Herbicides Mechanisms Involved in the Sorption Kinetic of Ionisable and Non Ionisable Herbicides: Impact of Physical/ Chemical Properties of Soils and Experimental Conditions

*Lizethly Caceres Jensen, Angelo Neira-Albornoz and Mauricio Escudey*

## **Abstract**

Volcanic ash-derived soils (VADS, variable-charge soils) are predominant in some regions of the world, being of great importance in the agricultural economy of several emerging countries. Their amphoteric surface charge characteristics confer physical/chemical properties different to constant surface charge-soils, showing a particular behavior in relation to the herbicide adsorption kinetics. Volcanic soils represent an environmental substrate that may become polluted over time due to intensive agronomic uses. Solute transport models have contributed to a better understanding of herbicide behavior on variable- and constant-charge soils, being also necessary to evaluate the fate of herbicides and to prevent potential contamination of water resources. The following chapter is divided into four sections: physical/chemical properties of variable and constant-charge soils, kinetic adsorption models frequently used to obtain kinetic parameters of herbicides on soils, solute transport models to describe herbicide adsorption on VADS, and impact of experimental conditions of kinetic batch studies on solute transport mechanisms.

**Keywords:** variable-charge soils, constant-charge soils, kinetic adsorption, herbicides and solute transport mechanism

## **1. Introduction**

Nature of soils is regulated by various soil-forming factors such as parent material, climate, vegetation, and time [1]. These factors vary widely among region, and also these vary in their properties. Volcanic ash-derived soils (VADS) are predominantly found in regions of the world with geochemical characteristics dominated by active and recently extinct volcanic activity. These have great importance in the agricultural economy of several emerging and developing countries of Europe, Asia, Africa, Oceania, and America. They are abundant and widespread in central-southern Chile (from 19° to 56° S latitude), accounting for approximately 69% of the arable land [2].

Agricultural practices developed in Chilean VADS have led to the very increased use of herbicides and also require frequent adjustments of soil pH and mineral fertilization [3–5]. Among these soils, andisols and ultisols are the most abundant, both presenting an acidic pH (4.5–5.5). Andisols are rich in organic matter (OM), with high specific surface area, P retention (>85%), and variable charge with low saturation of bases, low bulk density (<0.9 Mg m<sup>−</sup><sup>3</sup> ) associated with a high porosity, and a strong microaggregation of heterogeneous forms and a mineralogy dominated by short-range ordered minerals, such as allophane (Al2O3SiO2 × nH2O) [2, 6]. Allophane plays a key role in surface reactivity in andisols determining the availability of nutrients and controlling soil contaminant behavior [6]. Ultisols have a low amount of OM, relatively high amounts of Fe oxides in different degrees of crystallinity, low base saturation (<30%), high bulk density (0.8–1.1 Mg m<sup>−</sup><sup>3</sup> ), and high clay content (>40%) [2, 7]. This last component provides a finer texture that allows a greater cohesion with respect to andisols [2, 8].

Andisols present variable surface charge, originated in both inorganic and organic constituents. Inorganic minerals such as goethite (FeOOH), ferrihydrite (Fe10O15 × 9H2O), gibbsite (Al(OH)3), imogolite, and allophane contribute through the dissociation of Fe▬OH and Al▬OH active surface groups, while OM through the dissociation of its functional groups (mainly carboxylic and phenolic) and humus-Al and Fe complexes with amphoteric characteristics contributes too. For the other side, ultisols present little or no charge, because more crystalline minerals, such as halloysite and/or kaolinite dominate their mineralogy.

Several herbicide adsorption kinetic studies on VADS have indicated that the herbicide adsorption is a nonequilibrium process [5, 9]. Time-dependent adsorption can be a result from physical and chemical nonequilibrium and intrasorbent diffusion can occur during the transport of pesticides in soils [10]. In general, nonequilibrium adsorption has been attributed to several factors, such as: diffusive mass transport resistances, nonlinearity in adsorption isotherms, adsorption-desorption nonsingularity and rate-limited adsorption reactions [11]. The *intra-OM-diffusion* has been suggested to be the predominant factor responsible for the nonequilibrium adsorption of nonionic or hydrophobic compounds on VADS [9, 12]. The differences in the *intra-OM* adsorption kinetics of herbicides were due to soil constituents, such as organic carbon (OC) and mineral composition on VADS.

The adsorption-desorption behavior of pesticides is the principal process affecting the fate of these chemicals in soil and water. In general, adsorption-desorption processes are known to be important because they are time-dependent and with considerable ecosystem impact, influencing the availability of organic pollutants for plant uptake, microbial degradation, and transport in soil and consequently leaching potential. In this sense, the principal process that affects the fate of pesticides in soil and water is adsorption of pesticides from soil solution to soil particle active sites, which limit transport in soils by reducing their concentration in the soil solution. Therefore, adsorption kinetic studies provide important information for weed control, crop toxicity, runoff, and carryover events, serving as the foundation for estimating effects on biotic and abiotic environmental components. The kinetic parameters can be obtained by means of the application of two kinds of kinetic models: the ones that allow establishing principal kinetic parameters and modeling of the adsorption process and other models frequently used to describe adsorption mechanisms of organic compounds on soils. Such information is necessary in order to understand leaching of herbicides for preventing potential contamination of groundwater.

The aim of this chapter is to establish the differences of adsorption kinetics of ionizable and nonionizable herbicides (INIH) in Chilean VADS to investigate the

**55**

*Herbicides Mechanisms Involved in the Sorption Kinetic of Ionisable and Non Ionisable...*

**2. Physical and chemical properties of variable-charge soils**

mechanisms involved of INIH adsorption on VADS by applying different solute adsorption mechanism models. Kinetic adsorption model description is also necessary in order to develop and validate computer simulation transport models on VADS to prevent potential contamination of water resources, considering model restrictions related to experimental conditions of kinetic batch studies on solute transport mechanisms.

Variable-charge soils are dominated by Al/Fe-humus complexes, by ferrihydrite, a short-range-order Fe hydroxide mineral, or by clay components characterized by the formation of short-range-order aluminosilicates, such as allophane and imogolite [13]. The clay fraction mineralogy of VADS is usually dominated by allophane with a minor content of kaolinite, gibbsite, goethite, and hematite [14]. Besides, these minerals contain 2:1 and 2:1:1 type minerals and their integrades, opaline silica

These distinctive physical and chemical properties are largely due to the formation of noncrystalline materials, biological activity, and the accumulation of OM [13, 15]. The soil OM represents a key indicator of soil quality, both for agricultural (i.e., productivity and economic returns) and environmental functions (i.e., carbon sequestration). Andisols are highly representative of VADS; their OC concentration is more associated with metal-humus complexes than with concentrations of noncrystalline materials. Nevertheless these materials with variable charge surfaces provide an abundance of microaggregates that permit to encapsulate OC, favoring their physical protection [13]. Other studies indicate that Al/Fe oxides/hydroxides in allophanic soils are linked to carboxylic and aromatic groups of soil OM being the

In general, andisols are soils rich in constituents with amphoteric surface reactive group being considered the most abundant variable charge soils in Chile [14]. The most striking and unique properties of these are: variable charge, high water-holding capacity, low bulk density, high friability, highly stable soil aggregates due to unstable colloidal dispersions, excellent tilth and strong resistance to water erosion [13], anion adsorption, high lime or gypsum requirement to achieve neutral pH, and considerable adsorption affinity for cations (Ca and Mg), which may form both inner- and outer-

Andisols are relatively young soils and cover about 0.84% of the world's land [13, 16], being a typical product of weathering increases in temperate and tropical environments with sufficient moisture [13]. In this sense, metastable noncrystalline materials are transformed to more stable crystalline minerals (e.g., halloysite, kaolinite, and gibbsite) allowing the alteration of andisols to Inceptisols, alfisols, or ultisols. Andisols are often divided into two groups based on the mineralogical composition of A horizons: allophanic andisols dominated by variable charge constituents (allophane/imogolite), and nonallophanic andisols dominated by both variable charge and constant charge components (Al/Fe-humus complexes and 2:1 layer silicates) [13]. Allophanic andisols form preferentially in weathering environments with pH values in the range of 5–7 and a low content of complexing organic compounds. Nonallophanic andisols form preferentially in pedogenic environments

Allophanic andisols present allophane, imogolite, poorly crystalline Fe oxides (probably ferrihydrite), Al/Fe-humus complexes, volcanic glass (which is a mixture of aluminosilicates and traces of ferromagnesian minerals), and secondary Si minerals (opaline silica), resulting in pH-dependent variable charge, CEC and anion exchange capacity (AEC), and high phosphate retention >70% [1, 13]. Allophane,

sphere complexes although the first are found to be more important [14].

that are rich in OM and have pH values of 5 or less [13].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84906*

and halloysite [13].

last highly decomposed [1].

*Herbicides Mechanisms Involved in the Sorption Kinetic of Ionisable and Non Ionisable... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84906*

mechanisms involved of INIH adsorption on VADS by applying different solute adsorption mechanism models. Kinetic adsorption model description is also necessary in order to develop and validate computer simulation transport models on VADS to prevent potential contamination of water resources, considering model restrictions related to experimental conditions of kinetic batch studies on solute transport mechanisms.

## **2. Physical and chemical properties of variable-charge soils**

Variable-charge soils are dominated by Al/Fe-humus complexes, by ferrihydrite, a short-range-order Fe hydroxide mineral, or by clay components characterized by the formation of short-range-order aluminosilicates, such as allophane and imogolite [13]. The clay fraction mineralogy of VADS is usually dominated by allophane with a minor content of kaolinite, gibbsite, goethite, and hematite [14]. Besides, these minerals contain 2:1 and 2:1:1 type minerals and their integrades, opaline silica and halloysite [13].

These distinctive physical and chemical properties are largely due to the formation of noncrystalline materials, biological activity, and the accumulation of OM [13, 15]. The soil OM represents a key indicator of soil quality, both for agricultural (i.e., productivity and economic returns) and environmental functions (i.e., carbon sequestration). Andisols are highly representative of VADS; their OC concentration is more associated with metal-humus complexes than with concentrations of noncrystalline materials. Nevertheless these materials with variable charge surfaces provide an abundance of microaggregates that permit to encapsulate OC, favoring their physical protection [13]. Other studies indicate that Al/Fe oxides/hydroxides in allophanic soils are linked to carboxylic and aromatic groups of soil OM being the last highly decomposed [1].

In general, andisols are soils rich in constituents with amphoteric surface reactive group being considered the most abundant variable charge soils in Chile [14]. The most striking and unique properties of these are: variable charge, high water-holding capacity, low bulk density, high friability, highly stable soil aggregates due to unstable colloidal dispersions, excellent tilth and strong resistance to water erosion [13], anion adsorption, high lime or gypsum requirement to achieve neutral pH, and considerable adsorption affinity for cations (Ca and Mg), which may form both inner- and outersphere complexes although the first are found to be more important [14].

Andisols are relatively young soils and cover about 0.84% of the world's land [13, 16], being a typical product of weathering increases in temperate and tropical environments with sufficient moisture [13]. In this sense, metastable noncrystalline materials are transformed to more stable crystalline minerals (e.g., halloysite, kaolinite, and gibbsite) allowing the alteration of andisols to Inceptisols, alfisols, or ultisols. Andisols are often divided into two groups based on the mineralogical composition of A horizons: allophanic andisols dominated by variable charge constituents (allophane/imogolite), and nonallophanic andisols dominated by both variable charge and constant charge components (Al/Fe-humus complexes and 2:1 layer silicates) [13]. Allophanic andisols form preferentially in weathering environments with pH values in the range of 5–7 and a low content of complexing organic compounds. Nonallophanic andisols form preferentially in pedogenic environments that are rich in OM and have pH values of 5 or less [13].

Allophanic andisols present allophane, imogolite, poorly crystalline Fe oxides (probably ferrihydrite), Al/Fe-humus complexes, volcanic glass (which is a mixture of aluminosilicates and traces of ferromagnesian minerals), and secondary Si minerals (opaline silica), resulting in pH-dependent variable charge, CEC and anion exchange capacity (AEC), and high phosphate retention >70% [1, 13]. Allophane,

*Kinetic Modeling for Environmental Systems*

69% of the arable land [2].

central-southern Chile (from 19° to 56° S latitude), accounting for approximately

use of herbicides and also require frequent adjustments of soil pH and mineral fertilization [3–5]. Among these soils, andisols and ultisols are the most abundant, both presenting an acidic pH (4.5–5.5). Andisols are rich in organic matter (OM), with high specific surface area, P retention (>85%), and variable charge with

porosity, and a strong microaggregation of heterogeneous forms and a mineralogy dominated by short-range ordered minerals, such as allophane (Al2O3SiO2 × nH2O) [2, 6]. Allophane plays a key role in surface reactivity in andisols determining the availability of nutrients and controlling soil contaminant behavior [6]. Ultisols have a low amount of OM, relatively high amounts of Fe oxides in different degrees of crystallinity, low base saturation (<30%), high bulk density (0.8–1.1 Mg m<sup>−</sup><sup>3</sup>

high clay content (>40%) [2, 7]. This last component provides a finer texture that

Andisols present variable surface charge, originated in both inorganic and organic constituents. Inorganic minerals such as goethite (FeOOH), ferrihydrite (Fe10O15 × 9H2O), gibbsite (Al(OH)3), imogolite, and allophane contribute through the dissociation of Fe▬OH and Al▬OH active surface groups, while OM through the dissociation of its functional groups (mainly carboxylic and phenolic) and humus-Al and Fe complexes with amphoteric characteristics contributes too. For the other side, ultisols present little or no charge, because more crystalline minerals,

Several herbicide adsorption kinetic studies on VADS have indicated that the herbicide adsorption is a nonequilibrium process [5, 9]. Time-dependent adsorption can be a result from physical and chemical nonequilibrium and intrasorbent diffusion can occur during the transport of pesticides in soils [10]. In general, nonequilibrium adsorption has been attributed to several factors, such as: diffusive mass transport resistances, nonlinearity in adsorption isotherms, adsorption-desorption nonsingularity and rate-limited adsorption reactions [11]. The *intra-OM-diffusion* has been suggested to be the predominant factor responsible for the nonequilibrium adsorption of nonionic or hydrophobic compounds on VADS [9, 12]. The differences in the *intra-OM* adsorption kinetics of herbicides were due to soil constitu-

The adsorption-desorption behavior of pesticides is the principal process affecting the fate of these chemicals in soil and water. In general, adsorption-desorption processes are known to be important because they are time-dependent and with considerable ecosystem impact, influencing the availability of organic pollutants for plant uptake, microbial degradation, and transport in soil and consequently leaching potential. In this sense, the principal process that affects the fate of pesticides in soil and water is adsorption of pesticides from soil solution to soil particle active sites, which limit transport in soils by reducing their concentration in the soil solution. Therefore, adsorption kinetic studies provide important information for weed control, crop toxicity, runoff, and carryover events, serving as the foundation for estimating effects on biotic and abiotic environmental components. The kinetic parameters can be obtained by means of the application of two kinds of kinetic models: the ones that allow establishing principal kinetic parameters and modeling of the adsorption process and other models frequently used to describe adsorption mechanisms of organic compounds on soils. Such information is necessary in order to understand leaching of herbicides for preventing potential contamination of groundwater. The aim of this chapter is to establish the differences of adsorption kinetics of ionizable and nonionizable herbicides (INIH) in Chilean VADS to investigate the

low saturation of bases, low bulk density (<0.9 Mg m<sup>−</sup><sup>3</sup>

allows a greater cohesion with respect to andisols [2, 8].

such as halloysite and/or kaolinite dominate their mineralogy.

ents, such as organic carbon (OC) and mineral composition on VADS.

Agricultural practices developed in Chilean VADS have led to the very increased

) associated with a high

), and

**54**

the main component of the clay fraction of VADS, has short to mid-range atomic order and a prevalence of Si▬O▬Al bonding [17]. This aluminosilicate consists of hollow, irregularly spherical nanoparticles with an outside diameter of 3.5–5.0 nm, a wall thickness of 0.7–1 nm, and a specific surface area of 700–900 m2 g<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> with a chemical composition generally ranging from an Al:Si atomic ratio of 1:1–2:1 [13].

The presence of allophane in andisols provides excellent physical fertility properties for crop production, such as: high friability, stable aggregates, ease of root penetration, good drainage, high permeability, low bulk density at field-moisture water content <0.9 g cm<sup>−</sup><sup>3</sup> , high porosity, and high air and water retention [13]. An unusually high amount of micropores in allophanic VADS is partially attributable to the intra- and inter-particle pores of allophane [15]. The development of aggregates in VADS is closely related to the retention of large amounts of plant-available water. The large volume of both mesopores/micropores relates with the high water-holding capacity of andisols. In this sense, young VADS have a greater amount of macropores larger than 100 μm in diameter and a lesser amount of mesopores (0.4–6.0 μm) and micropores (<0.4 μm). In contrast, moderately weathered soils have a large amount of mesopores (0.4–6.0 μm) and micropores (<0.4 μm), contributing to the large plant-available water.

Based on their surface charge characteristics, VADS are characterized by a mixed charge system [14]. In this sense, the soil particles are of two different types: dual and variable-charge particles (phyllosilicates and allophane) and variable-charge particles (Fe/Al oxides). The surface charge density of variable-charge oxides depends on pH and ionic strength (IS) of the soil solution. The Fe/Al oxides have a surface reactive group with amphoteric properties; these groups are protonated and positively charged under acidic conditions (at a pH below the point of zero charge, PZC) or deprotonated and negatively charged under basic conditions (at a pH higher than the PZC). In general, the PZC of Al/Fe oxides are between 8 and 9. The Fe in VADS is present mostly in the form of noncrystalline hydroxides (ferrihydrite) and partly as Fe-humus complexes [13]. Ferrihydrite appears as individual spherical particles ranging in size between 2 and 5 nm. These particles form aggregates ranging from 100 to 300 nm in diameter [13].

Dual-charge particles, such as phyllosilicates and allophane, usually develop permanent and variable charge or only variable charge but with different magnitude an even different sign on different surfaces of the same particle. These inorganic minerals are abundant in VADS, controlling chemical properties of the bulk soil. The siloxane ditrigonal cavity of the phyllosilicate siloxane surfaces may develop a localized permanent negative charge as a result of isomorphic substitutions in their internal crystal structures regardless of ambient conditions. The magnitude of this permanent negative charge does not depend on pH and IS of the soil solution. In contrast, the edges of these particles develop variable charge.

The variable charge of allophane is the result of protonation and dissociation of Al▬OH and Si▬OH superficial functional groups, with Al▬OH groups having negative, neutral, or positive charge and the more acidic SI▬OH groups having either neutral or negative charge. As allophane is a dual-variable charge, VADS usually have a slightly acidic to acidic soil solution pH [14]. Under acidic conditions, the surfaces of these minerals are net positively charged. The variable positive charge results from protonation of surface inorganic soil constituents with Al▬OH, Fe▬O, and Fe▬OH groups, while the variable negative charge results from dissociation of surface Si▬OH and organic functional groups of organic soil constituents (e.g., carboxylic, phenolic, or amino reactive groups) [13]. The development of negative charge with increasing soil pH has been common to all andisols and has been strongly related to the amount of soil OM [13]. Soils with a large variable charge component required large additions of lime for pH amendment and were susceptible to leaching of cations when the soil pH decreased [13]. The CEC and AEC of variable charge

**57**

*Herbicides Mechanisms Involved in the Sorption Kinetic of Ionisable and Non Ionisable...*

with a relatively low specific surface area (between 5 and 39 m2

**3. Physical and chemical properties of constant-charge soils**

There are different soil orders classified by soil formation, climates, and morphological features [18]. However, globally, most of the soil orders have constant charge. In general, these soils present a similar composition to the andisols, except for amorphous clays, metal oxides, oxyhydroxides, and hydroxides. In this sense, constant-charge soils are a simplification of andisols, what is expressed in a lower variety of adsorbent forms that result in a minor mechanistic variability of adsorption-desorption processes. The lack of Fe/Al oxides and allophane involves a surface without humus-Fe/Al, Fe/Al-mineral, and mineral-Fe/Al-humus complexes, reducing the combinations of possible surface-surface and herbicide-surface interactions, increasing the colloidal stability due to electrostatic repulsion between non-Fe/Al minerals and OM, both with surfaces dominated by anionic sites (S<sup>−</sup>). A thorough analysis is required to study the adsorption kinetics with agricultural or remediation purposes. For example, histosols from peat or bog have a high OM content (>20%) [18], so the adsorption process can be simplified to the soil/solution partition coefficient normalized to the OC content (Koc) or OM content (Kom) [19], and the stability of microaggregates by OM. Aridisols, developed in arid regions, have a high presence of clay and salts such as sodium, calcium carbonates, or gypsum, together with a low water content [18], so the adsorption process can be simplified to clay/solution partition coefficient, with high probability of equilibrium and/or precipitation of adsorbate under field conditions. Ultisols, with low base saturation but high clay content, OM and acidity, have humus as the main soil component that contributes to the little variable charge on these soils, controlling the pesticide adsorp-

Despite the diversity previously exposed, in all the cases, the adsorption sites

The curve of PZC versus pH for ultisol and andisol soils is shown in **Figure 1** [5]. As can be observed, a displacement of PZC to a higher pH was produced in both soil surfaces with adsorbed metsulfuron-methyl (MSM) confirming the contribution of

this implies adsorption of hydrophobic, polar, and cationic herbicides, where the dominance of siloxane and anionic organic surface groups generates a low PZC and negative surface charge, mostly pH-independent [20], which therefore implies small changes in CEC of minerals and negligible AEC at soil pH. So, the adsorption is independent of PZC for constant-charge soils. We will use ultisols as a constant-

, e.g., OMaromatic,aliphatic) and anionic (S<sup>−</sup>, e.g., siloxane), and

the lowest surface charge (about 1–5 cmol (c) kg<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

tion mainly through hydrophobic and H-bonding.

charge soil to show this and contrast with andisols.

