**4.15** *Plathypena scabra* **(F.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)**

**Identification:** moths are triangular when at rest and the wingspan is about 25 mm long. The female moths have charcoal-colored wings with brown and silver patches, while wings of male moths are more uniformly charcoal in color. The male moths have larger body and eyes size than the female moths. The caterpillars of green clover worm are greenish with faint white strips along the body. Sometimes the stripes are not obvious. They have four pairs of pro legs and move with a looping motion similar to the soybean looper. When disturbed, these larvae become very active and fall to the ground (Baldwin et al., 2011).

**Life cycle and damage:** females lay eggs singly on the underside of soybean leaves. After 3- 4 days, the eggs hatch and the larvae start to feed on the leaves. The larva has 6 instars and develops in about 14 days. Green clover worms only infest foliage. They make holes in the leaves and are damaging only under very high populations or in combination with other defoliators. Last instar larvae burrow into the soil or plant debris to pupate and emerge as adults in 7-10 days to repeat the cycle (Hadi et al., 2011).

**Monitoring:** use ground cloth procedure, roll the cloth beneath the canopy from one row over to the next row and shake the plants on cloths. Make one four-foot shake-cloth sample per location and record the number of larvae (Johnson et al., 2009).

**Economic and action thresholds:** ETL is when 5.2 larvae is observed per row-foot (17 larvae per row-meter) between bloom and pod-fill. Also, if defoliation reaches 40% pre-bloom, 20% during bloom and pod-fill, or 35% from pod-fill to harvest (Hadi et al., 2011).

**Control**: beneficial insects and pathogens such as the fungal pathogen *N. rileyi*, B.t, parasitoid *Cotesia marginiventris* (Cresson), and *Rogas nolophanae* (Ashmead), can control

Oilseed Pests 153

**Monitoring:** Direct observation of caterpillars on the plant is the best method of sampling for early stages of plant growth. Sweep net, black light and pheromone traps are good indicators of moth presence. If the moths are detected, searching for eggs and larvae and

**Economic and action thresholds:** ETL in vegetative and flowering stage of the crop are 33%

**Control**: planting or use of early maturing varieties of soybean, and use of trap crops are the cultural techniques appropriate for reducing pest's populations. Caterpillars can be controlled by pathogens such as NPV and B.t or the parasitoid *Winthemia rufopicta* (Bigot). Application of Dimilin at 2 ounces product per acre will provide preventive control of *A. gemmatalis*. Dimilin should be applied at the vegetative growth of soybeans and as pod formation begins (at or shortly after bloom). The probability of a velvetbean caterpillar

*Brassica juncea* L.: known as Brown and Oriental mustards, is grown commercially in

*Brassica nigra* L.: known as Black mustard, is grown in Argentina, Chile, the USA and some

*Brassica alba* L. or *Brassica hirta* Moench.: known as White and yellow mustards, is grown

**5.1 Snails:** *Cernuella virgata* **(Da Costa),** *Cochlicella acuta* **(Müller),** *Prietocella barbara*  **(Linnaeus) (Eupulmonata: Hygromiidae), and** *Theba pisana* **(Müller) (Eupulmonata: Helicidae); Slugs:** *Limax cinereoniger* **(Wolf) (Eupulmonata: Limacidae) and** 

**Identification:** snails are known as common white snail, pointed snail, small pointed snail and white Italian snail, respectively. The common names of slugs are black keeled slug and reticulated slug, respectively. Shell diameter of common white snail ranges from 10 to 15 mm. The coiled white shell has a brown band around the spiral in some individuals while others completely lack this banding. The umbilicus is open and circular. Under magnification, regular straight scratches are visible across the shell. The common white snail and white Italian snail are the same just umbilicus are different and the scratching per etches on the shell. Pointed snail is fawn, grey or brown with some white markings. The shell is conical in shape. The length of the shell of a mature snail is up to 18 mm. The ratio of the shell length to its diameter at the base is always greater than two. Small pointed snail shell is fawn, grey or brown in color. The length of the shell of a mature snail is up to 10 mm. The ratio of the shell length to its diameter at the base is always two or less. The black keeled slug is longer than 20 mm and has a uniform grey to black body color. This species has a prominent ridge (keel) running along the mid-dorsal line, from the mantle to the tip of the tail. The reticulated slug is black to brown, with elongated soft and slimy body about 40-60

*Brassica rapa* L. or *Brassica campestris* L.*:* known as field mustard and turnip mustard.

and 20%, respectively or the presence of three larvae per square meter (Bailey, 2007).

problem is higher on later maturing soybeans (Baldwin et al., 2011; Kathryn, 2008).

