**4.11** *Asphondylia yushimai* **sp. n. (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)**

**Identification:** Soybean pod gall midge is described from Japan and at least five named and 13 undetermined species of *Asphondylia* are found in Japan. Most of the undescribed species are morphologically very similar to one another. Yukawa et al., (2003) studied the morphological characteristics of soybean pod gall midge and DNA sequencing of several *Asphondylia* gall midges. They prove that *A. yushimai* is a distinct species of the genus *Asphondylia*, identify its winter host, and outline host alternation by this gall midge.

**Life cycle and damage**: females lay eggs inside young pods of soybean and cause yield losses with malformation of pods by larval infestations. Soybean pod gall midge is one of the major pests of soybean in Japan, Indonesia and China. In summer and autumn, the soybean pod gall midge has two or more generations in the pods of soybean, *G. max* or wild fabaceous and caesalpiniaceous plants (Yukawa et al., 2003). *Asphondylia* sp. cannot overwinter on soybean because the host dies back in winter; whether the soybean species overwinters on another legume or host (Gagne & Woods, 1988).

**Monitoring:** collect the galls and count number of larvae. Color traps present a potential tactic for monitoring soybean pod gall midge or mating disruption (RADA, 2010).

**Economic and action thresholds:** No action threshold has been set for *A. yushimai*.

**Control**: Controlling weeds beneath or around the plants and removing fallen fruit from fields (bury at least 15 cm deep or burn them) may reduce the infestation of gall midge. If a field is of no further economic use, destroy completely or remove all reproductive structures at least twice weekly (RADA, 2010). Contact county Cooperative Service Extension agent or office for latest applicable insecticides.

Oilseed Pests 151

**Control**: avoiding successive plantings of summer legumes and growing vigorous plants

**Life cycle and damage**: Bihar hairy caterpillar females lay their eggs in cluster on the underside of leaves. The larva is a voracious feeder which feeds gregariously on soybean leaves, on chlorophyll mostly in early instars. In later stages the larvae eat the leaves from the margin. The leaves of the plant give an appearance of net or web and in case of severe infestation, the entire crop is damaged badly thus causing 40% defoliation of leaf area

**Monitoring:** install one light trap per hectare to catch the adults of hairy caterpillar. Also, count number of larvae in the meter rows that were selected randomly (TNAU, n.d.-c).

**Economic and action thresholds:** ETL is observing 5 larvae per meter row (Rao et al., 2007). **Control**: summer ploughing, intercropping soybean either with pigeon pea, maize or sorghum; collect and destroying infested plant parts, egg masses and young larvae are techniques that can control *S. obliqua*. If action threshold is observed application of endosulfan 35 EC, chlorpyriphos 20 EC, and trizophos 40 EC, is advised (TNAU, n.d.-c).

**Identification:** moths are triangular when at rest and the wingspan is about 25 mm long. The female moths have charcoal-colored wings with brown and silver patches, while wings of male moths are more uniformly charcoal in color. The male moths have larger body and eyes size than the female moths. The caterpillars of green clover worm are greenish with faint white strips along the body. Sometimes the stripes are not obvious. They have four pairs of pro legs and move with a looping motion similar to the soybean looper. When disturbed, these larvae become very active and fall to the ground (Baldwin et al., 2011).

**Life cycle and damage:** females lay eggs singly on the underside of soybean leaves. After 3- 4 days, the eggs hatch and the larvae start to feed on the leaves. The larva has 6 instars and develops in about 14 days. Green clover worms only infest foliage. They make holes in the leaves and are damaging only under very high populations or in combination with other defoliators. Last instar larvae burrow into the soil or plant debris to pupate and emerge as

**Monitoring:** use ground cloth procedure, roll the cloth beneath the canopy from one row over to the next row and shake the plants on cloths. Make one four-foot shake-cloth sample

**Economic and action thresholds:** ETL is when 5.2 larvae is observed per row-foot (17 larvae per row-meter) between bloom and pod-fill. Also, if defoliation reaches 40% pre-bloom, 20%

**Control**: beneficial insects and pathogens such as the fungal pathogen *N. rileyi*, B.t, parasitoid *Cotesia marginiventris* (Cresson), and *Rogas nolophanae* (Ashmead), can control

with adequate available moisture are cultural control techniques (Brier, 2011).

