**6. Conclusion**

Since chronic infection with bacterial pathogens has been associated with adenocarcinoma, therefore, we believe that the management of M1/M2 imbalance is paramount for minimizing the risk of developing cancer by chronic and persistent infection of the lung, stomach, and cervix. This may be achieved by targeting major signaling pathways such as sphingolipids and Th2/Th17 responses which drive M2 phenotype and which are potentially involved in the development of cancer. In the light of the above, we propose that selective activation of M1 macrophages could improve existing antitumor immune therapies in both mouse and human models of tumors with special emphasis on gastric and lung tumors and inflammatory diseases like inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) which are responsible for global mortality.
