**7.2** *Dactynotus carthami* **(Hille Ris Lambers) [basionym] (Homoptera: Aphididae)**

**Identification:** the synonym of safflower aphids is *Uroleucon compositae* (Theobald). Adults are about 1.5-2 mm long, black with pear-shaped body and conspicuous cornicles. Nymphs are reddish brown (Martínez, 1999).

**Life cycle and damage:** It is a serious pest of safflower. During pre-flowering stage both nymphs and adults suck the cell sap from shoot apices, peduncles, leaves and stem, secrete a honey dew like secretion on upper surface of the leaves and plant parts forming a black sooty mold which hinders photosynthetic activity resulting in stunted growth. In sever attacks the plants dry up. Yield losses cause by aphids is about 40-50% and infestation may occur 30-45 days old crop. It has four nymphal stages (TNAU, n.d.-a). There are other major aphids species that cause severe or moderate damage to safflower such as *Uroleucon compositae* (Theobold), *Dactynotus orientali*s sp., *Dactyonotus jaceae* (Linn.), *Macrosiphum sonchi*  (H.R.L.), *Macrosiphum sonchi* (Linn.), *Macrosiphum compositae* (Theobold), *Macrosiphum*  spp.(jaceae), *M. persicae*, *Aphis fafia* (Scop) and *Capitophorus eleagni* (Del Guercio) (Hanumantharaya et al., 2008).

**Monitoring:** install yellow traps for monitoring aphids.

**Economic and action thresholds:** The economic threshold level is observing 50-60 aphids/5cm twig/plant (Martínez, 1999). However, the economic threshold level differs according to the variety. For *U. compositae* ETL was determined 48.78 aphids/5 cm apical twig/plant on Bhima variety of safflower, with exposure periods of about 2-3 weeks from first aphid incidence. On Annigeri-1 variety of safflower, the ETL was estimated at 38.5 aphids/5 cm apical twig/plant with exposure periods of 2-3 weeks from first aphid appearance (Hanumantharaya et al., 2008).

**Control:** planting resistant varieties and early sowing escape the peak pest incidence. Application of balanced fertilizer, intercropping and mixed cropping reduces the pest population. Intercultural operations like harrowing; hoeing can reduces the weeds which are host plants for safflower aphids. Also, releasing natural enemies can be used in augmentation programs (Hanumantharaya et al., 2008).

#### **7.3** *Acanthiophilus helianthi* **(Rossi) (Diptera: Tephritidae)**

**Identification:** Capsule fly or safflower bud fly adults are ash colored; black obscured by a dense gray microtrichia and wing with characteristic diffused pattern. They have light brown legs. Maggot is dirty white in color (Martínez, 1999).

Oilseed Pests 175

**Monitoring:** larvae can be monitored by directly observations and counting the number of

**Control:** Intercropping with non-host crop like wheat can be effective. They can be controlled biologically by *Apanteles ruficrus* (Haliday), *Hetergamus* sp., *rogas* sp. and *Euplectrus euplexiae* (Rohwer), green muscardine fungus (*Metarhizium anisopliae*) and NPV. If the threshold is exceeded spraying Indoxacarb 15 EC, Spinosad 45 SC, Carbaryl 50 WP,

**Identification:** moths have a wingspan of 25-30 mm. Forewings have a lighter spot near the center. Hindwings are paler with darker borders; however, a light band occurs at the wing edges. Eggs are flattened half-spheres, white to pinkish, with fine radiating lines from the top center. They are covered by the white, hairs like that give a cotton ball appearance to the egg cluster. The larvae color ranges from bright green to purplish green to blackish. The most common phase is light olive green with a darker strip down the back and a paler stripe along each side. Pupation occurs on or under the soil surface. Pupae are brownish, typical of

**Life cycle and damage:** females lay eggs in clusters that may be several layers deep. They hatch in 5-7 days in warm weather. Young larvae feed gregariously and skeletonize foliage. As they mature, larvae become solitary and eat large irregular holes in foliage. They are a serious defoliator of flower crops, safflower and cotton. The larvae have sixth instars

