**4.1** *Tetranychus urticae* **(Koch) (Acari: Tetranychidae)**

**Identification:** refer to the identification section of *T. uricae* in cottonseed.

**Life cycle and damage**: The mites generally over-winter as adult females in sheltered areas, such as plant debris and field margins. As the weather turns warm, mites become active in search of food and egg laying sites. Spider mites disperse by crawling, so infestations tend to spread slowly from field edges. *T. uricae* can complete up to seven generations in soybean per year (with generation development overlapping). Mites feed on individual plant cell contents on the underside of leaves. Each feeding site causes a stipple and severe stippling causes yellowing, curling and bronzing of the leaves. Eventually, the leaf will dry up and fall off (OMAFRA, 2011).

**Monitoring:** monitoring should be done weekly with shaking leaves onto a white piece of paper to see the actual mites moving around (OMAFRA, 2011).

**Economic and action thresholds:** action threshold is when four or more mites is observed per leaflet or one severely damaged leaf per plant prior to pod fill (OMAFRA, 2011).

**Control:** drought-tolerant varieties will minimize the effect of *T. uricae*. If number of mites exceed the action threshold, application of an acaricide may be necessary (OMAFRA, 2011).

#### **4.2** *Thrips palmi* **(Karny) and** *Frankliniella schultzei* **(Trybom) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)**

**Identification:** for identification *T. palmi* refer to the cotton. *F. schultzei* adults are brown, although some specimens are yellow with eight antennal segments; ocellar setae III located between the posterior hind ocella; ostocular seta I present; pronotum with posteroangular setae are slightly longer than posteromarginal setae; campaniform sensilla absent; tergite VIII with posteromarginal comb of microtrichia weakly developed (Viteri et al., 2010).

**Life cycle and damage**: Females of *F. schultzei* insert their eggs in flower tissue so they are known as flower thrips. Nymphs and adults feed in growing points and inside flowers. Thrips damage can result in flower abortion and pod distortion. It has two larval instars and two inactive and non-feeding stages (Bailey, 2007). In drier conditions *F. schultzei* species were collected in higher proportion on leaves and flowers. *T. palmi* can transmit tospovirus and *F. schultzei* transmit tobacco streak virus (TSV) and tobacco ringspot virus (TRSV) to soybean.

**Monitoring:** monitoring should be done from emergence until plants have six to eight true leaves. Shake plants on the soil or cloth and count the number of adults and larvae. At least 20–30 plants should be sampled randomly from across the field (Bailey, 2007).

*Glycine max* (L.) Merrill: known as Soya bean or soybean; about 35% of the world's production is in the United States, 27% Brazil, 19% Argentina, 6% China and 4% in India

**Life cycle and damage**: The mites generally over-winter as adult females in sheltered areas, such as plant debris and field margins. As the weather turns warm, mites become active in search of food and egg laying sites. Spider mites disperse by crawling, so infestations tend to spread slowly from field edges. *T. uricae* can complete up to seven generations in soybean per year (with generation development overlapping). Mites feed on individual plant cell contents on the underside of leaves. Each feeding site causes a stipple and severe stippling causes yellowing, curling and bronzing of the leaves. Eventually, the leaf will dry up and

**Monitoring:** monitoring should be done weekly with shaking leaves onto a white piece of

**Economic and action thresholds:** action threshold is when four or more mites is observed

**Control:** drought-tolerant varieties will minimize the effect of *T. uricae*. If number of mites exceed the action threshold, application of an acaricide may be necessary (OMAFRA,

**Identification:** for identification *T. palmi* refer to the cotton. *F. schultzei* adults are brown, although some specimens are yellow with eight antennal segments; ocellar setae III located between the posterior hind ocella; ostocular seta I present; pronotum with posteroangular setae are slightly longer than posteromarginal setae; campaniform sensilla absent; tergite VIII with posteromarginal comb of microtrichia weakly developed (Viteri

**Life cycle and damage**: Females of *F. schultzei* insert their eggs in flower tissue so they are known as flower thrips. Nymphs and adults feed in growing points and inside flowers. Thrips damage can result in flower abortion and pod distortion. It has two larval instars and two inactive and non-feeding stages (Bailey, 2007). In drier conditions *F. schultzei* species were collected in higher proportion on leaves and flowers. *T. palmi* can transmit tospovirus and *F. schultzei* transmit tobacco streak virus (TSV) and tobacco ringspot virus (TRSV) to

**Monitoring:** monitoring should be done from emergence until plants have six to eight true leaves. Shake plants on the soil or cloth and count the number of adults and larvae. At least

20–30 plants should be sampled randomly from across the field (Bailey, 2007).

per leaflet or one severely damaged leaf per plant prior to pod fill (OMAFRA, 2011).

