated that none of the studied variables significantly affected the oil yield of cottonseed. However, based on the experiments it was possible to define an operating range suitable for processing this type of cottonseed in small equipment. The proposed operating conditions for better pressing of cottonseed was 85 rpm speed of shaft screw press, 9 % (wb) moisture content, the same of commercialized cottonseed, and temperatures between 110 and 120 oC.

#### **4.3 Sunflower (***Helianthus annuus* **L.)**

The sunflower seeds used in the pressing had an initial moisture content of 7.5% (wb) and 46.8% of lipid content. During preliminary tests of sunflower pressing it was observed that grains with moisture contents other than 7.5% did not have good performance. For this reason, the experimental design took into account only the temperature and the speed of shaft screw press, which proved to be the most important factors. The results are shown in Table 3.

The highest yield, 67%, was achieved for 90 rpm speed and 72 oC grain temperature, while the lowest yield, 48.81%, was obtained at the speed of 114 rpm and of 72 oC. During the

No. Speed (rpm) Temperature (oC) Oil yield (%)

Regarding the screw press speeds, a value between 80 and 90 rpm showed the better performance in oil yield and also at this range it was possible to observe an improved performance of the press, producing a cake with a proper consistency and oil with no particulates. Tests 7 to 10 showed that for the same speed an increase in temperature leads to increase in oil yield. However, the temperature factor was not considered significant from a statistical viewpoint. Although temperature, statistically did not influence the oil yield, it was observed that the press worked better with the grains heated, reducing the pressing time and the press operation cost. As the heating step is costly, it is recommended to heat the grains at lower temperatures, between 40 and 50 oC. The moisture content which favored the press, without contaminating the oil with water, is within the range of peanut commercialization (8

The cottonseed with lint has moisture content of 5.58 % (wb) and 16.9 % of lipid content. Data analysis according to the methodology of surface response indicated that none of the studied variables significantly affected the oil yield of cottonseed. However, based on the experiments it was possible to define an operating range suitable for processing this type of cottonseed in small equipment. The proposed operating conditions for better pressing of cottonseed was 85 rpm speed of shaft screw press, 9 % (wb) moisture content, the same of

The sunflower seeds used in the pressing had an initial moisture content of 7.5% (wb) and 46.8% of lipid content. During preliminary tests of sunflower pressing it was observed that grains with moisture contents other than 7.5% did not have good performance. For this reason, the experimental design took into account only the temperature and the speed of shaft screw press, which proved to be the most important factors. The results are shown in

The highest yield, 67%, was achieved for 90 rpm speed and 72 oC grain temperature, while the lowest yield, 48.81%, was obtained at the speed of 114 rpm and of 72 oC. During the

and 12 % wb), thus not requiring any step prior to pressing, such as drying.

commercialized cottonseed, and temperatures between 110 and 120 oC.

1 90 72 54.67 2 90 107 45.49 3 114 72 46.67 4 114 107 25.90 5 85 85 61.69 6 119 85 44.41 7 102 60 23.74 8 102 110 40.26 9 102 85 32.36 10 102 85 34.56

Table 2. Oil yields from peanut (*Arachis hypogaea* L.)

**4.2 Cottonseed (***Gossypium* **L.)** 

**4.3 Sunflower (***Helianthus annuus* **L.)** 

Table 3.


Table 3. Oil yields from sunflower (*Helianthus annuus* L.)

experiments it was observed that at higher RPMs, the oil yield attained was higher even when the temperature was kept constant. Since the statistical analysis showed that for lower values of temperature the oil yield was higher, a new experimental design was proposed with another temperature range (Table 4).


Table 4. Oil yields from sunflower (*Helianthus annuus* L.) – new design.

The analysis of all experimental data obtained for sunflower oil expelling help to define value ranges for each operating variables. Regarding the screw press speeds, sunflower requires higher RPMs than the peanuts and cottonseed, around 100 to 115 rpm. This difference can be explained by the geometry of the grain and the absence of a significant element of friction, such as the hulls of peanuts and cottonseed lint. During the pressings it was possible to observe how the operation was better conducted at faster speeds, allowing a shorter pressing time. Temperatures close to room temperature (25 and 30 °C) are appropriate, leading to energy saving in the process.