*Brassica napus* L.: known as Canola, Rapeseed, Rutabaga, and Swede.

wild in North Africa, the Middle East and Mediterranean Europe.

*Deroceras reticulatum* **(Müller) (Eupulmonata: Helicidae)** 

mm long with a ridge down its back (Bailey, 2007).

counting them is the next step.

Canada, the UK, Denmark and the USA.

**5. Mustard** 

European countries.

clover worms population. If the threshold is exceeded application of insecticides is advised. Azinphos-methyl, (Sniper®2-E), Carbaryl (Sevin XLR Plus), and Lorsban 4E are common chemicals labeled for green cloverworm control (Daigle et al., 1988; Gouge et al., 1999).

#### **4.16** *Pseudoplusia includens* **(Walker) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)**

**Identification:** Soybean looper moth has mottled brown forewings with a bronze to golden glitter. At the center of the forewings, two prominent silver markings are usually visible. The larva is light green with several thin light lines in the body length. The body of caterpillar is largest at the rear and tapering to the head. Loopers form the characteristic hump or "loop" when crawling. They have three pairs of prolegs (Hadi & Bradshaw, 2011).

**Life cycle and damage**: females lay eggs on the underside of soybean leaves. After 3 days the eggs hatch and first instar larvae feed on soybean leaves. The larvae start feeding with leaves at the middle of the plants and working upward. The larvae have 6 instars. Loopers eat large holes in the leaves and, under high populations, can strip an entire field. The pupae are covered by silken cocoons attached on the underside of soybean leaves. This pest usually occurs in fields that have been previously sprayed. Soybean loopers usually reach higher populations in areas where cotton and soybeans are grown together. Their infestations is not as explosive, but they can build up to the economic threshold (Baldwin et al., 2011).

**Monitoring:** monitor population of moths with pheromone traps to attract, collect and count number of moths.

**Economic and action thresholds:** ETL is when defoliation reaches 40% pre-bloom, 20% during bloom and pod-fill, or 35% from pod-fill to harvest (Hadi & Bradshaw, 2011).

**Control**: Planting an early maturing soybean variety will allow the soybean crop to escape damaging populations of the loopers. Pheromone traps can use as control tools to capture insects, disrupt insect mating and as lures to attract insects to insecticidal baits. Application of foliar insecticides is advised if the threshold is exceeded (Baldwin et al., 2011).

#### **4.17** *Anticarsia gemmatalis* **(Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)**

**Identification:** The moths have ash gray, light yellowish-brown, or dark reddish brown forewings and light brown hindwings with a row of light colored spots near the margin. The eggs are white, slightly oval, about 1-2 mm diameter and flattened on its lower surface. Velvetbean caterpillar is greenish, brown, or almost black caterpillars with a broad lighter band down each side. Head is prominent and yellow or orange. Caterpillars have five pairs of prolegs and the last pair looks like forked tail. When disturbed, they wiggle violently. The pupa is light green at first and turns brown then (Baldwin et al., 2011; Kathryn, 2008).

**Life cycle and damage**: females lay eggs on the underside of leaves or maybe on the upper surfaces of leaves, on the petioles and even on the stems. After about 3 days eggs hatch. This caterpillar eats the entire leaf and will strip whole fields when high numbers are present. They move downward and defoliate the plants if uncontrolled. It has six instar larvae and the pupae will form below the soil. The pupal stage usually lasts about 7 to 11 days due to the weather conditions. The life cycle is completed in four weeks. Pods sometimes will be attacked when defoliation is severe. Damaging populations usually limited to late-planted fields, especially double-crop soybeans (Baldwin et al., 2011; Kathryn, 2008).

clover worms population. If the threshold is exceeded application of insecticides is advised. Azinphos-methyl, (Sniper®2-E), Carbaryl (Sevin XLR Plus), and Lorsban 4E are common chemicals labeled for green cloverworm control (Daigle et al., 1988; Gouge et al., 1999).