**3.1 Effect of MSM adsorption in PZC on ultisols and andisols**

are mostly neutral (S0

components on particle edges are pH- and IS-dependent of the soil solution. On the other hand, the most important mineralogical components in ultisols are: kaolinite (dual-charge minerals), hydroxy-interlayered vermiculite, muscovite, smectite, and Fe/Al oxides (quartz in the sand and silt fractions). Kaolinite is a 1:1 phyllosilicate

clay minerals. The PZC of kaolinite is between 2.8 and 2.9 [14]. The kaolinite in A horizons has the same tubular morphology as the halloysite at depth suggesting that hydrated halloysite transforms to kaolinite upon dehydration. Halloysite is a 1:1 aluminosilicate hydrated mineral characterized by a diversity of morphologies (e.g., spheroidal and tubular), specific surface area, structural disorder, and physicalchemical properties (e.g., cation exchange capacity (CEC) and ion selectivity) [13].

g<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

) among common dual-charge

) and presents

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84906*

*Herbicides Mechanisms Involved in the Sorption Kinetic of Ionisable and Non Ionisable... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84906*

components on particle edges are pH- and IS-dependent of the soil solution. On the other hand, the most important mineralogical components in ultisols are: kaolinite (dual-charge minerals), hydroxy-interlayered vermiculite, muscovite, smectite, and Fe/Al oxides (quartz in the sand and silt fractions). Kaolinite is a 1:1 phyllosilicate with a relatively low specific surface area (between 5 and 39 m2 g<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> ) and presents the lowest surface charge (about 1–5 cmol (c) kg<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> ) among common dual-charge clay minerals. The PZC of kaolinite is between 2.8 and 2.9 [14]. The kaolinite in A horizons has the same tubular morphology as the halloysite at depth suggesting that hydrated halloysite transforms to kaolinite upon dehydration. Halloysite is a 1:1 aluminosilicate hydrated mineral characterized by a diversity of morphologies (e.g., spheroidal and tubular), specific surface area, structural disorder, and physicalchemical properties (e.g., cation exchange capacity (CEC) and ion selectivity) [13].

## **3. Physical and chemical properties of constant-charge soils**

There are different soil orders classified by soil formation, climates, and morphological features [18]. However, globally, most of the soil orders have constant charge. In general, these soils present a similar composition to the andisols, except for amorphous clays, metal oxides, oxyhydroxides, and hydroxides. In this sense, constant-charge soils are a simplification of andisols, what is expressed in a lower variety of adsorbent forms that result in a minor mechanistic variability of adsorption-desorption processes. The lack of Fe/Al oxides and allophane involves a surface without humus-Fe/Al, Fe/Al-mineral, and mineral-Fe/Al-humus complexes, reducing the combinations of possible surface-surface and herbicide-surface interactions, increasing the colloidal stability due to electrostatic repulsion between non-Fe/Al minerals and OM, both with surfaces dominated by anionic sites (S<sup>−</sup>).

A thorough analysis is required to study the adsorption kinetics with agricultural or remediation purposes. For example, histosols from peat or bog have a high OM content (>20%) [18], so the adsorption process can be simplified to the soil/solution partition coefficient normalized to the OC content (Koc) or OM content (Kom) [19], and the stability of microaggregates by OM. Aridisols, developed in arid regions, have a high presence of clay and salts such as sodium, calcium carbonates, or gypsum, together with a low water content [18], so the adsorption process can be simplified to clay/solution partition coefficient, with high probability of equilibrium and/or precipitation of adsorbate under field conditions. Ultisols, with low base saturation but high clay content, OM and acidity, have humus as the main soil component that contributes to the little variable charge on these soils, controlling the pesticide adsorption mainly through hydrophobic and H-bonding.

Despite the diversity previously exposed, in all the cases, the adsorption sites are mostly neutral (S0 , e.g., OMaromatic,aliphatic) and anionic (S<sup>−</sup>, e.g., siloxane), and this implies adsorption of hydrophobic, polar, and cationic herbicides, where the dominance of siloxane and anionic organic surface groups generates a low PZC and negative surface charge, mostly pH-independent [20], which therefore implies small changes in CEC of minerals and negligible AEC at soil pH. So, the adsorption is independent of PZC for constant-charge soils. We will use ultisols as a constantcharge soil to show this and contrast with andisols.

#### **3.1 Effect of MSM adsorption in PZC on ultisols and andisols**

The curve of PZC versus pH for ultisol and andisol soils is shown in **Figure 1** [5]. As can be observed, a displacement of PZC to a higher pH was produced in both soil surfaces with adsorbed metsulfuron-methyl (MSM) confirming the contribution of

*Kinetic Modeling for Environmental Systems*

ing from 100 to 300 nm in diameter [13].

contrast, the edges of these particles develop variable charge.

<0.9 g cm<sup>−</sup><sup>3</sup>

the main component of the clay fraction of VADS, has short to mid-range atomic order and a prevalence of Si▬O▬Al bonding [17]. This aluminosilicate consists of hollow, irregularly spherical nanoparticles with an outside diameter of 3.5–5.0 nm,

chemical composition generally ranging from an Al:Si atomic ratio of 1:1–2:1 [13]. The presence of allophane in andisols provides excellent physical fertility properties for crop production, such as: high friability, stable aggregates, ease of root penetration, good drainage, high permeability, low bulk density at field-moisture water content

amount of micropores in allophanic VADS is partially attributable to the intra- and inter-particle pores of allophane [15]. The development of aggregates in VADS is closely related to the retention of large amounts of plant-available water. The large volume of both mesopores/micropores relates with the high water-holding capacity of andisols. In this sense, young VADS have a greater amount of macropores larger than 100 μm in diameter and a lesser amount of mesopores (0.4–6.0 μm) and micropores (<0.4 μm). In contrast, moderately weathered soils have a large amount of mesopores (0.4–6.0 μm)

, high porosity, and high air and water retention [13]. An unusually high

Based on their surface charge characteristics, VADS are characterized by a mixed charge system [14]. In this sense, the soil particles are of two different types: dual and variable-charge particles (phyllosilicates and allophane) and variable-charge particles (Fe/Al oxides). The surface charge density of variable-charge oxides depends on pH and ionic strength (IS) of the soil solution. The Fe/Al oxides have a surface reactive group with amphoteric properties; these groups are protonated and positively charged under acidic conditions (at a pH below the point of zero charge, PZC) or deprotonated and negatively charged under basic conditions (at a pH higher than the PZC). In general, the PZC of Al/Fe oxides are between 8 and 9. The Fe in VADS is present mostly in the form of noncrystalline hydroxides (ferrihydrite) and partly as Fe-humus complexes [13]. Ferrihydrite appears as individual spherical particles ranging in size between 2 and 5 nm. These particles form aggregates rang-

Dual-charge particles, such as phyllosilicates and allophane, usually develop permanent and variable charge or only variable charge but with different magnitude an even different sign on different surfaces of the same particle. These inorganic minerals are abundant in VADS, controlling chemical properties of the bulk soil. The siloxane ditrigonal cavity of the phyllosilicate siloxane surfaces may develop a localized permanent negative charge as a result of isomorphic substitutions in their internal crystal structures regardless of ambient conditions. The magnitude of this permanent negative charge does not depend on pH and IS of the soil solution. In

The variable charge of allophane is the result of protonation and dissociation of Al▬OH and Si▬OH superficial functional groups, with Al▬OH groups having negative, neutral, or positive charge and the more acidic SI▬OH groups having either neutral or negative charge. As allophane is a dual-variable charge, VADS usually have a slightly acidic to acidic soil solution pH [14]. Under acidic conditions, the surfaces of these minerals are net positively charged. The variable positive charge results from protonation of surface inorganic soil constituents with Al▬OH, Fe▬O, and Fe▬OH groups, while the variable negative charge results from dissociation of surface Si▬OH and organic functional groups of organic soil constituents (e.g., carboxylic, phenolic, or amino reactive groups) [13]. The development of negative charge with increasing soil pH has been common to all andisols and has been strongly related to the amount of soil OM [13]. Soils with a large variable charge component required large additions of lime for pH amendment and were susceptible to leaching of cations when the soil pH decreased [13]. The CEC and AEC of variable charge

g<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

with a

a wall thickness of 0.7–1 nm, and a specific surface area of 700–900 m2

and micropores (<0.4 μm), contributing to the large plant-available water.

**56**

**Figure 1.**

*Electrophoretic migration curves: (▲) ultisol without MSM adsorbed; (Δ) ultisol with 15 μg mL<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> of MSM adsorbed; (●) andisol without MSM adsorbed; and (Ο) andisol with 15 μg mL<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> of MSM adsorbed [5].*

#### **Figure 2.**

*Connection between adsorption parameters and mechanistic explanation from kinetic models in andisols and ultisols from Figure 3 (S<sup>+</sup> , S<sup>−</sup>, and S0 : surface charge. X+ , X<sup>−</sup>, and X0 : herbicide species. The green ovals are OM. pHsoils were measured in water at 1:2.5 soil:solution ratio).*

charged surface sites to adsorption of anionic MSM through electrostatic and hydrophilic interactions on ultisols and andisols, respectively. The OM and active and free Fe/Al oxides will control the adsorption process in andisols mainly through hydrophilic on surface minerals, such as allophane, gibbsite, hematite, and goethite. In contrast, andisols present positive sites (S+ , e.g., goethite at pH < 7.8) in addition to S0 and S<sup>−</sup> , that allow the anionic herbicide adsorption (X<sup>−</sup> (hydr) and X<sup>−</sup> ) (**Figure 2**). Some intuitive mechanisms affected by pH, pKa, and PZC are anionic and cationic exchange due to their electrostatic nature, but these kinds of adsorption are usually accompanied by other mechanisms.

**59**

**Figure 3.**

*Herbicides Mechanisms Involved in the Sorption Kinetic of Ionisable and Non Ionisable...*

The adsorption is characterized by a three-stage process: a rapid uptake on readily available adsorption sites (**Figure 2**, 1st stage), followed by slow diffusion-immobilization into mesopores, micropores, or capillaries in the sorbent's internal structure through mechanisms controlled by *intraparticle diffusion* (*IPD*), with small adsorbed amounts appearing on the external surface [9] (**Figure 2**, 2nd stage). The third stage (**Figure 2**), which is controlled by mass transfer mechanisms, involves rapid uptake of the solute in the inner surface of the sorbent. Adsorption processes are known to be important because they are time-dependent with considerable ecosystem impact, influencing the availability of organic pollutants for plant uptake, microbial degradation, and transport of pesticides in the soil environment during the short-term and consequently affecting their leaching potential [4, 9, 12, 21]. Adsorption kinetic studies may provide important information related to weed control, crop toxicity, runoff,

**4.1 Kinetic adsorption models frequently used to estimate kinetic parameters** 

adsorption experiments. The higher value of the overall rate constant *k*2 of MSM with respect to DI adsorption on andisols indicates that this value reflects contributions from the favored electrostatic interactions considering both a retarded *IPD* as

**4.2 Mechanistic kinetic models to describe herbicide adsorption on ultisols** 

**Figure 3B** and **C** show a different transport mechanism for glyphosate (GPS, pKa = 0.8; 2.23; 5.46; 10.14), metsulfuron-methyl (MSM, pKa = 3.3) and diuron (DI) on ultisol and andisols [9, 12, 23]. The *IPD* or Weber-Morris model (**Figure 3B**) is one of the most used models to describe solute transport mechanisms of organic compounds in different adsorbents intended for remediation purposes [9, 12, 23]. Nevertheless, the *two-site nonequilibrium* (*TSNE*) *model* (**Figure 3C**) has been the

*(A) PSO model for adsorption kinetics of GPS on ultisol (■) and andisol (□), MSM on ultisol (▲) and andisol (Δ) and DI on ultisol (●) and andisol (Ο). (B) IPD model for GPS adsorption kinetics on ultisol (■) and andisol (□); MSM on ultisol (▲) and andisol (Δ); and DI on ultisol (●) and andisol (Ο). (C) TSNE model plots for GPS adsorption on ultisol (■) and andisol (□), MSM adsorption on ultisol (▲) and andisol (Δ) and* 

*DI adsorption on ultisol (●) and andisol (Ο) [9, 12]. pHultisol = 5.2 and pHandisol = 4.1.*

The *pseudo-second order* (*PSO*) model (**Figure 3A**) has been the best adsorption kinetic model to establish principal kinetic parameters and modeling of the adsorption process of INIH on ultisols and andisols [9, 12, 23]. In the **Figure 3A**, qt is the

) at any soil-solution contact time t (min) for kinetic

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84906*

and solute transport mechanisms [9, 22].

**of herbicides on soils**

adsorbed quantity (μg g<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

well as *intra-OM-diffusion*.

**and andisols**

**4. Adsorption kinetics**

*Herbicides Mechanisms Involved in the Sorption Kinetic of Ionisable and Non Ionisable... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84906*

## **4. Adsorption kinetics**

*Kinetic Modeling for Environmental Systems*

**58**

**Figure 2.**

**Figure 1.**

andisols present positive sites (S+

other mechanisms.

*ultisols from Figure 3 (S<sup>+</sup>*

that allow the anionic herbicide adsorption (X<sup>−</sup>

*, S<sup>−</sup>, and S0*

*OM. pHsoils were measured in water at 1:2.5 soil:solution ratio).*

charged surface sites to adsorption of anionic MSM through electrostatic and hydrophilic interactions on ultisols and andisols, respectively. The OM and active and free Fe/Al oxides will control the adsorption process in andisols mainly through hydrophilic on surface minerals, such as allophane, gibbsite, hematite, and goethite. In contrast,

*Connection between adsorption parameters and mechanistic explanation from kinetic models in andisols and* 

*, X<sup>−</sup>, and X0*

*: surface charge. X+*

*Electrophoretic migration curves: (▲) ultisol without MSM adsorbed; (Δ) ultisol with 15 μg mL<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>*

*adsorbed; (●) andisol without MSM adsorbed; and (Ο) andisol with 15 μg mL<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>*

tive mechanisms affected by pH, pKa, and PZC are anionic and cationic exchange due to their electrostatic nature, but these kinds of adsorption are usually accompanied by

, e.g., goethite at pH < 7.8) in addition to S0

(hydr) and X<sup>−</sup>

 and S<sup>−</sup> ,

 *of MSM* 

 *of MSM adsorbed [5].*

) (**Figure 2**). Some intui-

*: herbicide species. The green ovals are* 

The adsorption is characterized by a three-stage process: a rapid uptake on readily available adsorption sites (**Figure 2**, 1st stage), followed by slow diffusion-immobilization into mesopores, micropores, or capillaries in the sorbent's internal structure through mechanisms controlled by *intraparticle diffusion* (*IPD*), with small adsorbed amounts appearing on the external surface [9] (**Figure 2**, 2nd stage). The third stage (**Figure 2**), which is controlled by mass transfer mechanisms, involves rapid uptake of the solute in the inner surface of the sorbent. Adsorption processes are known to be important because they are time-dependent with considerable ecosystem impact, influencing the availability of organic pollutants for plant uptake, microbial degradation, and transport of pesticides in the soil environment during the short-term and consequently affecting their leaching potential [4, 9, 12, 21]. Adsorption kinetic studies may provide important information related to weed control, crop toxicity, runoff, and solute transport mechanisms [9, 22].

## **4.1 Kinetic adsorption models frequently used to estimate kinetic parameters of herbicides on soils**

The *pseudo-second order* (*PSO*) model (**Figure 3A**) has been the best adsorption kinetic model to establish principal kinetic parameters and modeling of the adsorption process of INIH on ultisols and andisols [9, 12, 23]. In the **Figure 3A**, qt is the adsorbed quantity (μg g<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> ) at any soil-solution contact time t (min) for kinetic adsorption experiments. The higher value of the overall rate constant *k*2 of MSM with respect to DI adsorption on andisols indicates that this value reflects contributions from the favored electrostatic interactions considering both a retarded *IPD* as well as *intra-OM-diffusion*.

## **4.2 Mechanistic kinetic models to describe herbicide adsorption on ultisols and andisols**

**Figure 3B** and **C** show a different transport mechanism for glyphosate (GPS, pKa = 0.8; 2.23; 5.46; 10.14), metsulfuron-methyl (MSM, pKa = 3.3) and diuron (DI) on ultisol and andisols [9, 12, 23]. The *IPD* or Weber-Morris model (**Figure 3B**) is one of the most used models to describe solute transport mechanisms of organic compounds in different adsorbents intended for remediation purposes [9, 12, 23]. Nevertheless, the *two-site nonequilibrium* (*TSNE*) *model* (**Figure 3C**) has been the

#### **Figure 3.**

*(A) PSO model for adsorption kinetics of GPS on ultisol (■) and andisol (□), MSM on ultisol (▲) and andisol (Δ) and DI on ultisol (●) and andisol (Ο). (B) IPD model for GPS adsorption kinetics on ultisol (■) and andisol (□); MSM on ultisol (▲) and andisol (Δ); and DI on ultisol (●) and andisol (Ο). (C) TSNE model plots for GPS adsorption on ultisol (■) and andisol (□), MSM adsorption on ultisol (▲) and andisol (Δ) and DI adsorption on ultisol (●) and andisol (Ο) [9, 12]. pHultisol = 5.2 and pHandisol = 4.1.*

best kinetic model to describe INIH transport mechanisms on VADS [9, 12]. In **Figure 3C**, *C*t is the solute concentration at any time (μg mL<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> ) and *C*in is the initial added solute concentration (μg mL<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup> ). As an advantage, the *TSNE* model allows obtaining the soil/solution partition coefficient (*Kd*), percentage of instantaneous adsorption (*F*), and first-order desorption rate constant (*kdes*) from the time-dependent adsorption sites (100 – *F*).

Time-dependent adsorption can be a result of physical and chemical nonequilibrium [12]. The nonequilibrium adsorption on soils has been attributed to several factors, such as: diffusive mass transfer resistances, nonlinearity in adsorption isotherms, adsorption-desorption nonsingularity, and rate-limited adsorption reactions [11]. The rate-limited diffusion of the adsorbate from bulk solution to the external surface of the sorbent and rate-limited diffusion within mesopores and micropores of the soil matrix will occur before the equilibrium is reached. The adsorption process first occurs within the boundary layer around the sorbent being conceptualized as a rapid uptake process on readily available adsorption sites. The intercept of the first adsorption step (*C*1) by the *IPD* model has been related to the extent of the boundary layer effect, namely, the diffusion of solute molecules through the solution to the external surface of the adsorbent [21]. In this regard, *<sup>C</sup>*<sup>1</sup> is the initial solute adsorption (mg/g) [24] being proportional to the thickness of the boundary layer.