**4.2** *Thrips palmi* **(Karny) and** *Frankliniella schultzei* **(Trybom) (Thysanoptera:** 

**4.1** *Tetranychus urticae* **(Koch) (Acari: Tetranychidae)** 

paper to see the actual mites moving around (OMAFRA, 2011).

**Identification:** refer to the identification section of *T. uricae* in cottonseed.

**4. Soybean** 

(Wikipedia, 2011e).

fall off (OMAFRA, 2011).

2011).

**Thripidae)** 

et al., 2010).

soybean.

**Economic and action thresholds:** action threshold is observation of more than four to six thrips per flower (Bailey, 2007).

**Control:** thrips can be controlled biologically by pirate bugs, lacewing larvae, ladybirds, *Amblyseius cucumeris* (Oudemans) and *Amblyseius swirskii* (Athias-Henriot). If the threshold is exceeded application of systemic pesticides such as Dimethoate can reduce thrips population (Bailey, 2007).

#### **4.3** *Aphis glycines* **(Matsumura) (Homoptera: Aphididae)**

**Identification:** The soybean aphids are small, pale yellow with black cornicles and a pale yellow tail. Adults may be winged or wingless. Nymphs are smaller than adults and wingless. Eggs are small, spherical and yellow when first laid but turn a dark brown.

**Life cycle and damage**: females usually lay eggs along the seams of the buckthorn bud. In the spring, nymphs hatch and aphids undergo two generations as wingless females on the buckthorn. The third generation develops into winged adults that migrate to soybean plants. The aphids then continue to produce wingless generations until the soybean plants become crowded with aphids and the plants experience a reduction in quality. Then, winged forms are produced to disperse to less-crowded soybean plants. There can be as many as 18 generations of aphids per year on soybeans. Males are only born in the fall so that the females and males can mate to produce the egg on buckthorn. Aphids suck the sap from leaves and stems of the crop. At high populations, aphids can cause the plants to abort flowers, become stunted, reducing pod and seed production and quality. Aphids also excrete honeydew, which can act as a substrate for grey sooty mould development. The soybean aphid may also be a vector of soybean mosaic virus (OMAFRA, 2011).

**Monitoring:** Monitoring should be done until the soybean is well into the R6 stage. Scout weekly; or as if the populations approach the threshold monitor more frequently (every 3-4 days). Monitor 20-30 random plants across the field and estimate the number of aphids per plant in that field (OMAFRA, 2011).

**Economic and action thresholds:** The threshold is 250 aphids per plant and actively increasing on 80% of the plants from R1 up to the R5 stage of soybeans (OMAFRA, 2011).

**Control**: some of the soybean cultivars such as 'Dowling', 'Jackson', and 'Palmetto', showed resistance to aphids. Insidious flower bug, (*Orius insidiosus* (Say)), twospotted lady beetle (*Adalia bipunctata* L.), sevenspotted lady beetle (*Coccinella septempunctata* L.), the spotted lady beetle (*Coleomegilla maculata* De Geer), the polished lady beetle (*Cycloneda munda* (Say)), the multicolored Asian lady beetle (*Harmonia axyridis* (Pallas)), the convergent lady beetle (*Hippodamia convergens* Guérin-Méneville), and the thirteen spotted lady beetle (*Hippodamia tredecimpunctata* L.) can biologically control the aphids. Also, pathogenic fungi including *Pandora neoaphidis* (Remaud. et Henn.) Humber, *Conidiobolus thromboides* Drechsler, *Entomophthora chromaphidis* Burger et Swain, *Pandora* sp., *Zoophthora occidentalis* (Thaxter) Batko, *Neozygites fresenii* (Now.) Remaud. et Keller, and *Lecanicillium lecanii*, (Zimm.) Gams et Zare cause infection in an outbreak aphid population (Nielsen & Hajek, 2005).

