2.1 Solid waste management system in Ghana

Before 1985, incinerators were the technology used for handling waste in the urban centers of Ghana. This could not be sustained due to the lack of funds as a result of economic hardship in early 1980 and technical knowhow. In view of this by 1985 solid waste were dumped on all bola locations [39]. Thereafter a special department called the waste management department (WMD) was set up in the urban centers in 1985 to manage the waste in Ghana with financial and technical assistance from the German Agency for Technical Co-operation (GTZ). The first house to house collection started in Accra using animal drawn carts using donkeys in the high income residential areas. Waste collected was dumped into central containers. Using only 15 donkeys and 10 staff the carriage could collects 3–4 trips daily which covered 75–100 houses [39]. The GTZ project helped to improve the deteriorated waste management in Ghana. However their exit saw more deterioration in level of service quality and service coverage due to the fact that the public provision alone could not handle the growing urbanization of the towns and cities. This however calls for further decentralization to include the private initiative in solid waste management.

The waste companies provided house-to-house and communal services. The communal service was mostly provided in the lower middle income areas using central containers. Residents who patronize this kind of service disposed of their waste by taking it to a central containers site. This containers are lifted full of waste and dispose of at designated disposal sites [39]. Private Sector Initiative (PSI) started in Accra and Tema in the early 1990s and later extended to Kumasi in the mid-1990. Afterwards, this initiative was extended to Takoradi and Tamale in 2000 and 2002 respectively. There year 2004–2007 saw the inclusion of more private companies in to waste business all over Ghana. The companies in Accra and Tema increased to 18 and 6 respectively by 2006. As a result, contracts were open up for competition. The first competitive bidding for solid wastes took place in Kumasi in 2007 and later in Accra in year 2008 [39]. The rapid population growth in Ghana has resulted in increased waste generation in the country. The amount of solid waste generated per day in Accra was 750–800 tonnes in 1994 [40]; 1800 tonnes per day in 2004; 2000 tonnes per day in 2007 this figure increased to 2200 in 2010 [41].

The methods for solid waste disposal in Ghana are uncontrolled dumping of refuse, controlled dumping, sanitary land filling, composting, and incineration [42]. Open refuse dumps are most commonly located at the perimeter of major urban centers in open lots, wetland areas, or next to surface water sources. Open dumps are generally sited based on considerations of access to collection vehicles rather than hydrological or public health considerations. In rural areas and small towns, there are often no vehicles for collection hence uncontrolled dumping occurs within the built up areas with all its attendant health hazards and negative environmental impact [42]. Problems from landfills in Ghana include odor, insufficient covering material, flies and other vermin infestations and smoke from open fires. The increasing amount of waste received by these landfill make it necessary to find other disposal option since constructing new landfills may be difficult due to the scarcity of land, increase of land price and demand for a better disposal system. Effective solid waste therefore calls for a competent and responsible institutions as well as sound managerial system.

The Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development (MLGRD) is the institution responsible for waste management services at the national level. This institution formulates waste and sanitation policies and also provides oversight role to the assemblies and gives subsidies for the provision of SWM services. The Ministry supervises the activities of local Assemblies and passes order as required by law to the various Waste Management Departments of the local Assemblies who are directly responsible for effective solid waste management. As part of the decentralization process in Ghana, in 1988 the waste management functions became a sole responsibility of the Assemblies [43]. About 90% of the Assemblies budget is supported by the Central Government to carry out their obligations in the locality through the various departments. The WMD is responsible for all the waste collection, disposal and monitoring of all the activities of companies engaged by the Assemblies. On the legal and regulatory frameworks for effective solid waste management, the policy which regulates waste management in Ghana is primarily reflective of legislation enacted at the national level and decisions made in pertinent case law. The Central Government bestows local authority status, onto any town or city in accordance with Act 462 which come to replace the previous act enacted in 1988 [39]. In spite of this, the Government continues to exercise controls over the Metropolitan, Municipal, and District Assemblies (MMDAs). The Central Government usually gives directives that affect the Assemblies. The most important is the fact that, a considerable amount of the Assemblies revenue is a direct disbursement from the Central Government. This makes it very difficult for the assemblies to be free from government interference. However, the MMDAs have a constitutional mandate under the 1993 (Act 462) to effectively handle sanitation issue which includes solid-waste management and therefore needed to operate independently to benefit the people. This responsibility is farfetched due to lack of independence. The 1960 (Act 29) of the Criminal Code of Ghana, state in no uncertain terms that whoever places or permits to be placed, any refuse, or rubbish, or any offensive or otherwise unpleasant material, on any yard, street, enclosure, or open space, except for the reason that such a place has been designated by the Assembly for such intent and purpose commits an offense. The law requires individuals to take full responsibility for the streets, drains and space closer to their premises [39].

In addition, the legal regime in Ghana mandate the Assemblies as owners of all the waste generated in municipalities and as a result has the mandate to collect, recycles and discards solid waste. The National Building Regulations, The 1996 (LI 1630) which is the national building regulation stipulates that a building for residential, commercial, industrial, civic or cultural use shall have a facility for refuse disposal, a standardized dustbin and other receptacles approved by the Assembly in which all the waste generated shall be stored pending final collection by the trucks to final disposal site [39]. SWM in Ghana is greatly influenced by the Environmental Sanitation Policy of 2008. This policy is an update of the 1999 policy with the view to meet the prevailing development objectives and address the aspirations of the principal actors in the sector after 8 years of slow implementation with very little impact [10]. With reference to environmental sanitation, the policy requires the Assemblies to control environmental sanitation and check pollution in all forms [39]. The policies tend to reflect prevailing ideas on solid waste management and give an overall evaluation of the prevailing circumstance in the country. It further ensured private sector participation and the provision of 80% of SWM in all the assemblies [39]. The Ministry of Local Government is mandated to regulate the waste business. The regulation works to promote competition via legal restrictions and regulatory rules and controls concerning market entry and exit, the capacities of companies operating in the waste market, user charges and the service standards. The local assemblies are mandated to outsource solid waste collection to decentralized agents service by contracts and also embark on frequent monitoring and evaluation of the service quality provided by the companies and sanction any insubordination according to the dictate of the contract.

The policies and regulations and the contractual agreement that connect the assemblies with the companies are important factors that contribute to effective Decentralization and Solid Waste Management in Urbanizing Ghana… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81894

solid waste collection, treatment and disposal. These regulations include the Local Government Act, National Procurement Act, Local Governments By-law, Environmental Sanitation Policy, and other state conventions that provide rules for solid waste management. The Procurement Act [44] requires the Assemblies Tender Boards to use competitive bidding to select companies [39]. This call for appropriate mechanisms suitable for the local conditions from an environment, social and fiscal perspectives, and at the same time being more capable to be sustain over long period of time without reducing the resources it needs [45]. Based on this the conceptual framework of the study focuses on four key variables, namely: evolving practice of SWM, households' involvement for service sustainability, private company capacity and lastly, regulatory mechanisms and control for solid waste management in relation to service quality.
