**2. Einstein's equation**

The connection between energy and matter is represented by Albert Einstein's famous equation introduced as [10]:

$$\mathbf{E} = \mathbf{m} \cdot \mathbf{c}^2 \tag{1}$$

where E is the energy; m is the mass; c is the speed of light.

Albert Einstein was a theoretical physicist of Jewish ethnicity, which was born in Germany, stateless since 1896 and later Swiss citizen, in 1899. He immigrated in 1933 to the USA, being naturalized as an American citizen in 1940. He was a university professor at Berlin and Princeton, and he is the author of the theory of relativity and one of the brightest scientists of mankind. In 1921 he was awarded with the Nobel Prize in Physics.

The above relationship could be associated with the beginning of the universe and, at least on an empirical level, can support the theory of the appearance of matter in the universe, when after the original explosion (called the "Big Bang"), an enormous amount of energy was transformed into matter. This process can also be correlated with the so-called "information preservation" principle, which in a simplified way shows that evolutionary processes cannot create the information required to generate biological evolution. The law of information preservation was enunciated by biologist Peter Medawar in his work *The Limits of Science*, in 1984 [11].

Through various processes, the high amount of energy contained in the atoms (especially in the nuclei) can be released and used for various purposes, and as a result of these processes, the matter which is used as an "energy source" is significantly transformed.

Two of the most representative examples of these types of transformations are the production of energy by nuclear fission (the break of element nuclei), respectively, and by nuclear fusion (the recombination and joint of element nuclei).

Both processes are accompanied by matter conversions into high amounts of energy.

Fusion is even the energy source of the stars, of which category the Sun belongs.

Both the fission and the fusion are characterized by the breakage of some types of bonds, existing initially at the level of the nuclei and the construction of other types of bonds, in the new nuclei formed as a result of these processes.

It is mentioned that iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni) are the chemical elements which have the highest breaking energies of the nucleus. In other words, for these two elements, the greatest amount of energy must be consumed for breaking the nucleus. The nuclei of all other elements "break" more easily [12].

### **3. Einstein's equation and the nuclear fission**

Nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction or a process of radioactive decay, after which the atomic nucleus splits into lighter nuclei.

Usually, through the fission (breaking/disintegration) of nuclei heavier than iron, more energy than is necessary to maintain the cohesion of the newly formed (lighter) nuclei is released. Consequently, through the fission of "heavy" nuclei, energy can be obtained.

**67**

*Einstein's Equation in Nuclear and Solar Energy DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90574*

**Note**: For the fission of nuclei lighter than iron, in order to maintain the cohesion of the newly formed nuclei, more energy is required than can be released through "the break" of the initially existing nucleus. Therefore, for the fission of

*Scheme of the fission reaction of uranium in krypton and barium (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:*

Usually, the fission results in nuclei with close mass, the ratio of the masses of

Nuclear fission of heavy elements was discovered in 1938 by Lise Meitner, Otto

Modern fission, artificially produced, is usually initiated using a neutron that is

The energy released in fission reaction was calculated for the first time in [16]. **Figure 1** shows a scheme of the induced fission reaction to uranium, a reaction

○ The kinetic energy of the neutron absorbed by the U235 nucleus causes the formation of the U236 nucleus, which is unstable and fragment (fission) in

○ Following the reaction, in addition to Kr92 and Ba141, three neutrons, Γ (gamma) radiation (not shown in the figure), and a very large amount of

○ The presence of gamma radiation requires the protection of the nuclear reactor against the emission of radiation of this type, since they are harmful to life.

○ Instead of uranium, various plutonium isotopes can be used as fuel.

light nuclei, energy input from the outside is required.

the nuclei formed by fission being of maximum 2 or 3 [13].

Hahn, Fritz Strassmann, and Otto Robert Frisch [14, 15].

"embedded" in a nucleus and disrupts its balance.

used in nuclear power plants.

Kr92 and Ba141.

energy are obtained.

• **Comments**:

**Figure 1.**

*Nuclear\_fission.svg).*

*Einstein's Equation in Nuclear and Solar Energy DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90574*

**Figure 1.**

*Thermodynamics and Energy Engineering*

famous equation introduced as [10]:

with the Nobel Prize in Physics.

cantly transformed.

energy.

**2. Einstein's equation**

fusion, and solar energy through Einstein's equation.

where E is the energy; m is the mass; c is the speed of light.