#### **4.4** *Bemisia tabaci* **biotype B (Genn.) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)**

**Identification:** refer to the identification of *B. tabaci* in cotton section.

Oilseed Pests 145

developmental stage of the crop. They also will feed on soybean stems (Olson et al., 2011). Female of the *N. viridula* lays about 300 eggs on the underside of the leaves and stuck them together in batches of 50-60. After the eggs hatch, nymphs disperse and start feeding. However, the first instar nymphs don't feed. SGSB is the major pod-sucking bug in soybeans due to its abundance, widespread distribution, rate of damage and rate of reproduction. Adults prefer pods with well-developed seeds and nymphs are unable to complete their development prior to pod-fill. They can damage soybeans until pods are too hard (i.e. very close to harvest). Damage to young pods cause deformed and shrivelled seeds and reduce yield. Damaged seeds in older pods are blemished and difficult to grade out, which reduce harvested seed quality. *N. viridula* also damages buds and flowers (Bijlmakers, 2008; Brier, 2011). In *E. servus* reproductive diapauses, they color change from green to reddish-brown. Reddish-brown insects lived longer than green ones and laid no eggs. However, green females lay about 18 egg masses; after approximately four to five weeks eggs hatch and form the nymphs. The nymphs have five instars and after about 29 days they develop to the adult. Pod is pierced or kinked and seed is dimpled or blemished. *E. servus* has as many as four to five or more generations per year in Florida but only two generations a year in southeastern USA. However, *N. viridula* can stay in peanut for their third generation, or leave maize for full-season soybean or cotton where they produce their third or even fourth generation. Both SGSB and BSB preferred soybean significantly more often than B.t. cotton, non-B.t. cotton, and peanut (Gomez & Mizell, 2008; Olson et al., 2011). **Monitoring:** monitor twice weekly from flowering until close to harvest. Beat sheet sampling is the most efficient monitoring method with at least six sites for adults or 10 sites for nymphs. The standard sample unit consists of five one-metre non consecutive lengths of row within a 20 m radius (Brier, 2011). Sweep net and ground cloth procedures are common sampling methods. Place one four-foot cloth per location and record the number per fourfoot sample. In the case of sweep net; use a 15 sweep net and take a series of twenty five sweeps at each location (Johnson et al., 2009). Stink bug trap with the aggregation pheromone is also way of monitoring and capturing the bugs (Gomez & Mizell, 2008).

**Economic and action thresholds:** economic thresholds depends on the crop size (seeds per m2) and when bugs first infest a crop. The maximum bug damage permitted being only 2%

**Control**: control during early pod-fill before nymphs reach a damaging size. Avoid sequential plantings of summer legumes as bugs population will move from earlier to later plantings. Avoid cultivar and planting time combinations that are more likely to lengthen the duration of flowering and podding. *Trissolcus basalis* (Wollaston), and *Trichopoda giacomellii* (Blanchard) may control stink bugs (Brier, 2011). *A. hilare* is parasitized by the tachinid fly, *Trichopoda pennipes* (F.). The pheromone methyl (E,Z,Z)-2,4,6-decatrienoate may be used to attract the bugs away from fields (Wikipedia, 2011c). Also, trap crops baited with pheromone to catch females for destruction, or even a pheromone-based disruption of orientation behavior to decrease the mating success, are possible semiochemical techniques

**Identification:** The red banded shield bugs are similar in shape to *N. viridula* but smaller, paler and with pink, white or yellow bands. Eggs ringed by small spines and have a central

or for *N. viridula* when the adults number ranges from 0.3-0.8/m2 (Brier, 2011).

to suppress populations of *E. servus* second generation (Borges et al., 2001).