When *C*1 = 0, the rate of adsorption is controlled by only *IPD* for the entire adsorption period (**Figure 2**, 1st stage and **Figure 3B**) [9, 12, 21]. In this regard, an external mass transfer of the solute from the bulk solution to the soil particle surface exists. This can be seen in the initially steeper linear (*kint*1) (**Figure 2**, 1st stage), where the MSM adsorption on ultisols was controlled exclusively by *IPD* (*C*1 close to 0) (**Figure 3B**). A low value for *C*1 has been related with the heterogeneity of the adsorbent, enhanced by the colloidal stability of ultisols, implying a high meso- and micro-porosity with a complex pore morphology. In this regard, the intercept also decreases with the increasing surface heterogeneity of the soils, indicating a small film resistance to mass transfer surrounding the adsorbent particle. This can be seen in the initially steeper linear (*kint*1) (**Figure 2**, 2nd stage), where the mass transfer across the boundary layer and *IPD* were the two mechanisms to control the MSM adsorption on andisols. The last mechanisms were observed for GPS and DI adsorption on ultisols and andisols (**Figure 3B**), where GPS presented the same initial adsorption on both kinds of soils. A large value for *C*1 indicates that the adsorption proceeds via a more complex mechanism consisting of both surface adsorption and *IPD*. In this regard, the highest *C*1 values for DI correspond to large film diffusion resistance due to the greater boundary layer effect surrounding the particles for DI [24, 25] indicating a rapid adsorption in a short time and highest initial DI adsorption on andisols with a wide distribution of pore sizes. This was associated with the macroporosity of andisols due to aggregates composed by humus-Al/Fe complexes with low colloidal stability. If andisols have high OM content, these complexes could generate a preferential flow, increasing the transport of herbicides by the remaining colloidal or dissolved OM, increasing the leaching potential of DI.

The second (*kint*1) and (*kint*2) third stage describe the gradual adsorption stage (**Figure 2**, 2nd and 3rd stage), where *IPD* through macropores is rate limiting [21] followed by slow diffusion-immobilization in micropores or capillaries of the sorbent's internal structure. The rate-controlling step may be controlled by *film diffusion* and *IPD* [26]. In this sense, the adsorption process proceeds in the liquidfilled pore (external mass transfer (EMT)) steps or along the walls of the pores of the sorbent (internal mass transfer (IMT)) steps. It is assumed that the external resistance to mass transfer surrounding the solute is significant only in the early stage of adsorption [27]. This can be seen in the initially steeper linear (*kint*1) (**Figure 2**, 2nd

**61**

S+

*Herbicides Mechanisms Involved in the Sorption Kinetic of Ionisable and Non Ionisable...*

stage), where the *IPD* model indicated that mass transfer across the boundary layer and *IPD* to control the GPS and DI adsorption on ultisols and andisols (**Figure 3A**). The molecules of GPS diffuse quickly through the macropores of the andisols. MSM adsorption on ultisols was controlled exclusively by macropore *IPD* (**Figure 3A**) and MSM adsorption on andisols occurred on two stages (*kint*<sup>1</sup> <sup>≈</sup> *kint*2) being controlled by

The 3rd stage (**Figure 2**) is the adsorption of the particle in the inner surface of the sorbent through mass-action-controlled mechanisms where a rapid uptake occurs or mechanism of surface reaction which consider the interactions between functional groups of solute and surface (as a chemisorption) [9, 12, 24]. In this regard, this stage is observed in the second linear portion (*kint*2, **Figure 2**, 2nd stage and **Figure 3B**) being the gradual adsorption stage in which *IPD* dominates [27]. The second line (**Figure 2**, 3rd stage and **Figure 3B**) will depict micropore diffusion with the IMT occurring during the retention of INIH. In general, INIH present a highest adsorption capacity (*qmax*) on andisols. In this regard, the OM contributes to the ionic adsorption through the dissociation of its functional groups (mainly carboxylic and phenolic) and Al/Fe-humus complexes with amphoteric characteristics. And also, the organic colloids have an important role in hydrophobic pesticide transport [28], due to their small size (<0.45 μm) and high affinity to nonpolar functional groups. This could have implications for the management of soils and pesticides in relation to the release of organic colloids into solution, especially in rainy areas or organic soils. The exogenous and endogenous water-extractable OM (WEOM) can influence the pesticide transport on soils, through formation of WEOM-pesticide complexes or competition between WEOM and pesticides for the adsorption sites, and thus, the retention and transport of the pesticides decrease and increase, respectively [29]. In this regard, Thevenot et al. [29] found that on a sandy-loam soil with low DI and WEOM adsorption capacity, the application of organic amendments with high WEOM content could increase DI leaching and,

While inorganic minerals such as goethite, ferrihydrite, gibbsite, imogolite, and allophane contribute through the dissociation of Si▬OH, Fe*▬*OH, and Al▬OH active surface groups [21], kaolin clays could contribute to the adsorption in ultisols through Si▬OH and (Al▬OH▬Si)+0.5 from the exposed edge kaolinite of the octahedral and tetrahedral basal surfaces having a hydrophilic and hydrophobic

For the case of ionizable herbicides, such as MSM, a negative correlation has been found between adsorption capacity and pH on acidic andisols (pHsoils between 4.49–6.46) from southern China [30] and acidic ultisols (pHsoils acidic 4.7–5.2) and acidic andisols (pHsoils acidic 4.1–6.2) from Chile [5, 31]. This behavior could be

between S<sup>−</sup> and X<sup>−</sup> at high pH (**Figures 1** and **2**, 1st stage). In addition, a positive correlation between adsorption capacity and CEC and amorphous and free Al/Fe content even at low pH implies a significant electrostatic adsorption mechanism on

, probably anionic exchange (S+…\*X<sup>−</sup>(hydr)) (**Figures 1** and **2**). The presence of two mechanisms explains the variations on *Koc* value, and the reversibility of anionic

For the case of amphoteric herbicides, such as imazaquin, Weber et al. studied

▬N<sup>−</sup>▬) in Cape Fear soil [32]. In this acidic ultisol (pHsoil = 4.7), the authors found a positive correlation between adsorption capacity and presence of cationic (X<sup>+</sup>

and neutral imazaquin, attributed to cationic exchange, an electrostatic mechanism opposite to anionic exchange observed for MSM in andisols (S<sup>−</sup>…\*X+

= hydrophobic or polar OM) and the increase of repulsion

▬, 3.8 for ▬COO<sup>−</sup>, and 10.5 for

) on OM at

)

(hydr))

related to the adsorption mechanism of neutral pesticide species (X0

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84906*

consequently, ground-water contamination risks.

character, respectively [21].

, with S0

exchange explains the lower hysteresis at higher pH.

the imazaquin adsorption (pKa = 1.8 for ▬NH+

low pH (S0…\*X0

*EMT* and *IPD*.

#### *Herbicides Mechanisms Involved in the Sorption Kinetic of Ionisable and Non Ionisable... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84906*

stage), where the *IPD* model indicated that mass transfer across the boundary layer and *IPD* to control the GPS and DI adsorption on ultisols and andisols (**Figure 3A**). The molecules of GPS diffuse quickly through the macropores of the andisols. MSM adsorption on ultisols was controlled exclusively by macropore *IPD* (**Figure 3A**) and MSM adsorption on andisols occurred on two stages (*kint*<sup>1</sup> <sup>≈</sup> *kint*2) being controlled by *EMT* and *IPD*.

The 3rd stage (**Figure 2**) is the adsorption of the particle in the inner surface of the sorbent through mass-action-controlled mechanisms where a rapid uptake occurs or mechanism of surface reaction which consider the interactions between functional groups of solute and surface (as a chemisorption) [9, 12, 24]. In this regard, this stage is observed in the second linear portion (*kint*2, **Figure 2**, 2nd stage and **Figure 3B**) being the gradual adsorption stage in which *IPD* dominates [27]. The second line (**Figure 2**, 3rd stage and **Figure 3B**) will depict micropore diffusion with the IMT occurring during the retention of INIH. In general, INIH present a highest adsorption capacity (*qmax*) on andisols. In this regard, the OM contributes to the ionic adsorption through the dissociation of its functional groups (mainly carboxylic and phenolic) and Al/Fe-humus complexes with amphoteric characteristics. And also, the organic colloids have an important role in hydrophobic pesticide transport [28], due to their small size (<0.45 μm) and high affinity to nonpolar functional groups. This could have implications for the management of soils and pesticides in relation to the release of organic colloids into solution, especially in rainy areas or organic soils. The exogenous and endogenous water-extractable OM (WEOM) can influence the pesticide transport on soils, through formation of WEOM-pesticide complexes or competition between WEOM and pesticides for the adsorption sites, and thus, the retention and transport of the pesticides decrease and increase, respectively [29]. In this regard, Thevenot et al. [29] found that on a sandy-loam soil with low DI and WEOM adsorption capacity, the application of organic amendments with high WEOM content could increase DI leaching and, consequently, ground-water contamination risks.

While inorganic minerals such as goethite, ferrihydrite, gibbsite, imogolite, and allophane contribute through the dissociation of Si▬OH, Fe*▬*OH, and Al▬OH active surface groups [21], kaolin clays could contribute to the adsorption in ultisols through Si▬OH and (Al▬OH▬Si)+0.5 from the exposed edge kaolinite of the octahedral and tetrahedral basal surfaces having a hydrophilic and hydrophobic character, respectively [21].

For the case of ionizable herbicides, such as MSM, a negative correlation has been found between adsorption capacity and pH on acidic andisols (pHsoils between 4.49–6.46) from southern China [30] and acidic ultisols (pHsoils acidic 4.7–5.2) and acidic andisols (pHsoils acidic 4.1–6.2) from Chile [5, 31]. This behavior could be related to the adsorption mechanism of neutral pesticide species (X0 ) on OM at low pH (S0…\*X0 , with S0 = hydrophobic or polar OM) and the increase of repulsion between S<sup>−</sup> and X<sup>−</sup> at high pH (**Figures 1** and **2**, 1st stage). In addition, a positive correlation between adsorption capacity and CEC and amorphous and free Al/Fe content even at low pH implies a significant electrostatic adsorption mechanism on S+ , probably anionic exchange (S+…\*X<sup>−</sup>(hydr)) (**Figures 1** and **2**). The presence of two mechanisms explains the variations on *Koc* value, and the reversibility of anionic exchange explains the lower hysteresis at higher pH.

For the case of amphoteric herbicides, such as imazaquin, Weber et al. studied the imazaquin adsorption (pKa = 1.8 for ▬NH+ ▬, 3.8 for ▬COO<sup>−</sup>, and 10.5 for ▬N<sup>−</sup>▬) in Cape Fear soil [32]. In this acidic ultisol (pHsoil = 4.7), the authors found a positive correlation between adsorption capacity and presence of cationic (X<sup>+</sup> ) and neutral imazaquin, attributed to cationic exchange, an electrostatic mechanism opposite to anionic exchange observed for MSM in andisols (S<sup>−</sup>…\*X+ (hydr))

*Kinetic Modeling for Environmental Systems*

added solute concentration (μg mL<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

dent adsorption sites (100 – *F*).

the boundary layer.

best kinetic model to describe INIH transport mechanisms on VADS [9, 12]. In

obtaining the soil/solution partition coefficient (*Kd*), percentage of instantaneous adsorption (*F*), and first-order desorption rate constant (*kdes*) from the time-depen-

Time-dependent adsorption can be a result of physical and chemical nonequilibrium [12]. The nonequilibrium adsorption on soils has been attributed to several factors, such as: diffusive mass transfer resistances, nonlinearity in adsorption isotherms, adsorption-desorption nonsingularity, and rate-limited adsorption reactions [11]. The rate-limited diffusion of the adsorbate from bulk solution to the external surface of the sorbent and rate-limited diffusion within mesopores and micropores of the soil matrix will occur before the equilibrium is reached. The adsorption process first occurs within the boundary layer around the sorbent being conceptualized as a rapid uptake process on readily available adsorption sites. The intercept of the first adsorption step (*C*1) by the *IPD* model has been related to the extent of the boundary layer effect, namely, the diffusion of solute molecules through the solution to the external surface of the adsorbent [21]. In this regard, *<sup>C</sup>*<sup>1</sup> is the initial solute adsorption (mg/g) [24] being proportional to the thickness of

When *C*1 = 0, the rate of adsorption is controlled by only *IPD* for the entire adsorption period (**Figure 2**, 1st stage and **Figure 3B**) [9, 12, 21]. In this regard, an external mass transfer of the solute from the bulk solution to the soil particle surface exists. This can be seen in the initially steeper linear (*kint*1) (**Figure 2**, 1st stage), where the MSM adsorption on ultisols was controlled exclusively by *IPD* (*C*1 close to 0) (**Figure 3B**). A low value for *C*1 has been related with the heterogeneity of the adsorbent, enhanced by the colloidal stability of ultisols, implying a high meso- and micro-porosity with a complex pore morphology. In this regard, the intercept also decreases with the increasing surface heterogeneity of the soils, indicating a small film resistance to mass transfer surrounding the adsorbent particle. This can be seen in the initially steeper linear (*kint*1) (**Figure 2**, 2nd stage), where the mass transfer across the boundary layer and *IPD* were the two mechanisms to control the MSM adsorption on andisols. The last mechanisms were observed for GPS and DI adsorption on ultisols and andisols (**Figure 3B**), where GPS presented the same initial adsorption on both kinds of soils. A large value for *C*1 indicates that the adsorption proceeds via a more complex mechanism consisting of both surface adsorption and *IPD*. In this regard, the highest *C*1 values for DI correspond to large film diffusion resistance due to the greater boundary layer effect surrounding the particles for DI [24, 25] indicating a rapid adsorption in a short time and highest initial DI adsorption on andisols with a wide distribution of pore sizes. This was associated with the macroporosity of andisols due to aggregates composed by humus-Al/Fe complexes with low colloidal stability. If andisols have high OM content, these complexes could generate a preferential flow, increasing the transport of herbicides by the remaining colloidal or dissolved OM, increasing the leaching potential of DI. The second (*kint*1) and (*kint*2) third stage describe the gradual adsorption stage (**Figure 2**, 2nd and 3rd stage), where *IPD* through macropores is rate limiting [21] followed by slow diffusion-immobilization in micropores or capillaries of the sorbent's internal structure. The rate-controlling step may be controlled by *film diffusion* and *IPD* [26]. In this sense, the adsorption process proceeds in the liquidfilled pore (external mass transfer (EMT)) steps or along the walls of the pores of the sorbent (internal mass transfer (IMT)) steps. It is assumed that the external resistance to mass transfer surrounding the solute is significant only in the early stage of adsorption [27]. This can be seen in the initially steeper linear (*kint*1) (**Figure 2**, 2nd

) and *C*in is the initial

). As an advantage, the *TSNE* model allows

**Figure 3C**, *C*t is the solute concentration at any time (μg mL<sup>−</sup><sup>1</sup>

**60**

instead of (S+…\*X<sup>−</sup>(hydr)), while the inverse correlation with the anionic species was explained by electrostatic repulsion with negative charge surfaces. In this sense, the different surface charge of both soil orders (predominance of S<sup>−</sup> for ultisols and S+ for andisols) plays an important role in herbicide-soil speciation that should be considered together with molecular properties to explain the mechanistic behavior of adsorption.

On the other hand, the OM, humic substances, and clay content increased the adsorption and reduced the mobility of imazaquin at low pH, due to the inverse relationship between adsorption and transport [32]. But this trend involves the adsorption on negatively charged sites, then andisols could exhibit a different behavior affected by positive charges and their interactions with herbicides (S+…\*X) and OM (S+…\*S<sup>−</sup>). For the case of a nonionizable herbicide, such as metolachlor, the OM plays a fundamental role for specific and nonspecific adsorption mechanisms. In this regard, Weber et al. studied the adsorption of metolachlor in Cape Fear soil [32], comparatively to imazaquin. In general, metolachlor was adsorbed by physical binding with soil. The proposed mechanisms were hydrophobic bonding to lipophilic sites of OM and humic substances (X0…\*S0 ), charge-transfer mechanisms, van der Waals forces, and H-bonds on polar surfaces of clay minerals, with a greater adsorption than imazaquin, similar to DI in Chilean soils (**Figure 2**, 1st stage and equilibrium) [9]. Additionally, the adsorption process could be dependent on mass transfer instead of soil-herbicide affinity. In this sense, the adsorption mechanisms depend on chemical and physical properties of soil and herbicide, including the interaction between soil components. This was observed for atrazine adsorbed on OM [33], in which hydrophobic interactions were dominant in aliphatic C of the inner sites of humic self-associated aggregates for ultisols, while for andisols the adsorption occurred on the surface of aromatic C stabilized by allophane and therefore becomes more easily desorbed [33]. This effect on conformational rigidity of organic and Fe/Al-humus sorbents is interesting to predict the environmental fate of organic nonionizable herbicides, where the formation of stable Fe/Al-humus complexes becomes OM less heterogeneous in andisols, which plays an important role in controlling the reversibility of adsorption processes. The effect of soil-solution interaction on hydrophobic adsorption of acetamiprid (pKa = 4.16) was studied by Murano et al. [34]. The adsorption of neutral acetamiprid at pH 6.5 (neutral specie) increased when Al+3 or Fe+3 was added to humic substances because of hydrophobicity enhanced by cation bridging in the formation of humic substance-metal complexes (S<sup>−</sup>…\*M+3…\*S<sup>−</sup> and 3S<sup>−</sup>…\*M+3, where M=Al+3/Fe+3), changing the surface charge, conformational structure of humic substances, and accessibility to reactive sites. The *TSNE model* (**Figure 3C**) indicated that MSM adsorption on andisols presented an initial phase with a fast trend to equilibrium, where ∼50% (F ~ 50%) of sites account for almost instantaneous equilibrium, while for ultisols, great part of sites corresponded to the time-dependent stage of adsorption (91%, F ~ 10%) (**Figure 2**, 1st stage). As *F* is related to irreversible adsorption, this parameter acts as an indirect indicator of hysteresis. So, high F values imply low desorption. The instantaneous adsorption on andisols was associated to OM-pesticide complexes, more stable and irreversible than clay-pesticide complexes, which was consistent with low *kdes* values. On the other hand, F on ultisols was related to a pore deformation mechanism due to the hysteresis water sorptivity in hydrated minerals, such as halloysite.

The DI adsorption on andisols presented an initial phase with a fast trend to equilibrium, where between 10 and 50% of sites account for very fast adsorption (**Figure 2**, 1st stage). Again for ultisols, most of the sites corresponded to the time-dependent stage of adsorption (90%) (**Figure 2**, 1st stage). The adsorption of nonionic or hydrophobic compounds on VADS has been described as a two-site equilibrium-kinetic process, where *intra-OM-diffusion* has been suggested to be

**63**

*Herbicides Mechanisms Involved in the Sorption Kinetic of Ionisable and Non Ionisable...*

be taken into account to evaluate the potential leaching of INIH in VADS.

affect the fraction of different soil sites for adsorption (S+

(S<sup>−</sup>…\*Ca2+…\*GPS<sup>−</sup>

**4.3 Impact of experimental conditions of kinetic batch studies on solute** 

The adsorption mechanism is strongly related to the experimental conditions established to carry out the adsorption kinetic study. Considering previous examples of herbicide adsorption kinetics on ultisols and andisols exposed in **Figure 3**, the pH can affect the speciation of MSM and GPS [4, 12]. Similarly, pH can significantly

this sense, the variability in *qmax* due to changes in adsorption mechanisms for the pH effect will be MSM and GPS in andisols > MSM and GPS in ultisols > DI in andisols > DI in ultisols. In addition, the cations and anions in solution, related with IS and ionic composition, can affect the CEC and AEC of soil, including the ionic exchange mechanism for MSM and GPS by (i) competition, such as GPS versus phosphate,

be known, e.g., the natural or anthropogenic P content in agricultural soils. The same driving factors mentioned above could modify the structure and porosity of soils, changing the transport mechanism of pesticides. Interactions such as S+…\*S<sup>−</sup>

and S+…\*X−…\*S+

(e.g., phosphonate group) on S+

]), while GPS2<sup>−</sup>

represented by a *PFO* (variation on [S2+]) or *PSO* reaction (variation on [S+

sense, it will be important to consider the experimental conditions. For example, for high soil:solution ratios, both cases will be represented by a *PFO* reaction (variation

The surface charge amphoteric characteristics of VADS confer them physical/ chemical properties absolutely different to constant charge-soils, where soil composition (i.e., SOM), mineralogy, and variable charge are key components of most VADS controlling soil INIH adsorption, representing an environmental substrate that may become polluted over time due to intensive agronomic uses. The *PSO* and *TSNE*

+ S+ → GPS-S is a pseudo-first order (*PFO*) reaction with respect to soil

) but *PFO* reaction with respect to GPS (v ∝ [GPS<sup>−</sup>

]), while an excess of herbicide or low soil:solution ratios will be

explain the difference between *kint*1 and *kint*2, especially for GPS adsorption in andisols, due to the joint effect between a high content of macropores and a low molecular size. In all previous cases, different stoichiometric coefficients may be related to the same mechanism, depending on herbicide and soil properties. If we describe the adsorption rate based on the adsorption capacity only, a simple case will be the anionic

, S<sup>−</sup>

, or (ii) cooperativity, such as GPS and Ca2+ by cation

and S0

). To evaluate (i), initial status of soil must

for the solution composition can

and 2S+

+ 2S+ → GPS-S2 is a *PSO* reaction with

) in andisols. In

in Al/

, respectively,

]).

