**Author details**

*Plant Communities and Their Environment*

EPI and other salt-tolerant plant species.

**Acknowledgements**

as well as share other resources.

CUM cultural meadow EPI eastern poison ivy

TDS total dissolved solids TK traditional knowledge

FOD8-1 Fresh-Moist Poplar Deciduous Forest

USDA United States Department of Agriculture WUT Wiikwemkoong Unceded Territory

HEAs hydrocarbon extraction areas Premier Premier Environmental Services

FOC4-3 Fresh-Moist White Cedar–Balsam Fir Coniferous Forest

**Abbreviations**

Large-scale disturbance of plant communities at WUT occurred with the 1865 forest fires followed by development of HEAs in forests and fields. These disturbed plant communities at the HEAs were burned in 1905 and were followed by establishment of pioneer plant species such as balsam poplar and eastern white cedar in forests and Canada goldenrod and Virginia strawberry in fields. Areas in close proximity to the HEAs have not developed diverse plant communities during the last 109 years but are dominated by EPI, and this pattern is attributed to the periodic expulsion of brine from HEAs. Such dominance by EPI in these areas demonstrates intolerance of brine by most plants, whereas the EPI flourishes, due in part to some tolerance of salt as well as rhizome growth strategy. With this demonstration of EPI as the dominant species near HEAs, it is a phenological response to local habitats that can be used to rediscover lost HEAs. Studies of natural groundwater seeps located near HEAs were dominated by EPI, and confirmed plant community responses are attributable to exposure to brine. This confirmation that EPI represents a bioindicator for understanding environmental disturbance through the analyses of phenological responses at WUT can likely be applied to other areas with

Thanks to Jean Pitawanakwat, who provided assistance on many aspects of this study. Dr. Laima Kott, University of Guelph, provided confirmation on the identification of some plants, including the ostrich fern. Ann Rocchi also assisted with some plant identifications. Wiikwemkoong Unceded Territory tribal council provided administrative and financial support for this study. Special thanks to the unpaid members of WUT whom have contributed their time to help find lost HEAs

**7. Conclusions**

**130**

Dean G. Fitzgerald1 \*, David R. Wade1 and Patrick Fox2

1 Premier Environmental Services Inc., Cambridge, Canada

2 Wiikwemkoong Unceded Territory, Department of Lands and Resources, Mide kaaning, Wikwemikong, Canada

\*Address all correspondence to: dean@elminc.ca

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