**4.6** *Piezodorus oceanicus* **(Montrouzier) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae)** 

**Life cycle and damage**: The B-biotype is a pesticide-resistant strain of *B.* tabaci. The female lays eggs on younger leaves. Nymphal activity is further down the plant about 5-7 nodes below the plant top. All stages (unlike eggs) secrete large amounts of sticky honeydew and sooty mould develops on honeydew reduces photosynthesis of the leaves. Severe infestations in young plants can stunt plant growth and greatly reduce a crop's yield potential. Later infestations can reduce the number of pods set, seed size, and seed size uniformity, thus reducing yield and quality. However, pod and seed discolouration are a major marketing problem where pods are picked green (Brier, 2011).

**Monitoring:** monitor eggs and young nymphs from uppermost and youngest leaves; and older nymphs and pupae from older leaves. Yellow sticky traps can use for sampling adults. The presence of honeydew and sooty mould may also indicate *B. tabaci* attack.

**Economic and action thresholds:** No action threshold has been set for *B. tabaci* on soybean*.* 

**Control**: avoid successive plantings of summer pulses to prevent movement from early to late crops. Control weed hosts such as rattlepod and milk thistle; and irrigate crops to reduce moisture stress. Also, overhead irrigation washes honeydew off leaves, lessening the risk of sooty mould. Nymphs are biologically controlled by *Encarsia* sp. and *E. mundus.* No pesticides are specifically registered for controlling *B. tabaci* (Brier, 2011).

#### **4.5** *Nezara viridula* **(Linnaeus),** *Euschistus servus* **(Say) and** *Acrosternum hilare* **(Say) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae)**

**Identification:** they are known as Southern green stink bug (SGSB), brown stink bug (BSB) and green stink bug (GSB), respectively. All stink bug adults are shield-shaped. Green and southern green stink bugs are bright green and measure 14-19 mm long. The major body regions of the GSB are bordered by a narrow, orange-yellow line. BSB is dull brownishyellow in color and 12-15 mm long. At first eggs are barrel-shaped and for the SGSB; they are creamy, cylindrical eggs of the measure 1 by 0.75 mm and develop a pinkish hue before hatching. The eggs of BSB are white, kettle-shaped, and slightly smaller than those of the green stink bug. Eggs of the green stink bug are yellow to green, later turning pink to gray and about 1.4 x 1.2 mm. The nymphs of all three species are smaller than adults, but similar in shape. Nymphs of the BSB and SGSB are light green. For SGSB, however, nymphs have two series of white spots along their backs. GSB nymphs are black when small, but as they mature, they become green with orange and black markings. The nymphs remain clustered near the remains of the eggs (Bijlmakers, 2008; Gomez & Mizell, 2008). *A. hilare* can be differentiated from the *Nezara* spp. by its elongated ventral ostiolar canal (external outflow pathway of metathoracic scent gland), which extends well beyond the middle of its supporting plate, while that of *N. viridula* is shorter and does not reach the middle of supporting plate. *A. hilare* has black outermost three antennal segments (Wikipedia, 2011c).

**Life cycle and damage**: stink bugs overwinter as adults and they become active during the first warm days of spring when temperature rises above 21°C. Adults are strong fliers and will readily move between weeds and other alternate hosts where they complete their first generation. They are attracted most often to plants with growing shoots and developing seeds or fruits. Stink bugs tend to move from host to host as peak reproduction of earlier hosts passes and that of their plants approaches. Both nymphs and adults attack primarily the seeds and pods of soybean. The degree of damage depends to some extent on the

**Life cycle and damage**: The B-biotype is a pesticide-resistant strain of *B.* tabaci. The female lays eggs on younger leaves. Nymphal activity is further down the plant about 5-7 nodes below the plant top. All stages (unlike eggs) secrete large amounts of sticky honeydew and sooty mould develops on honeydew reduces photosynthesis of the leaves. Severe infestations in young plants can stunt plant growth and greatly reduce a crop's yield potential. Later infestations can reduce the number of pods set, seed size, and seed size uniformity, thus reducing yield and quality. However, pod and seed discolouration are a

**Monitoring:** monitor eggs and young nymphs from uppermost and youngest leaves; and older nymphs and pupae from older leaves. Yellow sticky traps can use for sampling adults.