]). In this

the predominant factor responsible for the nonequilibrium adsorption [9]. In this sense, the OM is the governing factor for NIH adsorption on andisols (OC content higher than 4.0%). The presence of crystalline minerals, such as kaolinite, halloysite, and Al/Fe oxides will be significant in the *IPD* mechanism in ultisols [5, 35]. The way minerals, present on VADS, are interrelated or chemically spatially distributed, either being freely distributed throughout the soil mass or coating silt and clay grains, is determinant on their chemical role in the whole ion adsorption-desorption mechanisms [7]. The different mineral composition of VADS will have an impact on their different physical behavior, influencing the INIH adsorption rate, the adsorption mechanism involved, and the INIH adsorption capacity. All of the above must

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84906*

**transport mechanisms**

with affinity for the same S+

Fe-humus complexes or S<sup>−</sup>…\*M+…\*S<sup>−</sup>

and GPS2<sup>−</sup>

] 2

]) and GPS (v ∝ [GPS<sup>−</sup>

bridge adsorption in S<sup>−</sup>

exchange of GPS<sup>−</sup>

**5. Conclusions**

respect to soil (v ∝ [S+

] or [GPS2<sup>−</sup>

where GPS<sup>−</sup>

(v ∝ [S+

on [GPS<sup>−</sup>

*Herbicides Mechanisms Involved in the Sorption Kinetic of Ionisable and Non Ionisable... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84906*

the predominant factor responsible for the nonequilibrium adsorption [9]. In this sense, the OM is the governing factor for NIH adsorption on andisols (OC content higher than 4.0%). The presence of crystalline minerals, such as kaolinite, halloysite, and Al/Fe oxides will be significant in the *IPD* mechanism in ultisols [5, 35]. The way minerals, present on VADS, are interrelated or chemically spatially distributed, either being freely distributed throughout the soil mass or coating silt and clay grains, is determinant on their chemical role in the whole ion adsorption-desorption mechanisms [7]. The different mineral composition of VADS will have an impact on their different physical behavior, influencing the INIH adsorption rate, the adsorption mechanism involved, and the INIH adsorption capacity. All of the above must be taken into account to evaluate the potential leaching of INIH in VADS.

### **4.3 Impact of experimental conditions of kinetic batch studies on solute transport mechanisms**

The adsorption mechanism is strongly related to the experimental conditions established to carry out the adsorption kinetic study. Considering previous examples of herbicide adsorption kinetics on ultisols and andisols exposed in **Figure 3**, the pH can affect the speciation of MSM and GPS [4, 12]. Similarly, pH can significantly affect the fraction of different soil sites for adsorption (S+ , S<sup>−</sup> and S0 ) in andisols. In this sense, the variability in *qmax* due to changes in adsorption mechanisms for the pH effect will be MSM and GPS in andisols > MSM and GPS in ultisols > DI in andisols > DI in ultisols. In addition, the cations and anions in solution, related with IS and ionic composition, can affect the CEC and AEC of soil, including the ionic exchange mechanism for MSM and GPS by (i) competition, such as GPS versus phosphate, with affinity for the same S+ , or (ii) cooperativity, such as GPS and Ca2+ by cation bridge adsorption in S<sup>−</sup> (S<sup>−</sup>…\*Ca2+…\*GPS<sup>−</sup> ). To evaluate (i), initial status of soil must be known, e.g., the natural or anthropogenic P content in agricultural soils. The same driving factors mentioned above could modify the structure and porosity of soils, changing the transport mechanism of pesticides. Interactions such as S+…\*S<sup>−</sup> in Al/ Fe-humus complexes or S<sup>−</sup>…\*M+…\*S<sup>−</sup> and S+…\*X−…\*S+ for the solution composition can explain the difference between *kint*1 and *kint*2, especially for GPS adsorption in andisols, due to the joint effect between a high content of macropores and a low molecular size. In all previous cases, different stoichiometric coefficients may be related to the same mechanism, depending on herbicide and soil properties. If we describe the adsorption rate based on the adsorption capacity only, a simple case will be the anionic exchange of GPS<sup>−</sup> and GPS2<sup>−</sup> (e.g., phosphonate group) on S+ and 2S+ , respectively, where GPS<sup>−</sup> + S+ → GPS-S is a pseudo-first order (*PFO*) reaction with respect to soil (v ∝ [S+ ]) and GPS (v ∝ [GPS<sup>−</sup> ]), while GPS2<sup>−</sup> + 2S+ → GPS-S2 is a *PSO* reaction with respect to soil (v ∝ [S+ ] 2 ) but *PFO* reaction with respect to GPS (v ∝ [GPS<sup>−</sup> ]). In this sense, it will be important to consider the experimental conditions. For example, for high soil:solution ratios, both cases will be represented by a *PFO* reaction (variation on [GPS<sup>−</sup> ] or [GPS2<sup>−</sup> ]), while an excess of herbicide or low soil:solution ratios will be represented by a *PFO* (variation on [S2+]) or *PSO* reaction (variation on [S+ ]).

## **5. Conclusions**

The surface charge amphoteric characteristics of VADS confer them physical/ chemical properties absolutely different to constant charge-soils, where soil composition (i.e., SOM), mineralogy, and variable charge are key components of most VADS controlling soil INIH adsorption, representing an environmental substrate that may become polluted over time due to intensive agronomic uses. The *PSO* and *TSNE*

*Kinetic Modeling for Environmental Systems*

lipophilic sites of OM and humic substances (X0…\*S0

S+

of adsorption.

instead of (S+…\*X<sup>−</sup>(hydr)), while the inverse correlation with the anionic species was explained by electrostatic repulsion with negative charge surfaces. In this sense, the different surface charge of both soil orders (predominance of S<sup>−</sup> for ultisols and

 for andisols) plays an important role in herbicide-soil speciation that should be considered together with molecular properties to explain the mechanistic behavior

On the other hand, the OM, humic substances, and clay content increased the adsorption and reduced the mobility of imazaquin at low pH, due to the inverse relationship between adsorption and transport [32]. But this trend involves the adsorption on negatively charged sites, then andisols could exhibit a different behavior affected by positive charges and their interactions with herbicides (S+…\*X) and OM (S+…\*S<sup>−</sup>). For the case of a nonionizable herbicide, such as metolachlor, the OM plays a fundamental role for specific and nonspecific adsorption mechanisms. In this regard, Weber et al. studied the adsorption of metolachlor in Cape Fear soil [32], comparatively to imazaquin. In general, metolachlor was adsorbed by physical binding with soil. The proposed mechanisms were hydrophobic bonding to

van der Waals forces, and H-bonds on polar surfaces of clay minerals, with a greater adsorption than imazaquin, similar to DI in Chilean soils (**Figure 2**, 1st stage and equilibrium) [9]. Additionally, the adsorption process could be dependent on mass transfer instead of soil-herbicide affinity. In this sense, the adsorption mechanisms depend on chemical and physical properties of soil and herbicide, including the interaction between soil components. This was observed for atrazine adsorbed on OM [33], in which hydrophobic interactions were dominant in aliphatic C of the inner sites of humic self-associated aggregates for ultisols, while for andisols the adsorption occurred on the surface of aromatic C stabilized by allophane and therefore becomes more easily desorbed [33]. This effect on conformational rigidity of organic and Fe/Al-humus sorbents is interesting to predict the environmental fate of organic nonionizable herbicides, where the formation of stable Fe/Al-humus complexes becomes OM less heterogeneous in andisols, which plays an important role in controlling the reversibility of adsorption processes. The effect of soil-solution interaction on hydrophobic adsorption of acetamiprid (pKa = 4.16) was studied by Murano et al. [34]. The adsorption of neutral acetamiprid at pH 6.5 (neutral specie) increased when Al+3 or Fe+3 was added to humic substances because of hydrophobicity enhanced by cation bridging in the formation of humic substance-metal complexes (S<sup>−</sup>…\*M+3…\*S<sup>−</sup> and 3S<sup>−</sup>…\*M+3, where M=Al+3/Fe+3), changing the surface charge, conformational structure of humic substances, and accessibility to reactive sites. The *TSNE model* (**Figure 3C**) indicated that MSM adsorption on andisols presented an initial phase with a fast trend to equilibrium, where ∼50% (F ~ 50%) of sites account for almost instantaneous equilibrium, while for ultisols, great part of sites corresponded to the time-dependent stage of adsorption (91%, F ~ 10%) (**Figure 2**, 1st stage). As *F* is related to irreversible adsorption, this parameter acts as an indirect indicator of hysteresis. So, high F values imply low desorption. The instantaneous adsorption on andisols was associated to OM-pesticide complexes, more stable and irreversible than clay-pesticide complexes, which was consistent with low *kdes* values. On the other hand, F on ultisols was related to a pore deformation mechanism due to

the hysteresis water sorptivity in hydrated minerals, such as halloysite.

The DI adsorption on andisols presented an initial phase with a fast trend to equilibrium, where between 10 and 50% of sites account for very fast adsorption (**Figure 2**, 1st stage). Again for ultisols, most of the sites corresponded to the time-dependent stage of adsorption (90%) (**Figure 2**, 1st stage). The adsorption of nonionic or hydrophobic compounds on VADS has been described as a two-site equilibrium-kinetic process, where *intra-OM-diffusion* has been suggested to be

), charge-transfer mechanisms,

**62**

models have been the best to describe kinetics and solute transport mechanisms of INIH on VADS. These models are also necessary in order to develop and validate *QSAR* models to predict INIH adsorption on VADS to prevent potential contamination of water resources and predict environmental risks. The complex adsorption mechanisms of INIH on VADS and the diversity of soil mineralogy, texture, OC structure, and content make it necessary to consider them in *QSAR* model applications, not only to predict INIH adsorption but also to contribute to a better understanding behavior of INIH on VADS.

## **Acknowledgements**

This work was funded via projects FONDECYT 11110421 from CONICYT, Chile, CEDENNA FB0807 (Basal Funding for Scientific and Technological Centers) from CONICYT, Chile, and PFCHA/DOCTORADO NACIONAL/2017—21170499 from CONICYT, Chile.

## **Conflict of interest**

The authors certify that they have no conflict of interest with the subject matter discussed in this chapter.

## **Author details**

Lizethly Caceres Jensen1 \*, Angelo Neira-Albornoz1,2 and Mauricio Escudey3,4

1 Laboratory of Physical and Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Universidad Metropolitana de Ciencias de la Educación, Santiago, Chile

2 Facultad de Ciencias Químicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad de Chile, Independencia, Chile

3 Facultad de Química y Biología, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Santiago, Chile

4 Center for the Development of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, CEDENNA, Santiago, Chile

\*Address all correspondence to: lyzethly.caceres@umce.cl

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**65**

*Herbicides Mechanisms Involved in the Sorption Kinetic of Ionisable and Non Ionisable...*

chemical dissolution and Mössbauer spectroscopy. Hyperfine Interactions. 2007;**175**:95-101. DOI: 10.1007/

[8] Seguel S O, Orellana S I. Relación entre las propiedades mecánicas de suelos y los procesos de génesis e intensidad de uso. Agro Sur. 2008;**36**: 82-92. DOI: 10.4206/agrosur.2008.

[9] Caceres-Jensen L, Rodriguez-Becerra J, Parra-Rivero J, Escudey M, Barrientos L, Castro-Castillo V. Sorption kinetics of diuron on volcanic ash derived soils. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2013;**261**:602-613.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2013.07.073

[10] Brusseau ML, Rao PSC. The influence of sorbate-organic matter interactions on sorption nonequilibrium. Chemosphere. 1989;**18**:1691-1706. DOI:

10.1016/0045-6535(89)90453-0

[12] Cáceres-Jensen L, Escudey M, Fuentes E, Báez ME. Modeling the sorption kinetic of metsulfuron-methyl on Andisols and Ultisols volcanic ashderived soils: Kinetics parameters and solute transport mechanisms. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2010;**179**:795-803. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.03.074

[13] Dahlgren RA, Saigusa M, Ugolini FC, Donald LS. The nature, properties and management of volcanic soils. In: Advances in Agronomy. Academic Press; 2004. pp. 113-182. DOI: 10.1016/

S0065-2113(03)82003-5

[14] Qafoku NP, Ranst EV, Noble A, Baert G. Variable charge soils: Their mineralogy, chemistry and

10.1021/es9015052

[11] Villaverde J, van Beinum W, Beulke S, Brown CD. The kinetics of sorption by retarded diffusion into soil aggregate pores. Environmental Science & Technology. 2009;**43**:8227-8232. DOI:

s10751-008-9594-z

v36n2-04

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84906*

[1] Sarmah AK, Muller K, Ahmad R. Fate and behaviour of pesticides in the agroecosystem—A review with a New Zealand perspective. Australian Journal of Soil Research. 2004;**42**:125-154. DOI:

[2] Escudey M, Galindo G, Forster JE, Briceño M, Diaz P, Chang A. Chemical forms of phosphorus of volcanic ashderived soils in chile. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis. 2001;**32**:601-616. DOI: 10.1081/

[3] Báez ME, Espinoza J, Silva R, Fuentes E.

Sorption-desorption behavior of pesticides and their degradation products in volcanic and nonvolcanic soils: Interpretation of interactions through two-way principal component analysis. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2015;**22**:8576-8585. DOI: 10.1007/s11356-014-4036-8

[4] Cáceres-Jensen L, Gan J, Báez M, Fuentes R, Escudey M. Adsorption of glyphosate on variable-charge, volcanic ash-derived soils. Journal of Environmental Quality. 2009;**38**: 1449-1457. DOI: 10.2134/jeq2008.0146

[5] Caceres L, Fuentes R, Escudey M, Fuentes E, Baez MaE. Metsulfuronmethyl sorption/desorption behavior on volcanic ash-derived soils. Effect of phosphate and pH. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2010;**58**:6864-6869.

[6] Briceno G, Demanet R, de la Luz Mora M, Palma G. Effect of liquid cow manure on andisol properties and atrazine adsorption. Journal of Environmental Quality. 2008;**37**: 1519-1526. DOI: 10.2134/jeq2007.0323

[7] Pizarro C, Fabris J, Stucki J, Garg V, Morales C, Aravena S, et al. Distribution

of Fe-bearing compounds in an Ultisol as determined with selective

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*Herbicides Mechanisms Involved in the Sorption Kinetic of Ionisable and Non Ionisable... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84906*

## **References**

*Kinetic Modeling for Environmental Systems*

behavior of INIH on VADS.

**Acknowledgements**

CONICYT, Chile.

**Author details**

Lizethly Caceres Jensen1

Independencia, Chile

Santiago, Chile

**Conflict of interest**

discussed in this chapter.

models have been the best to describe kinetics and solute transport mechanisms of INIH on VADS. These models are also necessary in order to develop and validate *QSAR* models to predict INIH adsorption on VADS to prevent potential contamination of water resources and predict environmental risks. The complex adsorption mechanisms of INIH on VADS and the diversity of soil mineralogy, texture, OC structure, and content make it necessary to consider them in *QSAR* model applications, not only to predict INIH adsorption but also to contribute to a better understanding

This work was funded via projects FONDECYT 11110421 from CONICYT, Chile, CEDENNA FB0807 (Basal Funding for Scientific and Technological Centers) from CONICYT, Chile, and PFCHA/DOCTORADO NACIONAL/2017—21170499 from

The authors certify that they have no conflict of interest with the subject matter

\*, Angelo Neira-Albornoz1,2 and Mauricio Escudey3,4

**64**

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*Address all correspondence to: lyzethly.caceres@umce.cl

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

3 Facultad de Química y Biología, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Santiago, Chile

4 Center for the Development of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, CEDENNA,

1 Laboratory of Physical and Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry,

Universidad Metropolitana de Ciencias de la Educación, Santiago, Chile

2 Facultad de Ciencias Químicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad de Chile,

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[2] Escudey M, Galindo G, Forster JE, Briceño M, Diaz P, Chang A. Chemical forms of phosphorus of volcanic ashderived soils in chile. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis. 2001;**32**:601-616. DOI: 10.1081/ CSS-100103895

[3] Báez ME, Espinoza J, Silva R, Fuentes E. Sorption-desorption behavior of pesticides and their degradation products in volcanic and nonvolcanic soils: Interpretation of interactions through two-way principal component analysis. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2015;**22**:8576-8585. DOI: 10.1007/s11356-014-4036-8

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[6] Briceno G, Demanet R, de la Luz Mora M, Palma G. Effect of liquid cow manure on andisol properties and atrazine adsorption. Journal of Environmental Quality. 2008;**37**: 1519-1526. DOI: 10.2134/jeq2007.0323

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[8] Seguel S O, Orellana S I. Relación entre las propiedades mecánicas de suelos y los procesos de génesis e intensidad de uso. Agro Sur. 2008;**36**: 82-92. DOI: 10.4206/agrosur.2008. v36n2-04

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[13] Dahlgren RA, Saigusa M, Ugolini FC, Donald LS. The nature, properties and management of volcanic soils. In: Advances in Agronomy. Academic Press; 2004. pp. 113-182. DOI: 10.1016/ S0065-2113(03)82003-5

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2017;**74**:25-48. DOI: 10.1016/j.

[25] Fernández-Bayo JD, Nogales R, Romero E. Evaluation of the sorption process for imidacloprid and diuron in eight agricultural soils from Southern Europe using various kinetic models. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2008;**56**:5266-5272. DOI:

[26] Pojananukij N, Wantala K, Neramittagapong S, Lin C,

[27] Valderrama C, Gamisans X, de las Heras X, Farrán A, Cortina JL. Sorption kinetics of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons removal using granular activated carbon: Intraparticle diffusion coefficients. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2008;**157**:386-396. DOI: 10.1016/j.

Tanangteerpong D, Neramittagapong A. Improvement of As(III) removal with diatomite overlay nanoscale zero-valent iron (nZVI-D): Adsorption isotherm and adsorption kinetic studies. Water Science and Technology: Water Supply. 2017;**17**:212-220. DOI: 10.2166/

[24] Tan KL, Hameed BH. Insight into the adsorption kinetics models for the removal of contaminants from aqueous solutions. Journal of the

Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers.

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jtice.2017.01.024

10.1021/jf8004349

ws.2016.120

jhazmat.2007.12.119

physical/chemical properties of volcanic ash-derived soils on mechanisms involved during sorption of ionisable and non-ionisable herbicides. In: Edebali DS, editor. Advanced Sorption

pp. 299-312

[16] Takahashi T, Shoji S. Distribution and classification of volcanic ash soils. Global Environmental Research-English

[17] Cea M, Seaman JC, Jara AA, Fuentes B,

Mora ML, Diez MC. Adsorption behavior of 2,4-dichlorophenol and pentachlorophenol in an allophanic soil. Chemosphere. 2007;**67**:1354-1360. DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2006.10.080

[18] Mirsal A. Origin, Monitoring & Remediation. In: Soil Pollution. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag; 2008. p. 312.

DOI: 10.1007/978-3-540-70777-6

10.1897/07-583.1

[19] Franco A, Trapp S. Estimation of the soil–water partition coefficient normalized to organic carbon for ionizable organic chemicals. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 2008;**27**:1995-2004. DOI:

[20] Sparks DL. 5—Sorption phenomena

Academic Press; 2003. pp. 133-186. DOI: 10.1016/B978-012656446-4/50005-0

[21] Báez ME, Fuentes E, Espinoza J. Characterization of the atrazine sorption process on andisol and ultisol volcanic ash-derived soils: Kinetic parameters and the contribution of humic fractions.

Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2013;**61**:6150-6160. DOI: 10.1021/jf400950d

[22] Brusseau ML, Famisan GB, Artiola JF, Janick FA, Ian LP, Mark LB. Chemical

on soils. In: Environmental Soil Chemistry. 2nd ed. Burlington:

management. In: Advances in Agronomy. Oxford: Academic Press; 2004. pp. 159-215. DOI: 10.1016/

ash soils. Global Environmental Research-English Edition.

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2002;**6**:113-135

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[29] Thevenot M, Dousset S, Rousseaux S, Andreux F. Influence of organic amendments on diuron leaching through an acidic and a calcareous vineyard soil using undisturbed lysimeters. Environmental Pollution. 2008;**153**:148-156

[30] Zhu YF, Liu XM, Xie Z, Xu JM, Gan J. Metsulfuron-methyl adsorption/desorption in variably charged soils from Southeast China. Fresenius Environmental Bulletin. 2007;**16**:1363-1368

[31] Escudey M, Förster JE, Galindo G. Relevance of organic matter in some chemical and physical characteristics of volcanic ash-derived soils. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis. 2004;**35**:781-797. DOI: 10.1081/css-120030358

[32] Weber JB, McKinnon EJ, Swain LR. Sorption and mobility of 14C-labeled imazaquin and metolachlor in four soils as influenced by soil properties. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2003;**51**:5752-5759. DOI: 10.1021/ jf021210t

[33] Piccolo A, Conte P, Scheunert I, Paci M. Atrazine interactions with soil humic substances of different molecular structure. Journal of Environmental Quality. 1998;**27**:1324-1333. DOI: 10.2134/ jeq1998.00472425002700060009x

[34] Murano H, Suzuki K, Kayada S, Saito M, Yuge N, Arishiro T, et al. Influence of humic substances and iron and aluminum ions on the sorption of acetamiprid to an arable soil. Science of the Total Environment. 2018;**615**:1478-1484. DOI: 10.1016/j. scitotenv.2017.09.120

[35] Espinoza J, Fuentes E, Báez ME. Sorption behavior of bensulfuronmethyl on andisols and ultisols volcanic ash-derived soils: Contribution of humic fractions and mineral-organic complexes. Environmental Pollution. 2009;**157**:3387-3395. DOI: 10.1016/j. envpol.2009.06.028

**69**

**Chapter 5**

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

*Kanokporn Swangjang*

Development of Conceptual

Environmental Assessment

Model for Eco-Based Strategic

Since the development of mega projects had been contributed, in consequence, the continuous projects were developed and caused some hidden effects. The main target of this chapter is to develop conceptual model for eco-based strategic environmental assessment (SEA) as the tool to consider the kinetic development resulting from project impacts. Three indicators, namely, environmental assessment, land use, and ecological approach, were selected to support the purpose. For environmental dimension, the contents of Environmental Impact Assessment Guidelines and Environmental Impact Statements were analyzed, using content analysis. Land use change for selected areas was analyzed covering the period of mega project development. For ecosystem, the development of ecological pattern from the past to the present was surveyed and investigated in detail. The results illustrated the hierarchical risk areas from the lowest to the highest. Finally, the conceptual model was developed on the basis of the actual impacts according to the area feature.

**Keywords:** multiple criteria analysis, ecology, land use, Environmental Impact

Since the adoption of the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) in the United States in 1969, Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) has become an increasingly familiar term in many developed and developing countries.

International agencies and government worldwide have made considerable progress in requiring the use of EIA for evaluating project proposals [1]. In another view, EIA is a knowledge driven to the following theories in the chain of environmental assessment (EA). Strategic environmental assessment (SEA) is one among them. SEA as one of the series of environmental analysis has played an important role since the middle of the 1970s. The origin of SEA was come from the weak point of EIA as the impact specific for only project level. EIA alone makes insufficient to consider cumulative effect and cannot be used as the direction to clarify the environmental management of overall project [2]. EIA mechanism is the process to assess the consequence and impacts only for project levels, whereas SEA focuses on the consideration of impact on the macro-levels of policy plan and programs. The decision-making of both EIA and SEA is different, depending on the jurisdictions in each country [3]. The development of EIA to the higher level in order to

Assessment, development projects, Thailand

## **Chapter 5**

## Development of Conceptual Model for Eco-Based Strategic Environmental Assessment

*Kanokporn Swangjang*

## **Abstract**

Since the development of mega projects had been contributed, in consequence, the continuous projects were developed and caused some hidden effects. The main target of this chapter is to develop conceptual model for eco-based strategic environmental assessment (SEA) as the tool to consider the kinetic development resulting from project impacts. Three indicators, namely, environmental assessment, land use, and ecological approach, were selected to support the purpose. For environmental dimension, the contents of Environmental Impact Assessment Guidelines and Environmental Impact Statements were analyzed, using content analysis. Land use change for selected areas was analyzed covering the period of mega project development. For ecosystem, the development of ecological pattern from the past to the present was surveyed and investigated in detail. The results illustrated the hierarchical risk areas from the lowest to the highest. Finally, the conceptual model was developed on the basis of the actual impacts according to the area feature.

**Keywords:** multiple criteria analysis, ecology, land use, Environmental Impact Assessment, development projects, Thailand

## **1. Introduction**

Since the adoption of the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) in the United States in 1969, Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) has become an increasingly familiar term in many developed and developing countries. International agencies and government worldwide have made considerable progress in requiring the use of EIA for evaluating project proposals [1]. In another view, EIA is a knowledge driven to the following theories in the chain of environmental assessment (EA). Strategic environmental assessment (SEA) is one among them. SEA as one of the series of environmental analysis has played an important role since the middle of the 1970s. The origin of SEA was come from the weak point of EIA as the impact specific for only project level. EIA alone makes insufficient to consider cumulative effect and cannot be used as the direction to clarify the environmental management of overall project [2]. EIA mechanism is the process to assess the consequence and impacts only for project levels, whereas SEA focuses on the consideration of impact on the macro-levels of policy plan and programs. The decision-making of both EIA and SEA is different, depending on the jurisdictions in each country [3]. The development of EIA to the higher level in order to

determine and control the impacts from the initial stage of the project decisionmaking process is essential. Currently, the SEA mechanism is widely used in many countries and international organizations. SEA can operate in various forms and methods, such as SEA for sectorial and regional sections by the World Bank [4]. It is recognized that SEA is one of the key drivers toward the achievement of sustainable development goals.

The extension of the project level (EIA) to the macro-level (SEA) to meet the goals of sustainable development has been conducted by many experts in many regions. The 801 EIA projects in the Czech Republic were evaluated and found the linkage of the project evaluation in EIA follow-up to the SEA [5]. The project level, both positive and negative effects, can be expanded to the policy and planning levels [6]. The setting indicators to study are of primary concerned, depending on the conditions of the study. The classification of indicators influencing a carrying capacity depended on the purpose of application and spatial setting. There are various categories identified by many experts. There are, for example, four components identified, including environmental and ecological, urban facilities, public perception, and institutional categories [7]. Some specific indicators were suggested such as soil, slope, vegetation, wetland, scenic resources, natural hazard, air and water quality, and energy availability; some considered water supply, sewage, waste treatment, railway, road, and housing. These are depended on the purposed of each strategic study.

This chapter aims to illustrate the development of conceptual model of ecobased SEA. The setting of purposes to select the objectives, targets, and indicators was described in Section 2. Section 3 illustrated the case study based on the kinetic development resulting from land use change which brought to consequence ecological impacts. The lesson drawn from the case study leads to the development of conceptual model together with the approach for its fulfillment in Sections 4 and 5, respectively.

## **2. Eco-based strategic environmental assessment**

The setting of objectives, targets, and indicators is necessary for the SEA because the SEA baseline cannot be detailed in-depth, like EIA [8]. Those should be appropriate for the strategic purpose. In order to support the aim to develop ecobased SEA model, the selected factors supporting the purpose are EIA mechanism, land use, and ecological approach. The importance of these can be found from the previous researches, as follows.

#### **2.1 Environmental Impact Assessment mechanism**

EIA is an effective tool for managing project life cycles [9]. Research on the mechanism of EIA project began in the early 1980s by studying the role of relevant organizations [10, 11]. The quality of the baseline data that directly concern the selection of environmental components appropriated for such project [12, 13] was important to judge the performance [14]. According to EIA mechanism, EIA follow-up, including monitoring and audit, is the main tool to justify the efficiency of project implementation. Monitoring and audit can be used to measure the actual impact of project activity together with the uncertainty of impact prediction [15]. The study of techniques used to monitor actual impacts during the project operation can suggest some error of impact estimation in EIS, together with the impacts beyond forecasts [16].

The efficiency of project control, including the completion of Environmental Impact Statements (EISs) or EIA reports, the compliance with the conditions of approval, and the factors affecting project decision, was developed during the 1990s [17], together with the suggested criteria to assess the EIA effectiveness [18]. The

**71**

**2.2 Land use**

*Development of Conceptual Model for Eco-Based Strategic Environmental Assessment*

integration of EIA in sustainable development was also confirmed [27].

index at each level in order to track changes in the ecosystem.

century had been calculated at 3.2 × 107 m3

for effective urban planning and management [7].

to green areas planned for the city.

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) [28] has established guidelines for monitoring biodiversity given the priority to the ecological level in the ecological monitoring trail. The criteria of UNEP are useful for narrowing ecological index categories and can be used as a guideline for the selection of ecological

Change to urban areas has increased significantly in many regions. Land use change is an indicator of ecological change. The loss of green areas resulting from land use change has a further impact on many environmental components. One of those is climate change, the global crisis, which affects biosphere by surface temperature change [29] on both minimum and maximum surface temperatures [30]. Dynamic of land use change is different depending on the kinetic development of each area. The study in Beijing illustrated the severely damaged during 1986– 2001 in agricultural areas, due to the indefinite of urban growth [31]. A similar study is found in the suburbs of Bangkok that the pattern of urban land use had been profoundly influenced by past patterns of agricultural land use and landform transformation. The volume of landform transformation occurred over the last half-

an average depth of 50 cm. This is clear that land use change had occurred in both horizontal and vertical components, which could not be separated from each other [32]. Those lead to the study concerning the arrangement of green areas to limit the future expansion of the city [33]. The approach of land use change could be used to develop an environmental monitoring system [34] and also environmental management by analyzing the pollutant sources from land use classification [35]. Urban Carrying Capacity Assessment System was suggested as an alternative tool

Land use planning based on an ecological network, focusing on biodiversity and the conservation of the habitat from the species level, was recommended [36]. The similar case defined the greenways for land use planning in order to conserve biodiversity in the city area [37]. This is an alternative approach for land use planning to support sustainable purpose. In turn, ecological principles are the basic tool

, equivalent to 64 km2

of area flooded to

studies to conduct EIA follow-up was based on the principles of operational phase analysis. The case studies were found in many regions. These examples are the following. The study of factors affected the effectiveness of project monitoring in Australia [19]. A network of components affected the efficiency of the EIA process in Taiwan [20]. The efficiency of the EIA process through the environmental monitoring network, focusing on coastal development projects, was evaluated in Mauritius Island [21]. Similar studies were conducted in Malaysia and Kenya, respectively [12, 17]. The importance of ecological components in the project level as EIA has been realized for a long time. However, it still found problems in terms of perfection and effectiveness, the main reason being due to the methods used for ecological prediction and project management, which was too general, without focusing on the critical issues [22, 23]. However, the relationship among EIA, ecology, and sustainable development is crucial. These were confirmed by many researches [24–26]. All illustrated that EIA can be guided toward sustainable development principles, by extending the scope of social considerations and environment. These combination mechanisms were classified, and some study indicated at least 3 of 14 mechanisms, which are directly related to EIA follow-up during the operational phase [25]. The relationship of social, economic, and ecological variables that contributed to the

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81621*

#### *Development of Conceptual Model for Eco-Based Strategic Environmental Assessment DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81621*

studies to conduct EIA follow-up was based on the principles of operational phase analysis. The case studies were found in many regions. These examples are the following. The study of factors affected the effectiveness of project monitoring in Australia [19]. A network of components affected the efficiency of the EIA process in Taiwan [20]. The efficiency of the EIA process through the environmental monitoring network, focusing on coastal development projects, was evaluated in Mauritius Island [21]. Similar studies were conducted in Malaysia and Kenya, respectively [12, 17].

The importance of ecological components in the project level as EIA has been realized for a long time. However, it still found problems in terms of perfection and effectiveness, the main reason being due to the methods used for ecological prediction and project management, which was too general, without focusing on the critical issues [22, 23]. However, the relationship among EIA, ecology, and sustainable development is crucial. These were confirmed by many researches [24–26]. All illustrated that EIA can be guided toward sustainable development principles, by extending the scope of social considerations and environment. These combination mechanisms were classified, and some study indicated at least 3 of 14 mechanisms, which are directly related to EIA follow-up during the operational phase [25]. The relationship of social, economic, and ecological variables that contributed to the integration of EIA in sustainable development was also confirmed [27].

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) [28] has established guidelines for monitoring biodiversity given the priority to the ecological level in the ecological monitoring trail. The criteria of UNEP are useful for narrowing ecological index categories and can be used as a guideline for the selection of ecological index at each level in order to track changes in the ecosystem.

### **2.2 Land use**

*Kinetic Modeling for Environmental Systems*

development goals.

determine and control the impacts from the initial stage of the project decisionmaking process is essential. Currently, the SEA mechanism is widely used in many countries and international organizations. SEA can operate in various forms and methods, such as SEA for sectorial and regional sections by the World Bank [4]. It is recognized that SEA is one of the key drivers toward the achievement of sustainable

housing. These are depended on the purposed of each strategic study.

**2. Eco-based strategic environmental assessment**

**2.1 Environmental Impact Assessment mechanism**

previous researches, as follows.

This chapter aims to illustrate the development of conceptual model of ecobased SEA. The setting of purposes to select the objectives, targets, and indicators was described in Section 2. Section 3 illustrated the case study based on the kinetic development resulting from land use change which brought to consequence ecological impacts. The lesson drawn from the case study leads to the development of conceptual model together with the approach for its fulfillment in Sections 4 and 5, respectively.

The setting of objectives, targets, and indicators is necessary for the SEA because the SEA baseline cannot be detailed in-depth, like EIA [8]. Those should be appropriate for the strategic purpose. In order to support the aim to develop ecobased SEA model, the selected factors supporting the purpose are EIA mechanism, land use, and ecological approach. The importance of these can be found from the

EIA is an effective tool for managing project life cycles [9]. Research on the mechanism of EIA project began in the early 1980s by studying the role of relevant organizations [10, 11]. The quality of the baseline data that directly concern the selection of environmental components appropriated for such project [12, 13] was important to judge the performance [14]. According to EIA mechanism, EIA follow-up, including monitoring and audit, is the main tool to justify the efficiency of project implementation. Monitoring and audit can be used to measure the actual impact of project activity together with the uncertainty of impact prediction [15]. The study of techniques used to monitor actual impacts during the project operation can suggest some error of

impact estimation in EIS, together with the impacts beyond forecasts [16].

The efficiency of project control, including the completion of Environmental Impact Statements (EISs) or EIA reports, the compliance with the conditions of approval, and the factors affecting project decision, was developed during the 1990s [17], together with the suggested criteria to assess the EIA effectiveness [18]. The

The extension of the project level (EIA) to the macro-level (SEA) to meet the goals of sustainable development has been conducted by many experts in many regions. The 801 EIA projects in the Czech Republic were evaluated and found the linkage of the project evaluation in EIA follow-up to the SEA [5]. The project level, both positive and negative effects, can be expanded to the policy and planning levels [6]. The setting indicators to study are of primary concerned, depending on the conditions of the study. The classification of indicators influencing a carrying capacity depended on the purpose of application and spatial setting. There are various categories identified by many experts. There are, for example, four components identified, including environmental and ecological, urban facilities, public perception, and institutional categories [7]. Some specific indicators were suggested such as soil, slope, vegetation, wetland, scenic resources, natural hazard, air and water quality, and energy availability; some considered water supply, sewage, waste treatment, railway, road, and

**70**

Change to urban areas has increased significantly in many regions. Land use change is an indicator of ecological change. The loss of green areas resulting from land use change has a further impact on many environmental components. One of those is climate change, the global crisis, which affects biosphere by surface temperature change [29] on both minimum and maximum surface temperatures [30].

Dynamic of land use change is different depending on the kinetic development of each area. The study in Beijing illustrated the severely damaged during 1986– 2001 in agricultural areas, due to the indefinite of urban growth [31]. A similar study is found in the suburbs of Bangkok that the pattern of urban land use had been profoundly influenced by past patterns of agricultural land use and landform transformation. The volume of landform transformation occurred over the last halfcentury had been calculated at 3.2 × 107 m3 , equivalent to 64 km2 of area flooded to an average depth of 50 cm. This is clear that land use change had occurred in both horizontal and vertical components, which could not be separated from each other [32]. Those lead to the study concerning the arrangement of green areas to limit the future expansion of the city [33]. The approach of land use change could be used to develop an environmental monitoring system [34] and also environmental management by analyzing the pollutant sources from land use classification [35]. Urban Carrying Capacity Assessment System was suggested as an alternative tool for effective urban planning and management [7].

Land use planning based on an ecological network, focusing on biodiversity and the conservation of the habitat from the species level, was recommended [36]. The similar case defined the greenways for land use planning in order to conserve biodiversity in the city area [37]. This is an alternative approach for land use planning to support sustainable purpose. In turn, ecological principles are the basic tool to green areas planned for the city.

#### **2.3 Ecological approach**

Relationships between landscape pattern and ecological structure have been widely recognized. Land use change brings to the kinetic development of ecological change. It directly concerns the habitat which is the determining factor for ecosystem component.

The impacts on ecological mechanism are different depending on the purpose. It may be considered in the form of various energy and nutrient cycles and the benefits to humans such as food production or waste treatment system. The ecological mechanism was classified into five categories, including regulation function, habitat function, production function, information function, and carrier function [38].

Any habitat change as one of kinetic development within the ecosystem has an effect on living organisms. Among them, bird is the sensitive organism and detects a change of habitat for us to consider a carrying capacity in the ecosystem. Many researches insisted the impacts of land use change on bird species. The examples are followed. The patterns of habitat change had a significant impact on migratory birds [39]. The study in the twin cities of Minnesota, USA, found different responses of bird community among the rural, the suburb, and the conservative habitats [40]. The research regarding the distance from urban habitat and the road corridor to bird index insisted that urban habitat had not only an effect on the number of birds but also on the species abundance, especially local species [41]. In this research, buffer zone was recommended, at least 400 m from urban area and 300 m from the road. The study at the Island of Damar, the Eastern Indonesia, found the disappearance of bird species due to the expansion of small-scale agriculture. The comparing change of bird group between 1890 and 2001 found the difference of the number for fruit-eating birds and insectivorous birds in different habitat forests [42]. Habitat changes were likely to result in the decline of habitat quality for birds. Such effects occurred especially with birds that consume insects and fruits. This study also provided the characteristics of habitat change. The obvious change from the original forest that affected the new-generation forest was the loss of leaf shade covering, reducing tree height and changing flora types from trees to grass. These factors had significantly resulted in the declining number of fruit-eating birds. The major consequences were the loss and declining number of wild birds. On contrary, the increasing number of birds with opposite behavior, including meadow bird, was common at the same time.

Ecological principles can be applied to manage the landscape as the study in agricultural areas by determining the yield of rice and habitat conservation in the lowlands [43]. Civic engagement was recommended as the essential tool for the resolution of sustainability because eco-civic region can help to understand local people, together with the boundaries of biophysical framework within the actual environment [44].

The relationships of land use and ecology, as reviewed, are closely concerned for both the cause and the effect within each other. The interaction is useful for environmental management based on the carrying capacity of the area. These lead to identify the objectives, the targets, and the indicators to fulfill the development of conceptual model for eco-based SEA.

### **3. Case study**

The case study to support the development of conceptual model for eco-based SEA considered the consequence of mega project and the kinetic development of the surrounding area. Three approaches, including environmental assessment, land use,

**73**

eco-based SEA.