**Monitoring:** Pheromone traps can be used to detect the presence and intensity of moths. **Economic and action thresholds:** action threshold is 0.3 larvae per plant (Capinera, 2010a). **Control:** controlling broad leaf weeds and rapid disposal of crop residues after harvesting may reduce population buildup. If the threshold is exceeded application of insecticides is advised. However, insecticides should be applied in early larval stages and achieve good

Ahmad, S., Ahmad Khan, H., Javed, M., & Rehman, K.-U. (2011). Roost composition and

Anitha, V., Wightman, J., & Rogers, D. J. (2005). Management of white grubs (Coleoptera:

*Management*. 51: 4. 313-320. http://eprints.icrisat.ac.in/id/eprint/945.

damage assessment of rose-ringed parakeet (*Psittacula krameri*) on maize and sunflower in agro-ecosystem of central Punjab, Pakistan. *International Journal of Agriculture and Biology*. 13. 731-736. ISSN: 1560–8530; ISSN Online: 1814–9596. Alford, D. V. (2003). Biocontrol of oilseed rape pests: Blackwell Science Ltd. 343 pp. ISBN:

Scarabaeidae) on groundnut in southern India. *International Journal of Pest* 

**Economic and action thresholds:** no action threshold has been established for *P. capensis*.

larvae per plant on 10 randomly selected and tagged plants.

Endosulfan or Fenvalerate 20 EC is advised (TNAU, n.d.-a).

**7.6** *Spodoptera exigua* **(Hubner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)** 

all close relatives (Mau & Kessing, 2007b).

coverage of targeted plants (Mau & Kessing, 2007b).

(Capinera, 2010a).

**8. References** 

0632054271.

**Life cycle and damage:** females lay eggs in clusters of 6 to 24 inside the young flower buds which hatch in 1-3 days. Newly hatched larvae feed on the soft parts of the capsules and later instars feed on the soft part within. Larval period lasted about 7 days in early summer. The infested buds rot and give an offensive smelling fluid. Losses leads to disrupted plant activities, reduction in flower buds, and, ultimately, to decreased quality and quantity of crop. The flies spent their entire lifespan from egg to adult inside the flower heads of safflower plants. Pupation takes place in flower buds and lasted for 5–7 days. The fly overwintered as pupae inside flower heads left in the field after harvest. They have three generations per year. The pest infestation leads to a yield loss ranging from 38.6 to 93.2% (Saeidi & Nur Azura, 2011; TNAU, n.d.-a).

**Monitoring:** modified Steiner traps baited with methyl eugenol, water traps and sticky traps can be used to monitor bud flies and their immigration to the crop (Alford, 2003).

**Economic and action thresholds:** no action threshold has been set for safflower bud fly.

**Control:** sowing of the crop; clean cultivation and using resistant varieties are cultural techniques for controlling safflower bud flies. Some bio-control agents such as *chrysopa* sp., *Orymurus* sp., *Eurytoma* sp., *Stenomalus muscarum* (L.), *Syntomopus* sp., *Bracon* sp., *Pronotalia* sp. and *Antistrophoplex conthurnatus* (Masi) can reduce the population build up. Application of insecticides such as dimethoate 30 EC, malathion 50 EC and phosphomidon 100 EC is recommended if the threshold is exceeded (TNAU, n.d.-a).

#### **7.4** *Heliothis armigera* **(Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidea)**

**Identification:** *H. armigera* is known as gram pod borer or capsule borer. Refer to the identification section for *H. armigera* in cotton*.* 

**Life cycle and damage:** The life cycle is more or less the same as on cotton but differ due to the weather conditions. In early stage of crop growth larvae feed on leaves and shoot apices. Later, the larvae shift to the developing capitula. The symptoms are perforated leaves, perforated involucres bracts, partially or completely eaten capitula in the bud stage and bored developing capitula (TNAU, n.d.-a)*.*

**Monitoring:** refer to the monitoring section for *H. armigera* in cotton.

**Economic and action thresholds:** The ETL of capsule borer is 50 larvae per 100 plant (TNAU, n.d.-a).

**Control:** refer to the control section for *H. armigera* in cotton*.* 

#### **7.5** *Perigea capensis* **(Guen) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidea)**

**Identification:** the synonyms of the species are *Perigea illecta* (Walker) and *Platysenta illecta* (Walker). The adult is dark brown and forewings are dark brown with pale wavy marks; Hind wings are light brown. Safflower caterpillars are stout, green and smooth. The anal segment is humped and the body has some purple markings (TNAU, n.d.-a).