**Identification:** Soybean looper moth has mottled brown forewings with a bronze to golden glitter. At the center of the forewings, two prominent silver markings are usually visible. The larva is light green with several thin light lines in the body length. The body of caterpillar is largest at the rear and tapering to the head. Loopers form the characteristic hump or "loop" when crawling. They have three pairs of prolegs (Hadi & Bradshaw, 2011). **Life cycle and damage**: females lay eggs on the underside of soybean leaves. After 3 days the eggs hatch and first instar larvae feed on soybean leaves. The larvae start feeding with leaves at the middle of the plants and working upward. The larvae have 6 instars. Loopers eat large holes in the leaves and, under high populations, can strip an entire field. The pupae are covered by silken cocoons attached on the underside of soybean leaves. This pest usually occurs in fields that have been previously sprayed. Soybean loopers usually reach higher populations in areas where cotton and soybeans are grown together. Their infestations is not

as explosive, but they can build up to the economic threshold (Baldwin et al., 2011).

during bloom and pod-fill, or 35% from pod-fill to harvest (Hadi & Bradshaw, 2011).

of foliar insecticides is advised if the threshold is exceeded (Baldwin et al., 2011).

**4.17** *Anticarsia gemmatalis* **(Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)** 

count number of moths.

**Monitoring:** monitor population of moths with pheromone traps to attract, collect and

**Economic and action thresholds:** ETL is when defoliation reaches 40% pre-bloom, 20%

**Control**: Planting an early maturing soybean variety will allow the soybean crop to escape damaging populations of the loopers. Pheromone traps can use as control tools to capture insects, disrupt insect mating and as lures to attract insects to insecticidal baits. Application

**Identification:** The moths have ash gray, light yellowish-brown, or dark reddish brown forewings and light brown hindwings with a row of light colored spots near the margin. The eggs are white, slightly oval, about 1-2 mm diameter and flattened on its lower surface. Velvetbean caterpillar is greenish, brown, or almost black caterpillars with a broad lighter band down each side. Head is prominent and yellow or orange. Caterpillars have five pairs of prolegs and the last pair looks like forked tail. When disturbed, they wiggle violently. The pupa is light green at first and turns brown then (Baldwin et al., 2011; Kathryn, 2008).

**Life cycle and damage**: females lay eggs on the underside of leaves or maybe on the upper surfaces of leaves, on the petioles and even on the stems. After about 3 days eggs hatch. This caterpillar eats the entire leaf and will strip whole fields when high numbers are present. They move downward and defoliate the plants if uncontrolled. It has six instar larvae and the pupae will form below the soil. The pupal stage usually lasts about 7 to 11 days due to the weather conditions. The life cycle is completed in four weeks. Pods sometimes will be attacked when defoliation is severe. Damaging populations usually limited to late-planted

fields, especially double-crop soybeans (Baldwin et al., 2011; Kathryn, 2008).

**4.16** *Pseudoplusia includens* **(Walker) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)** 

**Monitoring:** Direct observation of caterpillars on the plant is the best method of sampling for early stages of plant growth. Sweep net, black light and pheromone traps are good indicators of moth presence. If the moths are detected, searching for eggs and larvae and counting them is the next step.

**Economic and action thresholds:** ETL in vegetative and flowering stage of the crop are 33% and 20%, respectively or the presence of three larvae per square meter (Bailey, 2007).

**Control**: planting or use of early maturing varieties of soybean, and use of trap crops are the cultural techniques appropriate for reducing pest's populations. Caterpillars can be controlled by pathogens such as NPV and B.t or the parasitoid *Winthemia rufopicta* (Bigot). Application of Dimilin at 2 ounces product per acre will provide preventive control of *A. gemmatalis*. Dimilin should be applied at the vegetative growth of soybeans and as pod formation begins (at or shortly after bloom). The probability of a velvetbean caterpillar problem is higher on later maturing soybeans (Baldwin et al., 2011; Kathryn, 2008).