*Development of Conceptual Model for Eco-Based Strategic Environmental Assessment*

(1) To establish the main concept associated with what the study aims.

and ecological principle, were the targets to assess the change within the study area. The selected areas to support the purpose were the areas approached by the airport development, as mega project. These areas are located at the suburb of Bangkok, the

four districts are included, namely, Prawet, Ladkrabang, Bangpli, and Bangsauthong. Multiple criteria analysis (MCA) is one of decision theories used to justify various factors and conditions to achieve the setting aim. It is suitable for addressing complex aspects with different forms of data in both social and scientific systems. This is done by extending decision to accommodate multi-attributed consequences. This approach is acceptable for SEA in many case studies [45–47]. This case study adapted the main stages of MCA which include the setting goal, the provision of criteria to support the goal, the evaluation of setting criteria, and the direction of ranked alternative. To follow those MCA, the study was divided into four main

(2) To set the criteria based on relevant theories. This study deals with three theories, including environmental assessment, land use, and ecological issues. (3) To identify the indicators for each established criteria. These are the variables

(4) To determine the direction of the variable, by ranking the status of each variable

Stage 1 is the setting of the main purpose. The selected criteria, in stage 2, are based on the circumstance of the areas and their kinetic development; as to the case study, review literature of previous researches was supported. The selected criteria were in-depth investigated and detailed in Section 3.1. These were the baseline to assess the SEA for stages 3 and 4 in Section 3.2. The development of conceptual

Study methods for each set of the criteria, including environmental assessment, land use, and ecological approaches, were appropriately conducted to support the framework of eco-based SEA. The results were shown in **Table 1**. Again, it should be noted that this model is one of the cases from a tropical country under the condi-

The imbalance between the development and the conservation was found from the results of the case study. Some effective tool toward sustainable achievement was required. Among those, SEA is one. The integration of the case study with SEA was conducted by programmatic SEA model since the groups of projects were analyzed in the same boundary area [46]. Hence, the specification of "SEA requirement of project activities" was the first screening process in order to select only the significant activities included in the SEA. The legislation, the Town and Urban Planning, the characteristics of the area, and others were the factors to support this

Strategic ecological assessment included the following stages: the scope for analysis, the prediction of future change, the alternative consideration, and the

. According to administrative system,

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81621*

capital of Thailand, approximately 700 km2

used in the decision making.

**3.1 Results of the case study**

tions of mega project development.

setting from the highest to the lowest.

model of eco-based SEA was clarified in Section 4.

**3.2 Integration to strategic environmental assessment**

control approach. These can be described as follows:

stages:

### *Development of Conceptual Model for Eco-Based Strategic Environmental Assessment DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81621*

and ecological principle, were the targets to assess the change within the study area. The selected areas to support the purpose were the areas approached by the airport development, as mega project. These areas are located at the suburb of Bangkok, the capital of Thailand, approximately 700 km2 . According to administrative system, four districts are included, namely, Prawet, Ladkrabang, Bangpli, and Bangsauthong.

Multiple criteria analysis (MCA) is one of decision theories used to justify various factors and conditions to achieve the setting aim. It is suitable for addressing complex aspects with different forms of data in both social and scientific systems. This is done by extending decision to accommodate multi-attributed consequences. This approach is acceptable for SEA in many case studies [45–47]. This case study adapted the main stages of MCA which include the setting goal, the provision of criteria to support the goal, the evaluation of setting criteria, and the direction of ranked alternative. To follow those MCA, the study was divided into four main stages:


Stage 1 is the setting of the main purpose. The selected criteria, in stage 2, are based on the circumstance of the areas and their kinetic development; as to the case study, review literature of previous researches was supported. The selected criteria were in-depth investigated and detailed in Section 3.1. These were the baseline to assess the SEA for stages 3 and 4 in Section 3.2. The development of conceptual model of eco-based SEA was clarified in Section 4.

### **3.1 Results of the case study**

Study methods for each set of the criteria, including environmental assessment, land use, and ecological approaches, were appropriately conducted to support the framework of eco-based SEA. The results were shown in **Table 1**. Again, it should be noted that this model is one of the cases from a tropical country under the conditions of mega project development.

#### **3.2 Integration to strategic environmental assessment**

The imbalance between the development and the conservation was found from the results of the case study. Some effective tool toward sustainable achievement was required. Among those, SEA is one. The integration of the case study with SEA was conducted by programmatic SEA model since the groups of projects were analyzed in the same boundary area [46]. Hence, the specification of "SEA requirement of project activities" was the first screening process in order to select only the significant activities included in the SEA. The legislation, the Town and Urban Planning, the characteristics of the area, and others were the factors to support this eco-based SEA.

Strategic ecological assessment included the following stages: the scope for analysis, the prediction of future change, the alternative consideration, and the control approach. These can be described as follows:

*Kinetic Modeling for Environmental Systems*

Relationships between landscape pattern and ecological structure have been widely recognized. Land use change brings to the kinetic development of ecological change. It directly concerns the habitat which is the determining factor for ecosys-

The impacts on ecological mechanism are different depending on the purpose. It may be considered in the form of various energy and nutrient cycles and the benefits to humans such as food production or waste treatment system. The ecological mechanism was classified into five categories, including regulation function, habitat function, production function, information function, and carrier function [38]. Any habitat change as one of kinetic development within the ecosystem has an effect on living organisms. Among them, bird is the sensitive organism and detects a change of habitat for us to consider a carrying capacity in the ecosystem. Many researches insisted the impacts of land use change on bird species. The examples are followed. The patterns of habitat change had a significant impact on migratory birds [39]. The study in the twin cities of Minnesota, USA, found different responses of bird community among the rural, the suburb, and the conservative habitats [40]. The research regarding the distance from urban habitat and the road corridor to bird index insisted that urban habitat had not only an effect on the number of birds but also on the species abundance, especially local species [41]. In this research, buffer zone was recommended, at least 400 m from urban area and 300 m from the road. The study at the Island of Damar, the Eastern Indonesia, found the disappearance of bird species due to the expansion of small-scale agriculture. The comparing change of bird group between 1890 and 2001 found the difference of the number for fruit-eating birds and insectivorous birds in different habitat forests [42]. Habitat changes were likely to result in the decline of habitat quality for birds. Such effects occurred especially with birds that consume insects and fruits. This study also provided the characteristics of habitat change. The obvious change from the original forest that affected the new-generation forest was the loss of leaf shade covering, reducing tree height and changing flora types from trees to grass. These factors had significantly resulted in the declining number of fruit-eating birds. The major consequences were the loss and declining number of wild birds. On contrary, the increasing number of birds with opposite behavior, including meadow bird, was

Ecological principles can be applied to manage the landscape as the study in agricultural areas by determining the yield of rice and habitat conservation in the lowlands [43]. Civic engagement was recommended as the essential tool for the resolution of sustainability because eco-civic region can help to understand local people, together with the boundaries of biophysical framework within the actual

The relationships of land use and ecology, as reviewed, are closely concerned for both the cause and the effect within each other. The interaction is useful for environmental management based on the carrying capacity of the area. These lead to identify the objectives, the targets, and the indicators to fulfill the development

The case study to support the development of conceptual model for eco-based SEA considered the consequence of mega project and the kinetic development of the surrounding area. Three approaches, including environmental assessment, land use,

**2.3 Ecological approach**

common at the same time.

of conceptual model for eco-based SEA.

environment [44].

**3. Case study**

tem component.

**72**


**75**

*Development of Conceptual Model for Eco-Based Strategic Environmental Assessment*


The expansion of housing projects had been rapidly increased in the years 1981, 1987, 1996, 2002, and 2006. The increase (%) was:

According to the results, housing project after the year 2002, in which the airport initially operated, was sharply increased. Only 13% of these housing projects were required EIA, according to the Thai's EIA legislation. Significantly, 4.5% of EIA housing projects

Regarding the condition of the Town and Urban Planning, it was




The pattern of land use change was the main factor. Originally, paddy fields were dominant in the area. After the airport development, the pattern of land use change can be divided into two groups, as follows:



The highest values of ecological diversity were found in paddy fields. Local species were significantly changed, especially in the


(1) Paddy fields to fish farms and to urban area (2) Paddy fields to wilderness and to urban development These affect the change of local species including:

farms and fish farms to urban area

abundance index, and similarity index

stage from paddy fields to fish farms

permanent local birds

especially the area around airport development

Prawet 4.39, 8.27, 9.66, 13.66, and 22.15 Ladkrabang 0.31, 1.59, 4.03, 5.18, and 8.97 Bangpli 0.42, 1.32, 3.69, 5.08, and 8.95 Bangsauthong 0, 0.75, 1.01, 1.29, and 1.91

conducted monitoring performance

found that:

dwelling stipulated area

enforce not 10% exceeding

population increase

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81621*

**Study approaches Results**

Land use change was done by GIS layer interpretation of the study area during the year before (1994) and after (2002) airport project

Land use was grouped into three

*Land use;* the pattern of significant project change (housing project) The expansion of housing projects was conducted by satellite interpretation in the years 1981, 1987, 1996, 2002, and 2006 and overlaid with the map of the Town

*Ecological approach;* the change of

The study was conducted through: (1) Questionnaire interview to local

(2) Bird count surveys in the

*The stages and results of the case study.*

designed land use

local species

people

*Sources: [48–50]*

**Table 1.**

development

types, including: (1) Development area (2) Semi-developed area (3) Conservative area

and Urban Planning



*Sources: [48–50]*

#### **Table 1.**

*The stages and results of the case study.*

*Kinetic Modeling for Environmental Systems*

*Environmental assessment; the roles* 

Analysis of law and regulation of competent agencies regarding the contents of project control

*Environmental assessment; guidelines* 

Content analysis of EIA guidelines focusing on ecological issues,

*of competent agencies*

*quality*

including:

including: - Airport project - Housing project - Transportation project - Power plant project - Petroleum and oil pipeline

project

*quality*

projects

projects)


Review criteria were developed. The content in guidelines according to the setting criteria was scored through their quality

*Environmental assessment; EIS* 

Content analysis of ecological detailed in EISs, including: (1) Airport project and related

(2) Infrastructure projects (3) Other projects within study area The sets of review criteria, which are different from the guidelines were developed. The quality of EIS response to each review criterion was scored

*Environmental assessment; monitoring efficiency*

Two groups of development projects, including: (1) Project that required EIA (2) Project that did not require EIA (industrial projects) These are conducted by: (1) The content analysis of monitoring EISs (only for EIA

(2) The investigation of monitoring compliance by auditing the monitoring reports

(3) The consistence between project location and the Town and Urban Planning by overlay mapping

*Land use; overall study areas*

(1) General guideline (2) Project-specific guidelines

**Study approaches Results**

The environmental control mechanism of different agencies found some question regarding their purposes and collaboration

*Baseline study*: the specification of boundary of study, focusing on impact area, and method of ecological study was sufficient for the guidance of EIA study. However, general details were found for

*Impact assessment*: the guidance for impact coverage project life cycle was sufficient; however, the depth details for ecological

*Mitigation and monitoring measures*: the guidelines supported standard format for program presentation. Ecological aspect for program identification was presented only through airport project

The score values of EIA guideline content, according to the parts of EIA study, from the highest to the lowest quality were monitoring, mitigation, impact assessment, and baseline study,

Ecological details were mostly presented in the stage of baseline study, followed by impact assessment Negligible details were found in mitigation and monitoring. As to their quality, the linkage of ecological factors in baseline detail was weak. In the following stages, impact assessment, the results of ecological baseline were scarcely considered to assess the impacts These bring to the unclear impact direction, especially ecological mechanism within the study area. Ecological mitigation and monitoring identification were not

In comparison, projects that required EIA were predominant, as



of the linkage of monitoring performance

that did not require EIA

concurred with the result of impact assessment

data analysis and presentation

impact analysis were inadequate

guideline

accordingly

follows:

**74**

## **Step 1**: **Determining the scope of strategic environmental analysis**

Since there are many conditions to analyze eco-based SEA, the identification of aspects, targets, objectives, and indicators is important. The results of the case study were integrated with the SEA theory [46] to determine the relevant variables. Targets define issues that are likely the impact; objectives are the desired change that should be consistent with the target. Indicators are the variables that represent the direction of change (**Table 2**). These factors are important in considering basic environmental information to support conceptual approach.


**77**

**Table 3.**

*Development of Conceptual Model for Eco-Based Strategic Environmental Assessment*

Baseline data for the strategic level should not provide definite details, like the project EIA level [46]. From **Table 2**, the baseline data were established, following three main areas, including the change of land use, projects enforced by EIA, and local ecosystem. The identification of the conditions in such areas and the future trends in case of lack of any control mechanism were presented in **Table 3**. The limit of the integrity of the environmental database is the obstacles in some countries, like this case study. Therefore, the appropriate analysis corresponding to the area is necessary for the future trends of a specific area. The environmental trends are variable factors used as the baseline to determine any change of the indicators considered [46].

Alternative identification is crucial for SEA. The example provided in **Table 4** was the result from the case study. Alternative conditions in each area were differed,

**Purposes Limitations Future trends without control** 

**mechanism**

sufficient

competent agencies




the highest legal hierarchy

decline of green area itself

ecosystem in macro-level

ecological values





**Step 2: Future change without control mechanism**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81621*

**Step 3: Alternative consideration**

Land use - The development of mega projects

agriculture area

question

implementation

Ecological approach - Land use was an important

*Environmental baseline for the strategic level.*

Environmental Impact Assessment taking into account economic outcome was the first priority - The expansion of housing projects allocated in the areas that conflict with the Town and Urban Planning, especially in the conservation -agriculture area and rural-



factor for the development of infrastructure within the ecosystem

#### **Table 2.**

*The identification of targets, objectives, and indicators.*

*Development of Conceptual Model for Eco-Based Strategic Environmental Assessment DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81621*

### **Step 2: Future change without control mechanism**

Baseline data for the strategic level should not provide definite details, like the project EIA level [46]. From **Table 2**, the baseline data were established, following three main areas, including the change of land use, projects enforced by EIA, and local ecosystem. The identification of the conditions in such areas and the future trends in case of lack of any control mechanism were presented in **Table 3**. The limit of the integrity of the environmental database is the obstacles in some countries, like this case study. Therefore, the appropriate analysis corresponding to the area is necessary for the future trends of a specific area. The environmental trends are variable factors used as the baseline to determine any change of the indicators considered [46].

#### **Step 3: Alternative consideration**

*Kinetic Modeling for Environmental Systems*

Land use - Project expansion

Environmental Impact Assessment complied with the provision of the Town and Urban Planning Act - The consideration of ecological aspects in any development

environmental information to support conceptual approach.

projects


Maintaining biodiversity and local species within

the area

*The identification of targets, objectives, and indicators.*

**Purposes Targets Objectives Indicators**

**Step 1**: **Determining the scope of strategic environmental analysis**

Since there are many conditions to analyze eco-based SEA, the identification of aspects, targets, objectives, and indicators is important. The results of the case study were integrated with the SEA theory [46] to determine the relevant variables. Targets define issues that are likely the impact; objectives are the desired change that should be consistent with the target. Indicators are the variables that represent the direction of change (**Table 2**). These factors are important in considering basic

10%)

controlled

guidelines



examined



change


*Project that required EIA* The requirements are: - The guidance of ecological issues in EIA


*Project that did not require* 


The habitats for local species are preserved, with appropriate types and size

*EIA*

**76**

**Table 2.**

Ecological approach

Alternative identification is crucial for SEA. The example provided in **Table 4** was the result from the case study. Alternative conditions in each area were differed,


#### **Table 3.** *Environmental baseline for the strategic level.*


#### **Table4.**

*Kinetic conditions considered as alternatives.*

based on the multiple criteria analysis, which provided the score ranking for each factors. The alternative appropriateness in each area should take into account the nature of the development projects within the areas together with the kinetic conditions of the development. Alternative consideration based on existing constraints directly concerns the scope of activity frameworks under sustainable development.

#### **Step 4: Impact assessment**

Impact assessment includes impact prediction and evaluation. The methods used are varied depending on the appropriateness. The baseline in **Table 3** and the conditions of alternative in **Table 4** were assessed the impacts. The results of this stage provide the overall possibility of change. This stage is different from the assessment of EIA level which is the proactive assessment. As to the SEA level, the assessment is conducted after the operation of activities in order to find out their future trends.

#### **Step 5: Monitoring**

Monitoring of indicators specified is important for SEA in order to detect any environmental change resulting from activities considered for each area. The factors to identify should include:


**79**

**Figure 1.**

*Conceptual model of eco-based strategic environmental assessment.*

*Development of Conceptual Model for Eco-Based Strategic Environmental Assessment*

• The efficiency to identify and decide the priority of environmental conditions

**4. Conceptual model of eco-based strategic environmental assessment**

The relationship of the main factors affecting the environment in the area is presented. At policy and planning levels, legal framework (No. 1) sets the direction of activities at the program and project levels. The Town and Urban Planning (No. 2) is a key factor to scope any development activities in each area. The change of land use is caused by two parts. The first part is due to development projects (No. 4), projects that required EIA (No. 5) and projects that did not require EIA (No. 6). These projects require official monitoring mechanisms and the audit from the competent agencies. The second part is due to the other local activities (No. 7) such as the change in agricultural types within the green area. Land use change caused by project activities can be controlled by the Town and Urban Planning, while another is caused by economic

The aims of the SEA [46, 51, 52], focusing on specific ecological issues resulting from the case study, lead to the proposed conceptual model of the eco-based SEA in

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81621*

outcome and the unseen disaster.

**Figure 1**.

• The resilience for any unexpected conditions

• The capability to detect any change within the area

*Development of Conceptual Model for Eco-Based Strategic Environmental Assessment DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81621*


*Kinetic Modeling for Environmental Systems*

Prawet - Urbanization rate was high

**Step 4: Impact assessment**

*Kinetic conditions considered as alternatives.*

future trends.

**Table4.**

benefit

**Step 5: Monitoring**

• The policy support

tors to identify should include:

based on the multiple criteria analysis, which provided the score ranking for each factors. The alternative appropriateness in each area should take into account the nature of the development projects within the areas together with the kinetic conditions of the development. Alternative consideration based on existing constraints directly concerns the scope of activity frameworks under sustainable development.

**Study areas Kinetic conditions Factors to be considered as** 



encroached the industrial setting area and went over the limit of rural and agricultural



only few are required EIA - According to the Town and Urban Planning, residential areas are defined as more than 30%. This condition was the limiting factor for the ecological

considerations

Bangpli - The expansion of housing projects

Bangsauthong - The change of agriculture types was dominant

the low level

areas

Ladkrabang - The housing projects have been expanded in green belt area

require EIA is limitless

**appropriate alternatives**

EIA

concern

this area



The rural and agricultural conservation areas, which are the city's prosperity to the green area, are the priority to allow any the development projects



Impact assessment includes impact prediction and evaluation. The methods used are varied depending on the appropriateness. The baseline in **Table 3** and the conditions of alternative in **Table 4** were assessed the impacts. The results of this stage provide the overall possibility of change. This stage is different from the assessment of EIA level which is the proactive assessment. As to the SEA level, the assessment is conducted after the operation of activities in order to find out their

Monitoring of indicators specified is important for SEA in order to detect any environmental change resulting from activities considered for each area. The fac-

• The appropriateness of parameters selection in terms of the budget and its

• The coverage of environmental constraints within the area

• The capability to detect any change within the area

**78**

## **4. Conceptual model of eco-based strategic environmental assessment**

The aims of the SEA [46, 51, 52], focusing on specific ecological issues resulting from the case study, lead to the proposed conceptual model of the eco-based SEA in **Figure 1**.

The relationship of the main factors affecting the environment in the area is presented. At policy and planning levels, legal framework (No. 1) sets the direction of activities at the program and project levels. The Town and Urban Planning (No. 2) is a key factor to scope any development activities in each area. The change of land use is caused by two parts. The first part is due to development projects (No. 4), projects that required EIA (No. 5) and projects that did not require EIA (No. 6). These projects require official monitoring mechanisms and the audit from the competent agencies. The second part is due to the other local activities (No. 7) such as the change in agricultural types within the green area. Land use change caused by project activities can be controlled by the Town and Urban Planning, while another is caused by economic outcome and the unseen disaster.

**Figure 1.** *Conceptual model of eco-based strategic environmental assessment.*

Three aspects are raised from the conceptual model, including projects that required EIA and projects that did not require EIA, and the change of land use within green areas. These are discussed as follows.

*Projects that required EIA*: the main factors are the environmental impact study and environmental quality monitoring.

Ecological issues in EIA guidelines have a direct effect on the details in the EISs. The quality of data in one step will affect another. It seems that EIA is a satisfactory tool for identifying the adverse impact of projects and, consequently, monitoring the administrative procedures of government agencies. The environmental studies reported in an EIA are detailed and specific to the individual project. Furthermore, the prescriptions to reduce the impact that raised from a project are the mitigation and monitoring programs included in an EIS as project control mechanism.