**Economic and action thresholds:** No action threshold has been set for *B. tabaci* on soybean*.*  **Control**: avoid successive plantings of summer pulses to prevent movement from early to late crops. Control weed hosts such as rattlepod and milk thistle; and irrigate crops to reduce moisture stress. Also, overhead irrigation washes honeydew off leaves, lessening the risk of sooty mould. Nymphs are biologically controlled by *Encarsia* sp. and *E. mundus.* No

**4.5** *Nezara viridula* **(Linnaeus),** *Euschistus servus* **(Say) and** *Acrosternum hilare* **(Say)** 

**Identification:** they are known as Southern green stink bug (SGSB), brown stink bug (BSB) and green stink bug (GSB), respectively. All stink bug adults are shield-shaped. Green and southern green stink bugs are bright green and measure 14-19 mm long. The major body regions of the GSB are bordered by a narrow, orange-yellow line. BSB is dull brownishyellow in color and 12-15 mm long. At first eggs are barrel-shaped and for the SGSB; they are creamy, cylindrical eggs of the measure 1 by 0.75 mm and develop a pinkish hue before hatching. The eggs of BSB are white, kettle-shaped, and slightly smaller than those of the green stink bug. Eggs of the green stink bug are yellow to green, later turning pink to gray and about 1.4 x 1.2 mm. The nymphs of all three species are smaller than adults, but similar in shape. Nymphs of the BSB and SGSB are light green. For SGSB, however, nymphs have two series of white spots along their backs. GSB nymphs are black when small, but as they mature, they become green with orange and black markings. The nymphs remain clustered near the remains of the eggs (Bijlmakers, 2008; Gomez & Mizell, 2008). *A. hilare* can be differentiated from the *Nezara* spp. by its elongated ventral ostiolar canal (external outflow pathway of metathoracic scent gland), which extends well beyond the middle of its supporting plate, while that of *N. viridula* is shorter and does not reach the middle of supporting plate. *A. hilare* has black outermost three antennal segments (Wikipedia, 2011c). **Life cycle and damage**: stink bugs overwinter as adults and they become active during the first warm days of spring when temperature rises above 21°C. Adults are strong fliers and will readily move between weeds and other alternate hosts where they complete their first generation. They are attracted most often to plants with growing shoots and developing seeds or fruits. Stink bugs tend to move from host to host as peak reproduction of earlier hosts passes and that of their plants approaches. Both nymphs and adults attack primarily the seeds and pods of soybean. The degree of damage depends to some extent on the

major marketing problem where pods are picked green (Brier, 2011).

The presence of honeydew and sooty mould may also indicate *B. tabaci* attack.

pesticides are specifically registered for controlling *B. tabaci* (Brier, 2011).

**(Hemiptera: Pentatomidae)** 

developmental stage of the crop. They also will feed on soybean stems (Olson et al., 2011). Female of the *N. viridula* lays about 300 eggs on the underside of the leaves and stuck them together in batches of 50-60. After the eggs hatch, nymphs disperse and start feeding. However, the first instar nymphs don't feed. SGSB is the major pod-sucking bug in soybeans due to its abundance, widespread distribution, rate of damage and rate of reproduction. Adults prefer pods with well-developed seeds and nymphs are unable to complete their development prior to pod-fill. They can damage soybeans until pods are too hard (i.e. very close to harvest). Damage to young pods cause deformed and shrivelled seeds and reduce yield. Damaged seeds in older pods are blemished and difficult to grade out, which reduce harvested seed quality. *N. viridula* also damages buds and flowers (Bijlmakers, 2008; Brier, 2011). In *E. servus* reproductive diapauses, they color change from green to reddish-brown. Reddish-brown insects lived longer than green ones and laid no eggs. However, green females lay about 18 egg masses; after approximately four to five weeks eggs hatch and form the nymphs. The nymphs have five instars and after about 29 days they develop to the adult. Pod is pierced or kinked and seed is dimpled or blemished. *E. servus* has as many as four to five or more generations per year in Florida but only two generations a year in southeastern USA. However, *N. viridula* can stay in peanut for their third generation, or leave maize for full-season soybean or cotton where they produce their third or even fourth generation. Both SGSB and BSB preferred soybean significantly more often than B.t. cotton, non-B.t. cotton, and peanut (Gomez & Mizell, 2008; Olson et al., 2011).