#### **5. Conclusion**

Vegetable oils are of great importance to human health as well as to the development of oil chemistry. It can be produced from many technological processes, chemical and mechanical.

Oil Presses 51

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#### **6. Acknowledgment**

We acknowledge the EMBRAPA AGROENERGY, Faculty of Agricultural Engineering (FEAGRI/UNICAMP)), the Food Technology Institute (ITAL), the State of São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP) for its financial and technical support. Also, we would like to acknowledge DSc. José Manuel Cabral de Sousa Dias and MSc. Larissa Andreani for their suggestions and revision in the text.

#### **7. References**


<http://www.attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/PDF/oilseed.pdf>. Acessed 01 july 2011.


Solvent extraction technology is still the most widely used process and the one with higher oil yield, but due to the use of chemicals which affect the environment and human health, new technologies have been researched, such as supercritical extraction. Methods not as new as supercritical extraction, such as screw press, have been the object of study, in order to optimize this simple process so it can produce more oil, with high quality at a lower cost. Several studies focusing on a wide range of oilseeds and technologies, all of them saying the same thing. An extraction process should provide economic and environmental advantages

We acknowledge the EMBRAPA AGROENERGY, Faculty of Agricultural Engineering (FEAGRI/UNICAMP)), the Food Technology Institute (ITAL), the State of São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP) for its financial and technical support. Also, we would like to acknowledge DSc. José Manuel Cabral de Sousa Dias and MSc. Larissa Andreani for their

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**6. Acknowledgment** 

**7. References** 

Sons, Inc.


**3** 

*Canada* 

**Effect of Seed-Placed Ammonium Sulfate and** 

**Monoammonium Phosphate on Germination,** 

P. Qian1, R. Urton1, J. J. Schoenau1, T. King1, C. Fatteicher1 and C. Grant2

Seed-placed fertilization, in which fertilizer is placed in the soil in the same furrow as the seed at the time of planting is a common approach to supplying crop nutrients, as this gives newly emerged seedlings early access to nutrients. This placement strategy is noted to be effective for phosphorus fertilizer due to its low mobility in the soil in early spring (Miller et al., 1971; Harapiak, 2006). In the prairies of Canada, cool soil temperatures in the spring at seeding can especially restrict early root growth and access to phosphorus. Therefore it is important for annual crops to be able to access P early in their growth cycle by placing P fertilizer where the roots of the seedling can readily access it, such as in the seed-row. This is the reason why seed-placed phosphorus fertilization normally achieves better response than surface-applied with incorporation. Lauzon and Miller (1997) reported that early season corn and soybean shoot-P concentrations are increased with increasing soil test P and were increased with seed-placed P regardless of soil test P level. However, the germination and emergence of crop seeds can be reduced by seed-placed phosphate fertilizer, as some crop seeds are especially sensitive to the salt effect of fertilizers (Qian and Schoenau, 2010).

In western Canada, canola is a major crop and approximately 4.5 million hectares of agricultural land are under *Brassica* oilseed crop production (Malhi et al., 2007). Canolaquality *B. juncea*, *B. carinata*, and oilseed *Camelina sativa* are also being developed as alternative oilseed crops that are better adapted to areas with periods of hot, dry conditions in western Canada. Tolerance of *Brassica* crops to seed-row application of nutrients is low when compared to many other crops, and emergence differences have been observed between open-pollinated and hybrid cultivars (Brandt et al., 2007). Differences have also been noted in the tolerance and responsiveness of yellow- and black-seeded canola cultivars to seed-placed P (Grant, 2008). Qian and Schoenau (2010) reported that canola seed, in general, is sensitive when the seed-placed rate of P is above 30 kg P2O5 ha-1. The development and adoption of maximum safe rates of fertilizer with seed that avoid significant reductions in crop emergence is important for achieving maximum benefit from

**1. Introduction** 

the fertilizer by producers.

**Emergence and Early Plant Biomass** 

*1University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, 2Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Brandon, MB,* 

**Production of Brassicae Oilseed Crops** 