The achievement of mitigation and monitoring depends on several factors including (1) the compliance by the project proponents. This is due to the details contained in the measures that encourage the performance and (2) the control by relevant agencies. This is depending on the legislation of the respective agency. It is essential that the regulations of the relevant agencies require the concurrence with the EIA legislation. A definition and allocation of roles and responsibilities to cover the requirements of follow-up activities among all key actors are required.

*Projects that did not require EIA*: the main factors are the Town and Urban Planning, project controlled by competent agencies and project expansion.

Monitoring performance of projects that did not require EIA depends on the requirements of competent agencies. The normal practice is that, for one type of project, only a particular suit of issue will be considered. In effect, these issues reflect the legal responsibilities of the agency based on past experience.

Another question concerns the expansion of projects that defined as non-severe impacts, especially housing project. The finding from the case study was that only 12% of the total required EIA and among 4.5% of these conducted monitoring performance. It seems that environmental control mechanism of these projects was too weak. The Town and Urban Planning is another tool to control; however, the unlimited expansion of housing projects was found in some restricted areas. These are crucial factors contributing to ecological change.

*The change of land use within green areas*: the change within green areas due to economic outcome is another hiding factor affecting ecological change. The factors causing these changes are difficult to control. It is a silent disaster that causes kinetic ecological change. The example of case study clearly showed that the change from paddy fields to fish farms affected species, habitat, and ecological mechanisms (No. 8), one of the sustainable approaches (No. 9).

To sum up, the relationships of eco-based SEA are depended on three components, including:


The main conceptual model has been expanded to sub-frameworks, focusing on development projects, in **Figure 2**. The main factors of this sub-model are the Town and Country Planning due to its enforcement to specify land use development within the area and the legal enforcement by competent authorities.

**81**

**Figure 2.**

*Development of Conceptual Model for Eco-Based Strategic Environmental Assessment*

The expansion of two main types of development projects, mentioned previously, directly affects land use change within the area. The characteristics of change can be divided into two groups, according to the compliance with the legal specification. *The case does not meet the requirements of the law*: the causes are followed. The first cause is avoidance, with emphasis on real estate development projects. Indeed, both housing projects and industrial projects are in this condition. However, the enforcement by control agencies is somewhat different. Industrial projects are controlled by Department of Industrial Works which has a strict control mechanism, whereas the unclear environmental control agency is put into housing projects. The second cause is unpremeditated which is mainly caused by the expansion of the project beyond the land use requirement specified in the Town and Urban Planning. *The case is in accordance with the requirements of the law*: there are two factors concerned. The first factor is the project location that meets the requirements of the Town and Urban Planning. However, negative effects cannot guarantee for this group without the effective monitoring mechanism. The results of the case study were found that the land use regulations affect the slowdown of new real estate development. It seems that urban expansion is somewhat beneficial for green area preservation. The second factor is the environmental impact monitoring of the projects. This is an important mechanism to control the environmental impact from project activities. The lesson was learned from the case study that only 22.67 and 20.52% of projects that required and did not require EIA, respectively, were performed.

Notably, in compliance group, the performance was inefficient.

Land use change directly effects on the appearance of ecological status. It is the crucial factor for the achievement of project activity control. Is it sustainable? For example, the agricultural changes directly affect kinetic change in species,

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81621*

*Sub-conceptual model of development project expansion.*

*Development of Conceptual Model for Eco-Based Strategic Environmental Assessment DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81621*

#### **Figure 2.**

*Kinetic Modeling for Environmental Systems*

and environmental quality monitoring.

control mechanism.

within green areas. These are discussed as follows.

Three aspects are raised from the conceptual model, including projects that required EIA and projects that did not require EIA, and the change of land use

*Projects that required EIA*: the main factors are the environmental impact study

Ecological issues in EIA guidelines have a direct effect on the details in the EISs. The quality of data in one step will affect another. It seems that EIA is a satisfactory tool for identifying the adverse impact of projects and, consequently, monitoring the administrative procedures of government agencies. The environmental studies reported in an EIA are detailed and specific to the individual project. Furthermore, the prescriptions to reduce the impact that raised from a project are the mitigation and monitoring programs included in an EIS as project

The achievement of mitigation and monitoring depends on several factors including (1) the compliance by the project proponents. This is due to the details contained in the measures that encourage the performance and (2) the control by relevant agencies. This is depending on the legislation of the respective agency. It is essential that the regulations of the relevant agencies require the concurrence with the EIA legislation. A definition and allocation of roles and responsibilities to cover the requirements of follow-up activities among all key actors are required. *Projects that did not require EIA*: the main factors are the Town and Urban Planning, project controlled by competent agencies and project expansion.

Monitoring performance of projects that did not require EIA depends on the requirements of competent agencies. The normal practice is that, for one type of project, only a particular suit of issue will be considered. In effect, these issues

Another question concerns the expansion of projects that defined as non-severe impacts, especially housing project. The finding from the case study was that only 12% of the total required EIA and among 4.5% of these conducted monitoring performance. It seems that environmental control mechanism of these projects was too weak. The Town and Urban Planning is another tool to control; however, the unlimited expansion of housing projects was found in some restricted areas. These

*The change of land use within green areas*: the change within green areas due to economic outcome is another hiding factor affecting ecological change. The factors causing these changes are difficult to control. It is a silent disaster that causes kinetic ecological change. The example of case study clearly showed that the change from paddy fields to fish farms affected species, habitat, and ecological mechanisms (No. 8),

To sum up, the relationships of eco-based SEA are depended on three compo-

(1) Land use: the main factor is No. 3, with relevant elements (Nos. 1, 2, 4, and 7). (2) Environmental assessment: the main factor is No. 4, with relevant elements

(3) Ecosystem: the main factor is No. 8, with inputs (Nos. 1–7) and output (No. 9). The main conceptual model has been expanded to sub-frameworks, focusing on development projects, in **Figure 2**. The main factors of this sub-model are the Town and Country Planning due to its enforcement to specify land use development

within the area and the legal enforcement by competent authorities.

reflect the legal responsibilities of the agency based on past experience.

are crucial factors contributing to ecological change.

one of the sustainable approaches (No. 9).

nents, including:

(Nos. 5 and 6).

**80**

*Sub-conceptual model of development project expansion.*

The expansion of two main types of development projects, mentioned previously, directly affects land use change within the area. The characteristics of change can be divided into two groups, according to the compliance with the legal specification.

*The case does not meet the requirements of the law*: the causes are followed. The first cause is avoidance, with emphasis on real estate development projects. Indeed, both housing projects and industrial projects are in this condition. However, the enforcement by control agencies is somewhat different. Industrial projects are controlled by Department of Industrial Works which has a strict control mechanism, whereas the unclear environmental control agency is put into housing projects. The second cause is unpremeditated which is mainly caused by the expansion of the project beyond the land use requirement specified in the Town and Urban Planning.

*The case is in accordance with the requirements of the law*: there are two factors concerned. The first factor is the project location that meets the requirements of the Town and Urban Planning. However, negative effects cannot guarantee for this group without the effective monitoring mechanism. The results of the case study were found that the land use regulations affect the slowdown of new real estate development. It seems that urban expansion is somewhat beneficial for green area preservation. The second factor is the environmental impact monitoring of the projects. This is an important mechanism to control the environmental impact from project activities. The lesson was learned from the case study that only 22.67 and 20.52% of projects that required and did not require EIA, respectively, were performed. Notably, in compliance group, the performance was inefficient.

Land use change directly effects on the appearance of ecological status. It is the crucial factor for the achievement of project activity control. Is it sustainable? For example, the agricultural changes directly affect kinetic change in species,

confirmed by the case study result. This is beyond the control of the Town and Urban Planning since the activity continues to be classified as green! But issues need to be realized how these areas are not being compromised by the legal enforcement from the activities of some development projects. The study was found that green belt area was affected by urban expansion, with more than 10% as defined in the Town and Urban Planning. Therefore, the expansion of development projects should be concerned and rigorous by the relevant agencies.

## **5. The approach for ecological fulfillment**

Integrating ecological issues into the environmental impact study (**Table 5**) was crucial to achieve the model setting. It could be channeled into projects that are


**83**

*Development of Conceptual Model for Eco-Based Strategic Environmental Assessment*

subject to EIA through the mechanism of SEA. The importance of EIA guidelines is a fundamental tool in studying the ecological impact. The accuracy and appropriateness of baseline data are prominent. Data presentation should be appropriate, not too short or too long to identify their subsequent impacts. Biodiversity is firstly considered for ecological information in order to understand the overall ecological pattern within the area. The composition of the ecological level should be of great importance, such as the indicators species, the relationships between local and regional factors, the species of habitats [40, 53], the habitat loss, and the change of species distribution [54–56]. Quantitative approach is the possibility to integrate ecological science in the environmental impact study by the consideration of the

In the process of EIA study, the impact of project activities to any kinetic habitat change should be highlighted because it is the main cause to the change of ecosystem composition, especially the change to species index [56, 57]. Ecological impact study should be conducted based on cognitive theoretical knowledge [58]. Drawing these theories together with the details of the project is very important and that is often overlooked. Good ecological baselines together with the minimal error of ecological impact study directly satisfy mitigation and monitoring measures. The reflect mitigation and monitoring can be examined through the possibilities of biodiversity change due to project activities. The concern agencies are crucial to enforce the project implementation as a result of environmental impact studies.

Eco-based SEA model here was developed from the case study derived from mega project development, which both direct and indirect effects on complex conditions, finally, to ecosystem which is one of the key indicators in sustainable development. When each issue was pinpointed, the main cause of impacts within the area was not only from the established mega project but also from the change of continuous activities. The kinetic changes due to development projects, themselves, and the kinetic changes due to land use pattern in the same group, particularly the change within agricultural areas from paddy fields to fish farms, were included. From the three dimensions of model, these were EIA, land use, and ecology to support the setting purpose focusing on ecological issues. The integration of existing strategies and the results of the case study could be adapted for the appropriateness of the area. Ecological outcomes were considered as a result of activities within such area and the status of the area to support any activities. The conceptual model clearly illustrates in three cognitive, in particular their relationships. All three variables were integrated into SEA in accordance with the limitations of each area,

In summary, the model illustrates the importance of considering environmental issues as a whole from their cause to the final output. That is the kinetic ecological change. It can answer the question of large-scale project development, which is a continuation of the macro-level. Is in line of the sustainable development approach?

This article is extracted from the project "The development of mechanism for strategic ecological environmental assessment; Suvarnabhumi Airport case study" which is funded by the Office of the Commission for Higher Education and the Thailand Research Fund. It is also partially supported by the Faculty of Science,

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81621*

variation of species, extent, and timing [39, 54].

**6. Conclusion**

focusing on the priority of ecosystem.

**Acknowledgements**

Silpakorn University.

#### **Table 5.**

*The integration of ecological issues in EIA study.*

*Development of Conceptual Model for Eco-Based Strategic Environmental Assessment DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81621*

subject to EIA through the mechanism of SEA. The importance of EIA guidelines is a fundamental tool in studying the ecological impact. The accuracy and appropriateness of baseline data are prominent. Data presentation should be appropriate, not too short or too long to identify their subsequent impacts. Biodiversity is firstly considered for ecological information in order to understand the overall ecological pattern within the area. The composition of the ecological level should be of great importance, such as the indicators species, the relationships between local and regional factors, the species of habitats [40, 53], the habitat loss, and the change of species distribution [54–56]. Quantitative approach is the possibility to integrate ecological science in the environmental impact study by the consideration of the variation of species, extent, and timing [39, 54].

In the process of EIA study, the impact of project activities to any kinetic habitat change should be highlighted because it is the main cause to the change of ecosystem composition, especially the change to species index [56, 57]. Ecological impact study should be conducted based on cognitive theoretical knowledge [58]. Drawing these theories together with the details of the project is very important and that is often overlooked. Good ecological baselines together with the minimal error of ecological impact study directly satisfy mitigation and monitoring measures. The reflect mitigation and monitoring can be examined through the possibilities of biodiversity change due to project activities. The concern agencies are crucial to enforce the project implementation as a result of environmental impact studies.

## **6. Conclusion**

*Kinetic Modeling for Environmental Systems*

confirmed by the case study result. This is beyond the control of the Town and Urban Planning since the activity continues to be classified as green! But issues need to be realized how these areas are not being compromised by the legal enforcement from the activities of some development projects. The study was found that green belt area was affected by urban expansion, with more than 10% as defined in the Town and Urban Planning. Therefore, the expansion of development projects

Integrating ecological issues into the environmental impact study (**Table 5**) was crucial to achieve the model setting. It could be channeled into projects that are

**Steps The integration of ecological issues The enhancement of relationship** 











and the features of their location

at all steps of impact study

feasibility of the impacts

and location

assessment is required

based on clear references

impacts

*The integration of ecological issues in EIA study.*

ecological baseline

and period of impact possibility - The formal guidance should provide the clarification of the biodiversity and the minimum requirement for the direction of EIA study - A comprehensive study of each ecological level for such issue should be based on project details

**between EA guidelines and EISs**




project implementation

identification




assessment

emphasized


should be concerned and rigorous by the relevant agencies.

**5. The approach for ecological fulfillment**

Ecological level

Ecological baseline

Ecological assessment

Ecological mitigation and monitoring

**82**

**Table 5.**

Eco-based SEA model here was developed from the case study derived from mega project development, which both direct and indirect effects on complex conditions, finally, to ecosystem which is one of the key indicators in sustainable development. When each issue was pinpointed, the main cause of impacts within the area was not only from the established mega project but also from the change of continuous activities. The kinetic changes due to development projects, themselves, and the kinetic changes due to land use pattern in the same group, particularly the change within agricultural areas from paddy fields to fish farms, were included.

From the three dimensions of model, these were EIA, land use, and ecology to support the setting purpose focusing on ecological issues. The integration of existing strategies and the results of the case study could be adapted for the appropriateness of the area. Ecological outcomes were considered as a result of activities within such area and the status of the area to support any activities. The conceptual model clearly illustrates in three cognitive, in particular their relationships. All three variables were integrated into SEA in accordance with the limitations of each area, focusing on the priority of ecosystem.

In summary, the model illustrates the importance of considering environmental issues as a whole from their cause to the final output. That is the kinetic ecological change. It can answer the question of large-scale project development, which is a continuation of the macro-level. Is in line of the sustainable development approach?

### **Acknowledgements**

This article is extracted from the project "The development of mechanism for strategic ecological environmental assessment; Suvarnabhumi Airport case study" which is funded by the Office of the Commission for Higher Education and the Thailand Research Fund. It is also partially supported by the Faculty of Science, Silpakorn University.

## **Conflict of interest**

The author would like to declare that there are no conflicts of interest for the entirety of this text.

## **Author details**

Kanokporn Swangjang Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Science, Silpakorn University, Thailand

\*Address all correspondence to: swangjang\_k@su.ac.th

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**85**

*Development of Conceptual Model for Eco-Based Strategic Environmental Assessment*

Sadler B, Aschemann R, Dusík J, Fischer TB, Partidario M, Verheem R, editors. Handbook of Strategic Environmental Assessment. Oxford: Earthscan; 2011.

[9] Canter LW. Environmental Impact Assessment. Singapore: McGraw Hill;

Environmental follow-up to assessment and mitigation for construction in Alberta. In: Sadler B, editor. Proceeding of the Conference on Follow-up/Audit of EIA Results; October 1985; Banff

[11] McCallum DR. Environmental follow-up to federal projects: A national review. In: Sadler B, editor. Proceeding of the Conference on Follow-up/Audit of EIA Results; October 1985; Banff

[12] Said AM. The Practice of Post-Monitoring and Audit in Environmental Impact Assessment in Malaysia [Thesis]. United Kingdom: University of Wales,

[13] Culhane PJ. Post-EIS environmental auditing: A first step to making rational environmental assessment a reality. The Environmental Professional.

[14] Brew D, Lee N. Reviewing the quality donor agency environmental assessment guidelines. Project Appraisal. 1996;**11**:79-84. DOI: 10.1080/02688867.1996.9727022

[15] Domeney R. Project management and team operation in environmental impact assessment [thesis]. United Kingdom: University of Wales,

[16] Wood C. Assessing techniques of assessment: Post-development

[10] Exner KK, Nelson NK.

Centre. pp. 470-483

Centre. pp. 163-173

Aberystwyth; 1997

1993;**15**:66-75

Aberystwyth; 1996

pp. 338-355

1996. 374 p

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81621*

[1] Wathern P. An introduction guide to environmental impact assessment. In: Wathern P, editor. Environmental Impact Assessment: Theory and

Practice. London: Unwin Hyman; 1988.

[2] Dixon J, Therivel R. Managing cumulative impacts: Making it happen. In: Sadler B, Aschemann R, Dusík J, Fischer TB, Partidario M, Verheem R, editors. Handbook of Strategic Environmental Assessment. Oxford:

Earthscan; 2011. pp. 380-394

[3] Sadler B. Taking stock of SEA. In: Sadler B, Aschemann R, Dusík J, Fischer TB, Partidario M, Verheem R, editors. Handbook of Strategic Environmental Assessment. Oxford: Earthscan; 2011.

[4] World Bank. Strategic Environmental Assessment. 2013. Available from: www. worldbank.org/en/topic/environment/

[5] Branis M, Christopoulos S. Mandated monitoring of post-project impacts in the Czech EIA. Environmental Impact Assessment Review. 2005;**25**:227-238. DOI: 10.1016/j.eiar.2004.09.001

[6] Connelly S, Richardson T. Valuedriven SEA: Time for an environmental justice perspective. Environmental Impact Assessment Review. 2005;**25**:391-409. DOI: 10.1016/j.

[7] Oh K, Jeong Y, Lee D, Choi J.

system. Landscape and Urban

[8] Donnelly A, O'Mahony T. Development and application of environmental indicator in SEA. In:

landurbplan.2004.06.002

Determining development density using the urban carrying capacity assessment

Planning. 2005;**73**:1-15. DOI: 10.1016/j.

eiar.2004.09.002

brief/strategic-environmentalassessment [Accessed: 2018-09-11]

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pp. 1-20

*Development of Conceptual Model for Eco-Based Strategic Environmental Assessment DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81621*

## **References**

*Kinetic Modeling for Environmental Systems*

**Conflict of interest**

entirety of this text.