**Monitoring:** monitor twice weekly from flowering until close to harvest. Beat sheet sampling is the most efficient monitoring method with at least six sites for adults or 10 sites for nymphs. The standard sample unit consists of five one-metre non consecutive lengths of row within a 20 m radius (Brier, 2011). Sweep net and ground cloth procedures are common sampling methods. Place one four-foot cloth per location and record the number per fourfoot sample. In the case of sweep net; use a 15 sweep net and take a series of twenty five sweeps at each location (Johnson et al., 2009). Stink bug trap with the aggregation pheromone is also way of monitoring and capturing the bugs (Gomez & Mizell, 2008).

**Economic and action thresholds:** economic thresholds depends on the crop size (seeds per m2) and when bugs first infest a crop. The maximum bug damage permitted being only 2% or for *N. viridula* when the adults number ranges from 0.3-0.8/m2 (Brier, 2011).

**Control**: control during early pod-fill before nymphs reach a damaging size. Avoid sequential plantings of summer legumes as bugs population will move from earlier to later plantings. Avoid cultivar and planting time combinations that are more likely to lengthen the duration of flowering and podding. *Trissolcus basalis* (Wollaston), and *Trichopoda giacomellii* (Blanchard) may control stink bugs (Brier, 2011). *A. hilare* is parasitized by the tachinid fly, *Trichopoda pennipes* (F.). The pheromone methyl (E,Z,Z)-2,4,6-decatrienoate may be used to attract the bugs away from fields (Wikipedia, 2011c). Also, trap crops baited with pheromone to catch females for destruction, or even a pheromone-based disruption of orientation behavior to decrease the mating success, are possible semiochemical techniques to suppress populations of *E. servus* second generation (Borges et al., 2001).

#### **4.6** *Piezodorus oceanicus* **(Montrouzier) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae)**

**Identification:** The red banded shield bugs are similar in shape to *N. viridula* but smaller, paler and with pink, white or yellow bands. Eggs ringed by small spines and have a central

Oilseed Pests 147

EC, Monocrotophos 36 SC, Monocrolophos 36 WSC, Quinalphos 25 EC or Triazophos 40 EC at the crop age of 30-35 days and repeal after 15-20 days. Also, acephate 0.10% is effective for

**Identification:** The bean leaf beetle adult is 5 mm long, with or without four black spots (parallelogram shaped) on the wing covers. Adults can vary in color but are most often yellow-green, tan or red. A small, black triangle is visible at the base of the wing covers the prothorax - behind the head. The margins of the wing covers have a black border. Eggs are

**Life cycle and damage**: Females lay eggs in small clusters in the soil at the base of the soybean plants. Newly hatched larvae feed on roots and other underground plant parts for about 30 days before pupating. Adults second generation emerges, feeds on the pods until the plants senesce. They then migrate to alfalfa fields if available or move to their over wintering sites. *C. trifurcate* overwinters in the adult stage in woodlots, leaf litter and soil debris. Defoliation injury by this pest is generally not serious and the exception is damage caused by over wintering adults to young soybean plants. Adult feeding appears as small round holes between the major leaflet veins. Cotyledons and seedling plants can be clipped off by heavier populations. They also feed on the surface of the pod, leaving only a thin film of tissue to protect the seeds within the pod. These pod lesions increase the pod's susceptibility to secondary pod diseases such as alternaria. The bean leaf beetle is a vector of bean pod mottle virus (BPMV) which causes the plant and seed to become wrinkled and

**Monitoring:** monitor from seedling stage to dry edible bean pod-fill stages. Fumigation cage, sweep net, pitfall trap and shaking over the ground cloth are the methods used for sampling. For sweep net sampling take 20-sweep samples at each sample location. Sweep as you walk down the row and calculate an average number of beetles per sweep. In the case of shaking over the ground cloth; place a two foot wide strip of cloth on the ground between the rows and shake the plants over them. Then quickly count the number of beetles. In the "seedling stage" see underside of the leaves and calculate the average number of beetles per meter of row; in the soybean "R5-R6 Stage", assess the number of pods with feeding injury or clipping; in the "prior to the dry edible bean pod-fill Stages" determine the percent defoliation that has occurred; and in the case of "dry edible bean pod-fill Stages" determine the percent of pods with feeding damage. For pod sampling collect five plant samples from each sampling location and calculate an average number of pods with holes in the pod wall