(Harish, 2008; TNAU, n.d.-c). They can severely damage mustard crops too.

**4.14** *Spilosoma obliqua* **(Walker) (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae)** 

**4.15** *Plathypena scabra* **(F.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)** 

adults in 7-10 days to repeat the cycle (Hadi et al., 2011).

per location and record the number of larvae (Johnson et al., 2009).

during bloom and pod-fill, or 35% from pod-fill to harvest (Hadi et al., 2011).

**Identification:** refer to the identification of *S. obliqua* in groundnut.

## **4.12** *Spodoptera litura* **(F.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)**

**Identification:** refer to the identification of *S. litura* in groundnut. *S. litura* and *S. littoralis* are morphologically similar and distinguish with close examination of the genitalia.

**Life cycle and damage**: females of common cut worm lay their eggs in hair-covered clusters. Newly hatched larvae are very susceptible to dry heat, usually staying on leaves lower surfaces during the day and feeding at night. The larvae damage soybean extensively by skelatalization of leaves in early stage, severe defoliation in later stage and thus reducing the photosynthetic capacity of plants. After damaging the leaves, they also start feeding on young parts, consequently damaging 30 to 50% of the pods. It has six larvae instars. Mature caterpillars pupate in earthen cells in the soil. Occasionally this insect also cuts plant stems at the soil line and feeds directly on the pods. In severe infestations, leaves are completely gone causing the plant to die (Parker et al., 2001; Santhosh, 2008).

**Monitoring:** monitor *S. littora* males peak with installation of pheromone traps. Look carefully at the upper and lower surfaces of the leaves to detect the presence of larvae.

**Economic and action thresholds:** the economic threshold is when defoliation is at or will reach 40% before R1 stage of the crop.

**Control**: using pheromones to mass trapping of the males by the lure and kill technique may be applied for controlling *S. littora*. Biological control of larvae by fungal pathogen, *Nomuraea rileyi* (Samson) and B.t. can suppress population builds up (Patil & Hegde, 2010). The nematodes *S. carpocapsae*, *Neoaplectana carpocapsae*, and the fly *Exorista japonica*  (Townsend) are also effective against *S. litura.* If the threshold is exceeded application of insecticides, and insect growth regulators such as neem is recommended (Santhosh, 2008).

#### **4.13** *Heliothis armigera* **(Hübner) and** *Heliothis punctigera* **(Wallengren) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidea)**

**Identification:** *H. armigera* is known as America bollworm and *H. punctigera* known as Australian bollworm. For identification refer to *H. armigera* and *H. punctigera* on cotton.

**Life cycle and damage**: *Heliothis* spp. is one of the major pests of soybean. They attack auxiliary buds and terminals in vegetative stage and defoliate the crops. Once crops reach flowering, larvae focus on buds, flowers and pods. Young larvae are more likely to feed on vegetative terminals, young leaves and flowers before attacking pods. Crops are better able to compensate for early rather than late pod damage, however in dry land crops, significant early damage may delay podding with subsequent yield and quality losses (Brier, 2011).

**Monitoring:** monitor eggs and moths to determine the start of infestations and increase the chance of successful control. Monitor small larvae by opening vegetative terminals and flowers. Monitoring should be done twice weekly from early budding until late podding and sample six widely spaced locations per field. Beat sheet sampling is the preferred sampling method for medium to large size larvae (Brier, 2011)**.** 

**Economic and action thresholds:** Before flowering and in vegetative stage, economic threshold is when 33% leaf loss is determined or approximately 7.5 larvae/m2 is observed. For podding soybeans currently ETL ranges from 1-2 larvae/m2 (Brier, 2011).