**84**

**Author details**

Thailand

Kanokporn Swangjang

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*Address all correspondence to: swangjang\_k@su.ac.th

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Science, Silpakorn University,

The author would like to declare that there are no conflicts of interest for the

[1] Wathern P. An introduction guide to environmental impact assessment. In: Wathern P, editor. Environmental Impact Assessment: Theory and Practice. London: Unwin Hyman; 1988. pp. 3-30

[2] Dixon J, Therivel R. Managing cumulative impacts: Making it happen. In: Sadler B, Aschemann R, Dusík J, Fischer TB, Partidario M, Verheem R, editors. Handbook of Strategic Environmental Assessment. Oxford: Earthscan; 2011. pp. 380-394

[3] Sadler B. Taking stock of SEA. In: Sadler B, Aschemann R, Dusík J, Fischer TB, Partidario M, Verheem R, editors. Handbook of Strategic Environmental Assessment. Oxford: Earthscan; 2011. pp. 1-20

[4] World Bank. Strategic Environmental Assessment. 2013. Available from: www. worldbank.org/en/topic/environment/ brief/strategic-environmentalassessment [Accessed: 2018-09-11]

[5] Branis M, Christopoulos S. Mandated monitoring of post-project impacts in the Czech EIA. Environmental Impact Assessment Review. 2005;**25**:227-238. DOI: 10.1016/j.eiar.2004.09.001

[6] Connelly S, Richardson T. Valuedriven SEA: Time for an environmental justice perspective. Environmental Impact Assessment Review. 2005;**25**:391-409. DOI: 10.1016/j. eiar.2004.09.002

[7] Oh K, Jeong Y, Lee D, Choi J. Determining development density using the urban carrying capacity assessment system. Landscape and Urban Planning. 2005;**73**:1-15. DOI: 10.1016/j. landurbplan.2004.06.002

[8] Donnelly A, O'Mahony T. Development and application of environmental indicator in SEA. In: Sadler B, Aschemann R, Dusík J, Fischer TB, Partidario M, Verheem R, editors. Handbook of Strategic Environmental Assessment. Oxford: Earthscan; 2011. pp. 338-355

[9] Canter LW. Environmental Impact Assessment. Singapore: McGraw Hill; 1996. 374 p

[10] Exner KK, Nelson NK. Environmental follow-up to assessment and mitigation for construction in Alberta. In: Sadler B, editor. Proceeding of the Conference on Follow-up/Audit of EIA Results; October 1985; Banff Centre. pp. 470-483

[11] McCallum DR. Environmental follow-up to federal projects: A national review. In: Sadler B, editor. Proceeding of the Conference on Follow-up/Audit of EIA Results; October 1985; Banff Centre. pp. 163-173

[12] Said AM. The Practice of Post-Monitoring and Audit in Environmental Impact Assessment in Malaysia [Thesis]. United Kingdom: University of Wales, Aberystwyth; 1997

[13] Culhane PJ. Post-EIS environmental auditing: A first step to making rational environmental assessment a reality. The Environmental Professional. 1993;**15**:66-75

[14] Brew D, Lee N. Reviewing the quality donor agency environmental assessment guidelines. Project Appraisal. 1996;**11**:79-84. DOI: 10.1080/02688867.1996.9727022

[15] Domeney R. Project management and team operation in environmental impact assessment [thesis]. United Kingdom: University of Wales, Aberystwyth; 1996

[16] Wood C. Assessing techniques of assessment: Post-development

auditing of noise predictive schemas in environmental impact assessment. Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal. 1999;**17**(3):217-226. DOI: 10.3152/147154699781767828

[17] Hirji R, Ortolano L. EIA effectiveness and mechanisms of control: Case studies of water resources development in Kenya. International Journal of Water Resources Development. 1991;**7**(3):154-167. DOI: 10.1080/07900629108722508

[18] Wood C, Bailey J. Predominance and independence in environmental impact assessment: The western Australian model. Environmental Impact Assessment Review. 1994;**14**:37-59. DOI: 10.1016/0195-9255(94)90041-8

[19] Buckley R. Auditing the precision and accuracy of environmental impact assessment in Australia. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 1991;**18**:1-23

[20] Leu WS, Williams WP, Bark WA. Development of an environmental impact assessment evaluation method and its application: Taiwan case study. Environmental Impact Assessment Review. 1996;**16**:115-133. DOI: 10.1016/0195-9255(95)00107-7

[21] Ramjeawon T, Beedassy R. Evaluation of the EIA system on the Island of Mauritius and development of an environmental monitoring plan framework. Environmental Impact Assessment Review. 2004;**24**:537-549. DOI: 10.1016/j.eiar.2004.01.001

[22] Wathern P. Ecological impact assessment. In: Petts J, editor. Handbook of Environmental Impact Assessment. Oxford: Blackwell; 1999. pp. 327-346

[23] Joao E. How scale affects environmental impact assessment. Environmental Impact Assessment Review. 2002;**22**:289-310. DOI: 10.1016/ s0195-9255(02)00016-1

[24] Devuyst D, Hens L. Introducing and measuring sustainable development initiatives by local authorities in Canada and Flenders (Belgium). Environment, Development and Sustainability. 2000;**2**:81-105

[25] Scrase I, Sheate W. Integration and integrated approaches to assessment: What do they mean for the environment? Journal of Environmental Policy and Planning. 2002;**4**(4):275-294. DOI: 10.1002/jepp.117

[26] Marsden S, Dovers S. Strategic Environmental Assessment in Australasia. Sydney: The Federation Press; 2002. 219 p

[27] Pope J, Annandale D, Morrison-Sauders A. Conceptualising sustainability assessment. Environmental Impact Assessment Review. 2004;**24**:595-616. DOI: 10.1016/j.eiar.2004.03.001

[28] United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP). Convention on Biological Diversity. Nairobi: UNEP; 1992

[29] Wagner M. Assessment of the environmental consequences of infill development [thesis]. Germany: Munich Technical University; 1992

[30] Pauliet S, Ennos R, Golding Y. Modeling the environmental impacts of urban land use and land cover change—A study in Merseyside, UK. Landscape and Urban Planning. 2005;**71**:295-310. DOI: 10.1016/j. landurbplan.2004.03.009

[31] Wu Q, Li HQ, Wang RS, Paulussen J, He J, Wang M, et al. Monitoring and prediction land use change in Beijing using remote sensing and GIS. Landscape and Urban Planning. 2006;**78**:322-333. DOI: 10.1016/j. landurbplan.2005.10.002

[32] Hara Y, Takeuchi K, Okubo S. Urbanization linked with past

**87**

*Development of Conceptual Model for Eco-Based Strategic Environmental Assessment*

approach to bird distribution changes in the North-Western Mediterranean. Biological Conservation. 2008;**141**:450- 459. DOI: 10.1016/j.biocon.2007.10.015

[40] Chapman AK, Reich BP. Land use and habitat gradients determine bird community diversity and abundance in suburban, rural and reserve landscape

Conservation. 2006;**135**:527-541. DOI:

Threshold distance to nearby cities and roads influence the bird community of a mosaic landscape. Biological Conservation. 2007;**40**:100-109. DOI:

of Minnesota, USA. Biological

10.1016/j.biocon.2006.10.050

10.1016/j.biocon.2007.07.029

[43] Musacchio LR, Coulson

RN. Landscape ecological planning process for wetland, waterfowl, and farmland conservation. Landscape and Urban Planning. 2001;**56**:125-147. DOI: 10.1016/s0169-2046(01)00175-x

[44] Brunckhorst D, Coop P, Reeve I. Eco-civic optimisation: A nested framework for planning and managing landscape. Landscape and Urban Planning. 2006;**75**:265-281. DOI: 10.1016/J.landurplan.2005.02.013

[45] Groot R. Function analysis and valuation as a tool to access land use conflicts in planning for sustainable, multifunctional landscape. Landscape and Urban Planning. 2006;**75**:175-186. DOI: 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2005.02.016

[46] Therivel R. Strategic Environmental

[47] Schmidt M, Storch H, Helbron H. SEA for agricultural programmes in

Assessment in Action. London:

Earthscan; 2004. 272 p

biocon.2007.08.022

[42] Trainor RC. Change in bird species composition on a remote and well-forested Wallacean Island, South-East Asia. Biological Conservation. 2007;**140**:373-385. DOI: 10.1016/j.

[41] Palomino D, Carrascal LM.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81621*

agricultural landuse patterns in the urban fringe of a Deltaic Asian Mega-City: A case study in Bangkok. Landscape and Urban Planning. 2005;**73**:16-28. DOI: 10.1016/j. landurbplan.2004.07.002

[33] Li F, Wang R, Paulussen J, Liu X. Comprehensive concept planning of urban greening based ecological principles: A case study in Beijing, China. Landscape and Urban Planning. 2005;**72**:325-336. DOI: 10.1016/j. landurbplan.2004.04.002

[34] Olsen LM, Dale VH, Foster T. Landscape patterns as indicators of ecological change at Fort Benning, Georgia, USA. Landscape and Urban Planning. 2007;**79**:137-149. DOI: 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2006.02.007

[35] Park M, Stenstrom MK. Classifying environmentally significant urban land uses with satellite imagery. Journal of Environmental Management. 2008;**86**:181-192. DOI: 10.1016/j.

[36] Opdam P, Steingrover E, Rooij SV. Ecological networks: A spatial concept for multi-actor planning of sustainable landscapes. Landscape and Urban Planning. 2006;**75**:322-332. DOI: 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2005.02.015

[37] Bryant MM. Urban landscape conservation and the role of ecological greenways at local and metropolitan scales. Landscape and Urban Planning.

2006;**76**:23-44. DOI: 10.1016/j. landurbplan.2004.09.029

[38] Guillermo AM, Macoun P.

[39] Sirami C, Lluis B, Burfield I, Fonderflick J, Martin JL. Is land abandonment having an impact on biodiversity? A meta-analytical

Guidelines for Applying Multi-Criteria Analysis to the Assessment of Criteria and Indicators. Jakarta: Centre for International Forest Research; 1999. 82 p

jenvman.2006.12.010

*Development of Conceptual Model for Eco-Based Strategic Environmental Assessment DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81621*

agricultural landuse patterns in the urban fringe of a Deltaic Asian Mega-City: A case study in Bangkok. Landscape and Urban Planning. 2005;**73**:16-28. DOI: 10.1016/j. landurbplan.2004.07.002

*Kinetic Modeling for Environmental Systems*

auditing of noise predictive schemas in environmental impact assessment. Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal. 1999;**17**(3):217-226. DOI: 10.3152/147154699781767828

[24] Devuyst D, Hens L. Introducing and measuring sustainable development initiatives by local authorities in Canada and Flenders (Belgium). Environment, Development and Sustainability.

[25] Scrase I, Sheate W. Integration and integrated approaches to

[26] Marsden S, Dovers S. Strategic Environmental Assessment in Australasia. Sydney: The Federation

[27] Pope J, Annandale D, Morrison-

Environmental Impact Assessment Review. 2004;**24**:595-616. DOI: 10.1016/j.eiar.2004.03.001

[28] United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP). Convention on Biological Diversity. Nairobi: UNEP; 1992

[29] Wagner M. Assessment of the environmental consequences of infill development [thesis]. Germany: Munich Technical University; 1992

[30] Pauliet S, Ennos R, Golding Y. Modeling the environmental impacts of urban land use and land cover change—A study in Merseyside, UK. Landscape and Urban Planning. 2005;**71**:295-310. DOI: 10.1016/j. landurbplan.2004.03.009

[31] Wu Q, Li HQ, Wang RS, Paulussen J, He J, Wang M, et al. Monitoring and prediction land use change in Beijing using remote sensing and GIS. Landscape and Urban Planning. 2006;**78**:322-333. DOI: 10.1016/j. landurbplan.2005.10.002

[32] Hara Y, Takeuchi K, Okubo S. Urbanization linked with past

Sauders A. Conceptualising sustainability assessment.

assessment: What do they mean for the environment? Journal of Environmental Policy and Planning. 2002;**4**(4):275-294.

2000;**2**:81-105

DOI: 10.1002/jepp.117

Press; 2002. 219 p

[17] Hirji R, Ortolano L. EIA effectiveness and mechanisms of control: Case studies of water resources development in Kenya. International

Journal of Water Resources

10.1080/07900629108722508

10.1016/0195-9255(94)90041-8

Monitoring and Assessment.

[21] Ramjeawon T, Beedassy R. Evaluation of the EIA system on the Island of Mauritius and development of an environmental monitoring plan framework. Environmental Impact Assessment Review. 2004;**24**:537-549. DOI: 10.1016/j.eiar.2004.01.001

[22] Wathern P. Ecological impact assessment. In: Petts J, editor. Handbook of Environmental Impact Assessment. Oxford: Blackwell; 1999. pp. 327-346

[23] Joao E. How scale affects environmental impact assessment. Environmental Impact Assessment Review. 2002;**22**:289-310. DOI: 10.1016/

s0195-9255(02)00016-1

1991;**18**:1-23

Development. 1991;**7**(3):154-167. DOI:

[18] Wood C, Bailey J. Predominance and independence in environmental impact assessment: The western Australian model. Environmental Impact

Assessment Review. 1994;**14**:37-59. DOI:

[19] Buckley R. Auditing the precision and accuracy of environmental impact assessment in Australia. Environmental

[20] Leu WS, Williams WP, Bark WA. Development of an environmental impact assessment evaluation method and its application: Taiwan case study. Environmental Impact Assessment Review. 1996;**16**:115-133. DOI: 10.1016/0195-9255(95)00107-7

**86**

[33] Li F, Wang R, Paulussen J, Liu X. Comprehensive concept planning of urban greening based ecological principles: A case study in Beijing, China. Landscape and Urban Planning. 2005;**72**:325-336. DOI: 10.1016/j. landurbplan.2004.04.002

[34] Olsen LM, Dale VH, Foster T. Landscape patterns as indicators of ecological change at Fort Benning, Georgia, USA. Landscape and Urban Planning. 2007;**79**:137-149. DOI: 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2006.02.007

[35] Park M, Stenstrom MK. Classifying environmentally significant urban land uses with satellite imagery. Journal of Environmental Management. 2008;**86**:181-192. DOI: 10.1016/j. jenvman.2006.12.010

[36] Opdam P, Steingrover E, Rooij SV. Ecological networks: A spatial concept for multi-actor planning of sustainable landscapes. Landscape and Urban Planning. 2006;**75**:322-332. DOI: 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2005.02.015

[37] Bryant MM. Urban landscape conservation and the role of ecological greenways at local and metropolitan scales. Landscape and Urban Planning. 2006;**76**:23-44. DOI: 10.1016/j. landurbplan.2004.09.029

[38] Guillermo AM, Macoun P. Guidelines for Applying Multi-Criteria Analysis to the Assessment of Criteria and Indicators. Jakarta: Centre for International Forest Research; 1999. 82 p

[39] Sirami C, Lluis B, Burfield I, Fonderflick J, Martin JL. Is land abandonment having an impact on biodiversity? A meta-analytical approach to bird distribution changes in the North-Western Mediterranean. Biological Conservation. 2008;**141**:450- 459. DOI: 10.1016/j.biocon.2007.10.015

[40] Chapman AK, Reich BP. Land use and habitat gradients determine bird community diversity and abundance in suburban, rural and reserve landscape of Minnesota, USA. Biological Conservation. 2006;**135**:527-541. DOI: 10.1016/j.biocon.2006.10.050

[41] Palomino D, Carrascal LM. Threshold distance to nearby cities and roads influence the bird community of a mosaic landscape. Biological Conservation. 2007;**40**:100-109. DOI: 10.1016/j.biocon.2007.07.029

[42] Trainor RC. Change in bird species composition on a remote and well-forested Wallacean Island, South-East Asia. Biological Conservation. 2007;**140**:373-385. DOI: 10.1016/j. biocon.2007.08.022

[43] Musacchio LR, Coulson RN. Landscape ecological planning process for wetland, waterfowl, and farmland conservation. Landscape and Urban Planning. 2001;**56**:125-147. DOI: 10.1016/s0169-2046(01)00175-x

[44] Brunckhorst D, Coop P, Reeve I. Eco-civic optimisation: A nested framework for planning and managing landscape. Landscape and Urban Planning. 2006;**75**:265-281. DOI: 10.1016/J.landurplan.2005.02.013

[45] Groot R. Function analysis and valuation as a tool to access land use conflicts in planning for sustainable, multifunctional landscape. Landscape and Urban Planning. 2006;**75**:175-186. DOI: 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2005.02.016

[46] Therivel R. Strategic Environmental Assessment in Action. London: Earthscan; 2004. 272 p

[47] Schmidt M, Storch H, Helbron H. SEA for agricultural programmes in

the EU. In: Schmidt M, Joao E, Albrecht E, editors. Implementation Strategic Environmental Assessment. Berlin: Springer; 2005. pp. 599-620

[48] Swangjang K, Iamaram V. Change of land use patterns in the area close to the airport development area and some implicating factors. Sustainability. 2011;**3**:1517-1530. DOI: 10.3390/ su3091517

[49] Swangjang K. Ecological impact behind mega project development. International Journal of Environmental Science and Development. 2015;**6**(8):620-624. DOI: 10.7763/ IJESD.2015.V6.669

[50] Swangjang K. Ecological Impact Assessment; Relationships of Environmental Impact Studies. Germany: Lambert; 2017. 71 p

[51] Sadler B, Verheem R. Country Status Reports on Environmental Impact Assessment: Results of an International Survey. Utrecht: EIA Commission; 1996

[52] Partidario MR. Strategic environmental assessment: Principles and potential. In: Petts J, editor. Handbook of Environmental Impact Assessment. Oxford: Blackwell; 1999. pp. 380-409

[53] Devictor V, Jiguet F. Community richness and stability in agricultural landscapes: The importance of surrounding habitats. Agriculture, Ecosystem & Environment. 2007;**120**:179-184. DOI: 10.1016/j. agee.2006.08.013

[54] Gontier M. Scale issue in the assessment of ecological impacts using a GIS-based habitat model—A case study for the Stockholm Region. Environmental Impact Assessment Review. 2007;**27**:440-459. DOI: 10.1016/j.eiar.2007.02.003

[55] Fuller RM, Devereux BJ, Gillings S, Hill A, Amable GS. Bird distributions relative to remotely sensed habitats in Great Britain: Towards a framework for national modeling. Journal of Environmental Management. 2007;**84**:586-605. DOI: 10.1016/j. jenvman.2006.07.001

[56] Mortberg UM, Balfors Knol WC. Landscape ecological assessment: A tool for integrating biodiversity issues in strategic environmental assessment. Journal of Environmental Management. 2007;**82**:457-470. DOI: 10.1016/j. jenvman.2006.01.005

[57] Thompson GG. Terrestrial vertebrate fauna surveys for the preparation of environmental impact assessments; how can we do it better? A Western Australian example. Environmental Impact Assessment Review. 2007;**27**:41-61. DOI: 10.1016/j. eiar.2006.08.001

[58] Hiddink JG, Jennings S, Kaiser MJ. Assessing and predicting the relative ecological impacts of disturbance on habitats with different sensitivities. Journal of Applied Ecology. 2007;**44**:405-413. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2664.2007.01274.x

*Kinetic Modeling for Environmental Systems*

the EU. In: Schmidt M, Joao E, Albrecht E, editors. Implementation Strategic Environmental Assessment. Berlin:

[55] Fuller RM, Devereux BJ, Gillings S, Hill A, Amable GS. Bird distributions relative to remotely sensed habitats in Great Britain: Towards a framework for national modeling. Journal of Environmental Management. 2007;**84**:586-605. DOI: 10.1016/j.

[56] Mortberg UM, Balfors Knol WC. Landscape ecological assessment: A tool for integrating biodiversity issues in strategic environmental assessment. Journal of Environmental Management.

2007;**82**:457-470. DOI: 10.1016/j.

[57] Thompson GG. Terrestrial vertebrate fauna surveys for the preparation of environmental impact assessments; how can we do it better? A Western Australian example. Environmental Impact Assessment Review. 2007;**27**:41-61. DOI: 10.1016/j.

[58] Hiddink JG, Jennings S, Kaiser MJ.

disturbance on habitats with different sensitivities. Journal of Applied Ecology. 2007;**44**:405-413. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2664.2007.01274.x

Assessing and predicting the relative ecological impacts of

jenvman.2006.07.001

jenvman.2006.01.005

eiar.2006.08.001

[48] Swangjang K, Iamaram V. Change of land use patterns in the area close to the airport development area and some implicating factors. Sustainability.

2011;**3**:1517-1530. DOI: 10.3390/

Science and Development. 2015;**6**(8):620-624. DOI: 10.7763/

[50] Swangjang K. Ecological Impact Assessment; Relationships of Environmental Impact Studies. Germany: Lambert; 2017. 71 p

[52] Partidario MR. Strategic

pp. 380-409

agee.2006.08.013

[51] Sadler B, Verheem R. Country Status Reports on Environmental Impact Assessment: Results of an International Survey. Utrecht: EIA Commission; 1996

environmental assessment: Principles and potential. In: Petts J, editor. Handbook of Environmental Impact Assessment. Oxford: Blackwell; 1999.

[53] Devictor V, Jiguet F. Community richness and stability in agricultural landscapes: The importance of surrounding habitats. Agriculture, Ecosystem & Environment. 2007;**120**:179-184. DOI: 10.1016/j.

[54] Gontier M. Scale issue in the assessment of ecological impacts using a GIS-based habitat model—A case study for the Stockholm Region. Environmental Impact Assessment Review. 2007;**27**:440-459. DOI: 10.1016/j.eiar.2007.02.003

IJESD.2015.V6.669

[49] Swangjang K. Ecological impact behind mega project development. International Journal of Environmental

su3091517

Springer; 2005. pp. 599-620

**88**

## *Edited by Rehab O. Abdel Rahman*

The continuous increase in human activities affects the environment in notable ways; these effects need to be monitored and controlled when appropriate to ensure the sustainability of our lives. Environmental pollution is one of the major problems associated with human activities as a result of routine and accidental releases. Currently, pollution prevention, control, and affected environment remediation receive great attention globally. This attention has led to a continuous increase in research efforts that aim to understand, simulate, and predict important processes that affect pollutant generation and migration. Optimization of chemical and physical reactions within different waste treatment technologies and remediation projects are the focus of many research projects worldwide. This book presents some kinetic models that could be used to support pollution prevention, control, and environmental assessments of human activities.

Published in London, UK © 2019 IntechOpen © wacomka / iStock

Kinetic Modeling for Environmental Systems

Kinetic Modeling for

Environmental Systems

*Edited by Rehab O. Abdel Rahman*