The goal of the study is to investigate the connections between the fission,

The connection between energy and matter is represented by Albert Einstein's

Albert Einstein was a theoretical physicist of Jewish ethnicity, which was born in Germany, stateless since 1896 and later Swiss citizen, in 1899. He immigrated in 1933 to the USA, being naturalized as an American citizen in 1940. He was a university professor at Berlin and Princeton, and he is the author of the theory of relativity and one of the brightest scientists of mankind. In 1921 he was awarded

The above relationship could be associated with the beginning of the universe and, at least on an empirical level, can support the theory of the appearance of matter in the universe, when after the original explosion (called the "Big Bang"), an enormous amount of energy was transformed into matter. This process can also be correlated with the so-called "information preservation" principle, which in a simplified way shows that evolutionary processes cannot create the information required to generate biological evolution. The law of information preservation was enunciated

Through various processes, the high amount of energy contained in the atoms (especially in the nuclei) can be released and used for various purposes, and as a result of these processes, the matter which is used as an "energy source" is signifi-

Two of the most representative examples of these types of transformations are the production of energy by nuclear fission (the break of element nuclei), respectively, and by nuclear fusion (the recombination and joint of element nuclei). Both processes are accompanied by matter conversions into high amounts of

Fusion is even the energy source of the stars, of which category the Sun belongs. Both the fission and the fusion are characterized by the breakage of some types of bonds, existing initially at the level of the nuclei and the construction of other

It is mentioned that iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni) are the chemical elements which have the highest breaking energies of the nucleus. In other words, for these two elements, the greatest amount of energy must be consumed for breaking the nucleus.

Nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction or a process of radioactive decay, after which

Usually, through the fission (breaking/disintegration) of nuclei heavier than iron, more energy than is necessary to maintain the cohesion of the newly formed (lighter) nuclei is released. Consequently, through the fission of "heavy" nuclei,

by biologist Peter Medawar in his work *The Limits of Science*, in 1984 [11].

types of bonds, in the new nuclei formed as a result of these processes.

The nuclei of all other elements "break" more easily [12].

**3. Einstein's equation and the nuclear fission**

the atomic nucleus splits into lighter nuclei.

energy can be obtained.

E = m · c<sup>2</sup> (1)

**66**

*Scheme of the fission reaction of uranium in krypton and barium (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File: Nuclear\_fission.svg).*

**Note**: For the fission of nuclei lighter than iron, in order to maintain the cohesion of the newly formed nuclei, more energy is required than can be released through "the break" of the initially existing nucleus. Therefore, for the fission of light nuclei, energy input from the outside is required.

Usually, the fission results in nuclei with close mass, the ratio of the masses of the nuclei formed by fission being of maximum 2 or 3 [13].

Nuclear fission of heavy elements was discovered in 1938 by Lise Meitner, Otto Hahn, Fritz Strassmann, and Otto Robert Frisch [14, 15].

Modern fission, artificially produced, is usually initiated using a neutron that is "embedded" in a nucleus and disrupts its balance.

The energy released in fission reaction was calculated for the first time in [16].

**Figure 1** shows a scheme of the induced fission reaction to uranium, a reaction used in nuclear power plants.

#### • **Comments**:


The energy released in the fission reaction can be calculated with Einstein's Eq.

	- Electricity generation (in nuclear power plants).
	- Propulsion of ships and submarines.

**Figure 2** shows the scheme of a nuclear power plant.

The Romanian nuclear power plant from Cernavodă was designed with five reactors, of which only two are currently operating, each with a net power of ≈ 655 MW, respectively, and a total capacity of 706 MW. Currently, this plant provides approx. 18% of Romania's electricity demand.

The nuclear power plant from Cernavodă is CANDU type, a name derived from "Canada Deuterium Uranium." The reactor uses natural uranium (0.7% U235) as fuel, respectively, and heavy water (D2O) as neutron moderator and primary cooling agent. The notion of "neutron moderator" refers to the lagging of neutrons resulting from fission (thermal neutrons), in order to increase their efficiency in producing new fission reactions. CANDU reactor technology has been used in all nuclear power plants in Canada and in countries such as India, Pakistan, Argentina, South Korea, China, and Romania.

The scheme of the CANDU reactor is shown in **Figure 3**.

**Figure 4** shows the first nuclear-powered aircraft carrier, undertaken by fission. This is the USS Enterprise aircraft carrier, built in 1964, currently decommissioned (since December 1, 2012), which has remained the longest ship in the world (342 m) to date, followed by the 10 US aircraft carriers in the "Nimitz" class, manufactured between 1975 and 2009 (333 m).

#### **Figure 2.**

*Schematic diagram of a nuclear power plant (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nuclear\_power\_plantpressurized\_water\_reactor-PWR.png). 1, reactor block; 2, cooling tower; 3, reactor; 4, control rods (fission inhibitor); 5, pressurized tank for the primary coolant; 6, steam generator; 7, fuel bars; 8, turbines; 9, electric generator; 10, high voltage transformer; 11, condenser; 12, steam; 13, condensate; 14, cooling air; 15, hot air with high humidity; 16, water source; 17, cooling water outlet; 18, primary circuit (heavy water D2O in the case of natural/enriched uranium used as fuel); 19, secondary circuit (water H2O); 20, water vapor evacuated into the air; 21, recirculation pump.*

**69**

class began on November 8, 2005.