**Economic and action thresholds:** Thresholds for bean leaf beetle are 16 adult beetles per foot of row in early seedling stages. In V3-R4 stage of soybean; the economic threshold is when defoliation exceeds 30% and for R5-R6 stage if 10% of the pods on the plants have

**Control**: Seed treatment using thimethoxam and late planting date, may result in low initial population of beetles. Tachinid species, *Calatoria diabroticae* (Shimer) and *Medina* sp. can control *C. trifurcata*. Application of foliar insecticide between emergence and first trifoliate using pyrethroid has been shown to reduce beetles incidence, by protecting soybean from

feeding injury and the beetles are still active in the field (OMAFRA, 2011).

controlling girdle beetles from infestations (Pande et al., 2000; TNAU, n.d.-c).

**4.8** *Cerotoma trifurcata* **(Forster) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)** 

orange colored and lemon shaped (OMAFRA, 2011).

mottled, reducing the quality of the seed (OMAFRA, 2011).

per five plants (OMAFRA, 2011).

pale band. Newly hatched nymphs are orange with black markings. Larger nymphs are pale green with dark red and brown in the centre of their back and late nymphs may turn to the pale pinkish brown. It was previously classified as *Piezodorus hybneri* (Gmelin), and recently as *P. grossi* (Ahmad) or *P. grossi* (Staddon) (Bailey, 2007; Brier, 2011).

**Life cycle and damage**: Egg rafts contain 15-40 eggs and after 4-5 days hatch. *P. oceanicus*  has five nymphal stages. Nymphs usually reach a damaging size during mid to late pod-fill. They damage is similar to *N. viridula*, with early damage reducing yields, and later damage reducing the quality of harvested seeds. *P. oceanicus* generally has four generations per year (Bailey, 2007; Brier, 2011).

**Monitoring:** Look for the distinctive twin-row egg rafts which indicate the presence of *P. oceanicus.* Beat sheet sampling is the efficient method for monitoring bugs (Brier, 2011).

**Economic and action thresholds:** no thresholds have been set for red banded shield bug.

**Control**: Eggs may be parasitised by *T. basalis*. No insecticides are specifically registered against *P. oceanicus* (Brier, 2011). Brier & McLennan (2006) stated that the addition of 0.5% salt (NaCl) to Decis (deltamethrin) will have a greater impact on *P. oceanicus* population. Also, high yield of the crops contributed to the lower percentage of damaged seeds.

#### **4.7** *Oberea brevis* **(Swederus) (Coleoptera: Lamiidae)**

**Identification:** girdle beetles are yellow at first then change to red and brown on the head, thorax and bases of elytra. Larvae are white, soft-bodied with a dark head (TNAU, n.d.-c).

**Life cycle and damage**: The female deposits a single egg in the petiole of a leaf near the top of the plant. The larva feeds into the petiole and on down into the stem, bore the inside of the stem so it is a stem borer pest. Only one larva is present in each infested plant. The fullgrown larva prepares a fibrous cocoon and pupates within the girdled portion of the stem. The adult emerges from the girdled section in 8-11 days. However, most larvae enter diapauses within the cocoon (Kapoor et al., 1972). The leaves of infected plant are unable to get the nutrient and thus are dried up. In later stages the plant is cut at about 15-25 cm above the ground (TNAU, n.d.-c). The weight of the grain from the top-cut portions of infested plants was significantly reduced in relation to that of healthy plants and their germination capacity was also seriously affected (Gangrade & Singh, 1975).

**Monitoring:** beetles may be collected in sweep net samples. Thereafter, look for lodged plants, which may indicate the presence of stem borer infestations. Cut, open the stem and look for the presence of the larva and its feeding damage. Also, count number of larvae and lodged plants (Boyd & Bailey, 2005).

**Economic and action thresholds:** Out of thirty-five genotypes studied, Awasthi et al., (2003) recorded stem tunneling (%) from 6.46 to 32.16% and the economic injury level to be 26%. In another study, Rao et al., (2007) declared 5% incidence of *O. brevis* for economic threshold.