**Identification:** refer to the identification of *S. litura* in groundnut. *S. litura* and *S. littoralis* are

**Life cycle and damage**: females of common cut worm lay their eggs in hair-covered clusters. Newly hatched larvae are very susceptible to dry heat, usually staying on leaves lower surfaces during the day and feeding at night. The larvae damage soybean extensively by skelatalization of leaves in early stage, severe defoliation in later stage and thus reducing the photosynthetic capacity of plants. After damaging the leaves, they also start feeding on young parts, consequently damaging 30 to 50% of the pods. It has six larvae instars. Mature caterpillars pupate in earthen cells in the soil. Occasionally this insect also cuts plant stems at the soil line and feeds directly on the pods. In severe infestations, leaves are completely

**Monitoring:** monitor *S. littora* males peak with installation of pheromone traps. Look carefully at the upper and lower surfaces of the leaves to detect the presence of larvae.

**Economic and action thresholds:** the economic threshold is when defoliation is at or will

**Control**: using pheromones to mass trapping of the males by the lure and kill technique may be applied for controlling *S. littora*. Biological control of larvae by fungal pathogen, *Nomuraea rileyi* (Samson) and B.t. can suppress population builds up (Patil & Hegde, 2010). The nematodes *S. carpocapsae*, *Neoaplectana carpocapsae*, and the fly *Exorista japonica*  (Townsend) are also effective against *S. litura.* If the threshold is exceeded application of insecticides, and insect growth regulators such as neem is recommended (Santhosh, 2008).

**4.13** *Heliothis armigera* **(Hübner) and** *Heliothis punctigera* **(Wallengren) (Lepidoptera:** 

**Identification:** *H. armigera* is known as America bollworm and *H. punctigera* known as Australian bollworm. For identification refer to *H. armigera* and *H. punctigera* on cotton.

**Life cycle and damage**: *Heliothis* spp. is one of the major pests of soybean. They attack auxiliary buds and terminals in vegetative stage and defoliate the crops. Once crops reach flowering, larvae focus on buds, flowers and pods. Young larvae are more likely to feed on vegetative terminals, young leaves and flowers before attacking pods. Crops are better able to compensate for early rather than late pod damage, however in dry land crops, significant early damage may delay podding with subsequent yield and quality losses (Brier, 2011).

**Monitoring:** monitor eggs and moths to determine the start of infestations and increase the chance of successful control. Monitor small larvae by opening vegetative terminals and flowers. Monitoring should be done twice weekly from early budding until late podding and sample six widely spaced locations per field. Beat sheet sampling is the preferred

**Economic and action thresholds:** Before flowering and in vegetative stage, economic threshold is when 33% leaf loss is determined or approximately 7.5 larvae/m2 is observed.

sampling method for medium to large size larvae (Brier, 2011)**.** 

For podding soybeans currently ETL ranges from 1-2 larvae/m2 (Brier, 2011).

morphologically similar and distinguish with close examination of the genitalia.

**4.12** *Spodoptera litura* **(F.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)** 

gone causing the plant to die (Parker et al., 2001; Santhosh, 2008).

reach 40% before R1 stage of the crop.

**Noctuidea)** 

**Control**: avoiding successive plantings of summer legumes and growing vigorous plants with adequate available moisture are cultural control techniques (Brier, 2011).

#### **4.14** *Spilosoma obliqua* **(Walker) (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae)**

**Identification:** refer to the identification of *S. obliqua* in groundnut.

**Life cycle and damage**: Bihar hairy caterpillar females lay their eggs in cluster on the underside of leaves. The larva is a voracious feeder which feeds gregariously on soybean leaves, on chlorophyll mostly in early instars. In later stages the larvae eat the leaves from the margin. The leaves of the plant give an appearance of net or web and in case of severe infestation, the entire crop is damaged badly thus causing 40% defoliation of leaf area (Harish, 2008; TNAU, n.d.-c). They can severely damage mustard crops too.

**Monitoring:** install one light trap per hectare to catch the adults of hairy caterpillar. Also, count number of larvae in the meter rows that were selected randomly (TNAU, n.d.-c).

**Economic and action thresholds:** ETL is observing 5 larvae per meter row (Rao et al., 2007).

**Control**: summer ploughing, intercropping soybean either with pigeon pea, maize or sorghum; collect and destroying infested plant parts, egg masses and young larvae are techniques that can control *S. obliqua*. If action threshold is observed application of endosulfan 35 EC, chlorpyriphos 20 EC, and trizophos 40 EC, is advised (TNAU, n.d.-c).