**Life cycle and damage:** The larva feeds on the leaves, bracts, flowers, capsules and sometimes on capitulum too. They also bore into the stem and flower-buds and feed on the contents (TNAU, n.d.-a).

**Life cycle and damage:** females lay eggs in clusters of 6 to 24 inside the young flower buds which hatch in 1-3 days. Newly hatched larvae feed on the soft parts of the capsules and later instars feed on the soft part within. Larval period lasted about 7 days in early summer. The infested buds rot and give an offensive smelling fluid. Losses leads to disrupted plant activities, reduction in flower buds, and, ultimately, to decreased quality and quantity of crop. The flies spent their entire lifespan from egg to adult inside the flower heads of safflower plants. Pupation takes place in flower buds and lasted for 5–7 days. The fly overwintered as pupae inside flower heads left in the field after harvest. They have three generations per year. The pest infestation leads to a yield loss ranging from 38.6 to 93.2%

**Monitoring:** modified Steiner traps baited with methyl eugenol, water traps and sticky traps

**Control:** sowing of the crop; clean cultivation and using resistant varieties are cultural techniques for controlling safflower bud flies. Some bio-control agents such as *chrysopa* sp., *Orymurus* sp., *Eurytoma* sp., *Stenomalus muscarum* (L.), *Syntomopus* sp., *Bracon* sp., *Pronotalia* sp. and *Antistrophoplex conthurnatus* (Masi) can reduce the population build up. Application of insecticides such as dimethoate 30 EC, malathion 50 EC and phosphomidon 100 EC is

**Identification:** *H. armigera* is known as gram pod borer or capsule borer. Refer to the

**Life cycle and damage:** The life cycle is more or less the same as on cotton but differ due to the weather conditions. In early stage of crop growth larvae feed on leaves and shoot apices. Later, the larvae shift to the developing capitula. The symptoms are perforated leaves, perforated involucres bracts, partially or completely eaten capitula in the bud stage and

**Economic and action thresholds:** The ETL of capsule borer is 50 larvae per 100 plant

**Identification:** the synonyms of the species are *Perigea illecta* (Walker) and *Platysenta illecta* (Walker). The adult is dark brown and forewings are dark brown with pale wavy marks; Hind wings are light brown. Safflower caterpillars are stout, green and smooth. The anal

**Life cycle and damage:** The larva feeds on the leaves, bracts, flowers, capsules and sometimes on capitulum too. They also bore into the stem and flower-buds and feed on the

segment is humped and the body has some purple markings (TNAU, n.d.-a).

**Economic and action thresholds:** no action threshold has been set for safflower bud fly.

can be used to monitor bud flies and their immigration to the crop (Alford, 2003).

(Saeidi & Nur Azura, 2011; TNAU, n.d.-a).

recommended if the threshold is exceeded (TNAU, n.d.-a).

identification section for *H. armigera* in cotton*.* 

bored developing capitula (TNAU, n.d.-a)*.*

(TNAU, n.d.-a).

contents (TNAU, n.d.-a).

**7.4** *Heliothis armigera* **(Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidea)** 

**Monitoring:** refer to the monitoring section for *H. armigera* in cotton.

**Control:** refer to the control section for *H. armigera* in cotton*.* 

**7.5** *Perigea capensis* **(Guen) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidea)** 

**Monitoring:** larvae can be monitored by directly observations and counting the number of larvae per plant on 10 randomly selected and tagged plants.

**Economic and action thresholds:** no action threshold has been established for *P. capensis*.

**Control:** Intercropping with non-host crop like wheat can be effective. They can be controlled biologically by *Apanteles ruficrus* (Haliday), *Hetergamus* sp., *rogas* sp. and *Euplectrus euplexiae* (Rohwer), green muscardine fungus (*Metarhizium anisopliae*) and NPV. If the threshold is exceeded spraying Indoxacarb 15 EC, Spinosad 45 SC, Carbaryl 50 WP, Endosulfan or Fenvalerate 20 EC is advised (TNAU, n.d.-a).