**Control**: summer ploughing; avoid intercropping with maize or sorghum; crop rotation; avoid excess nitrogenous fertilizers; collecting and destroying infested plant parts and egg masses can decrease population of beetles. If the threshold is exceeded application of insecticide is recommended. Apply phorate 10 kg/ha or carbofuran 30 kg/ha at the time of sowing. Spray Endosulfan 35 EC, Dimethoate 30 EC, Quinalphos 25 EC, methyl demeton 25

pale band. Newly hatched nymphs are orange with black markings. Larger nymphs are pale green with dark red and brown in the centre of their back and late nymphs may turn to the pale pinkish brown. It was previously classified as *Piezodorus hybneri* (Gmelin), and recently

**Life cycle and damage**: Egg rafts contain 15-40 eggs and after 4-5 days hatch. *P. oceanicus*  has five nymphal stages. Nymphs usually reach a damaging size during mid to late pod-fill. They damage is similar to *N. viridula*, with early damage reducing yields, and later damage reducing the quality of harvested seeds. *P. oceanicus* generally has four generations per year

**Monitoring:** Look for the distinctive twin-row egg rafts which indicate the presence of *P. oceanicus.* Beat sheet sampling is the efficient method for monitoring bugs (Brier, 2011). **Economic and action thresholds:** no thresholds have been set for red banded shield bug.

**Control**: Eggs may be parasitised by *T. basalis*. No insecticides are specifically registered against *P. oceanicus* (Brier, 2011). Brier & McLennan (2006) stated that the addition of 0.5% salt (NaCl) to Decis (deltamethrin) will have a greater impact on *P. oceanicus* population.

**Identification:** girdle beetles are yellow at first then change to red and brown on the head, thorax and bases of elytra. Larvae are white, soft-bodied with a dark head (TNAU, n.d.-c). **Life cycle and damage**: The female deposits a single egg in the petiole of a leaf near the top of the plant. The larva feeds into the petiole and on down into the stem, bore the inside of the stem so it is a stem borer pest. Only one larva is present in each infested plant. The fullgrown larva prepares a fibrous cocoon and pupates within the girdled portion of the stem. The adult emerges from the girdled section in 8-11 days. However, most larvae enter diapauses within the cocoon (Kapoor et al., 1972). The leaves of infected plant are unable to get the nutrient and thus are dried up. In later stages the plant is cut at about 15-25 cm above the ground (TNAU, n.d.-c). The weight of the grain from the top-cut portions of infested plants was significantly reduced in relation to that of healthy plants and their

**Monitoring:** beetles may be collected in sweep net samples. Thereafter, look for lodged plants, which may indicate the presence of stem borer infestations. Cut, open the stem and look for the presence of the larva and its feeding damage. Also, count number of larvae and

**Economic and action thresholds:** Out of thirty-five genotypes studied, Awasthi et al., (2003) recorded stem tunneling (%) from 6.46 to 32.16% and the economic injury level to be 26%. In another study, Rao et al., (2007) declared 5% incidence of *O. brevis* for economic threshold. **Control**: summer ploughing; avoid intercropping with maize or sorghum; crop rotation; avoid excess nitrogenous fertilizers; collecting and destroying infested plant parts and egg masses can decrease population of beetles. If the threshold is exceeded application of insecticide is recommended. Apply phorate 10 kg/ha or carbofuran 30 kg/ha at the time of sowing. Spray Endosulfan 35 EC, Dimethoate 30 EC, Quinalphos 25 EC, methyl demeton 25

Also, high yield of the crops contributed to the lower percentage of damaged seeds.

germination capacity was also seriously affected (Gangrade & Singh, 1975).

**4.7** *Oberea brevis* **(Swederus) (Coleoptera: Lamiidae)** 

lodged plants (Boyd & Bailey, 2005).

as *P. grossi* (Ahmad) or *P. grossi* (Staddon) (Bailey, 2007; Brier, 2011).

(Bailey, 2007; Brier, 2011).

EC, Monocrotophos 36 SC, Monocrolophos 36 WSC, Quinalphos 25 EC or Triazophos 40 EC at the crop age of 30-35 days and repeal after 15-20 days. Also, acephate 0.10% is effective for controlling girdle beetles from infestations (Pande et al., 2000; TNAU, n.d.-c).