*Aircraft\_carriers\_USS\_Enterprise.jpg).*

• **Comments**:

**Figure 4.**

**Figure 3.**

*13, reactor block.*

*Einstein's Equation in Nuclear and Solar Energy DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90574*

Currently, it started the replacement of the carriers belonging to "Nimitz" class, with the carriers of the "Gerald R. Ford" class, or the "Ford" class, which have a length of 337 m. The construction of the first aircraft carrier belonging to the Ford

*USS Enterprise aircraft carrier, the first nuclear-powered ship (http://lanterloon.com/wp-content/uploads/*

*Scheme of the CANDU reactor (http://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fi*ş*ier:CANDU\_Reactor\_Schematic.svg). 1, fuel rods; 2, reactor shell; 3, control rods (fission inhibitors); 4, pressurized tank for primary coolant (D2O); 5, steam generator; 6, secondary circuit pump; 7, primary circuit pump (D2O); 8, nuclear fuel loading (replacement) system; 9, neutron moderator (D2O); 10, pressurized tubes; 11, steam; 12, condensate;* 

○ The name of the "Nimitz" class for the 10 operational aircraft carriers of the US Navy is used in honor of Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, commander of the Pacific fleet, for the US Navy during World War II. Admiral C.W. Nimitz was

the last five-star admiral (general) of the US Army.

*Einstein's Equation in Nuclear and Solar Energy DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90574*

#### **Figure 3.**

*Thermodynamics and Energy Engineering*

The most important applications of fission are:

• Propulsion of ships and submarines.

South Korea, China, and Romania.

manufactured between 1975 and 2009 (333 m).

• Electricity generation (in nuclear power plants).

**Figure 2** shows the scheme of a nuclear power plant.

The scheme of the CANDU reactor is shown in **Figure 3**.

vides approx. 18% of Romania's electricity demand.

E = Δm·c2

The energy released in the fission reaction can be calculated with Einstein's Eq.

The Romanian nuclear power plant from Cernavodă was designed with five reactors, of which only two are currently operating, each with a net power of ≈ 655 MW, respectively, and a total capacity of 706 MW. Currently, this plant pro-

The nuclear power plant from Cernavodă is CANDU type, a name derived from

"Canada Deuterium Uranium." The reactor uses natural uranium (0.7% U235) as fuel, respectively, and heavy water (D2O) as neutron moderator and primary cooling agent. The notion of "neutron moderator" refers to the lagging of neutrons resulting from fission (thermal neutrons), in order to increase their efficiency in producing new fission reactions. CANDU reactor technology has been used in all nuclear power plants in Canada and in countries such as India, Pakistan, Argentina,

**Figure 4** shows the first nuclear-powered aircraft carrier, undertaken by fission. This is the USS Enterprise aircraft carrier, built in 1964, currently decommissioned (since December 1, 2012), which has remained the longest ship in the world (342 m) to date, followed by the 10 US aircraft carriers in the "Nimitz" class,

*Schematic diagram of a nuclear power plant (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nuclear\_power\_plantpressurized\_water\_reactor-PWR.png). 1, reactor block; 2, cooling tower; 3, reactor; 4, control rods (fission inhibitor); 5, pressurized tank for the primary coolant; 6, steam generator; 7, fuel bars; 8, turbines; 9, electric generator; 10, high voltage transformer; 11, condenser; 12, steam; 13, condensate; 14, cooling air; 15, hot air with high humidity; 16, water source; 17, cooling water outlet; 18, primary circuit (heavy water D2O in the case of natural/enriched uranium used as fuel); 19, secondary circuit (water H2O); 20, water vapor evacuated into* 

, where Δm is the mass difference in the mass difference after the fission [17].

**68**

**Figure 2.**

*the air; 21, recirculation pump.*

*Scheme of the CANDU reactor (http://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fi*ş*ier:CANDU\_Reactor\_Schematic.svg). 1, fuel rods; 2, reactor shell; 3, control rods (fission inhibitors); 4, pressurized tank for primary coolant (D2O); 5, steam generator; 6, secondary circuit pump; 7, primary circuit pump (D2O); 8, nuclear fuel loading (replacement) system; 9, neutron moderator (D2O); 10, pressurized tubes; 11, steam; 12, condensate; 13, reactor block.*

#### **Figure 4.**

*USS Enterprise aircraft carrier, the first nuclear-powered ship (http://lanterloon.com/wp-content/uploads/ Aircraft\_carriers\_USS\_Enterprise.jpg).*

Currently, it started the replacement of the carriers belonging to "Nimitz" class, with the carriers of the "Gerald R. Ford" class, or the "Ford" class, which have a length of 337 m. The construction of the first aircraft carrier belonging to the Ford class began on November 8, 2005.

### • **Comments**:

○ The name of the "Nimitz" class for the 10 operational aircraft carriers of the US Navy is used in honor of Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, commander of the Pacific fleet, for the US Navy during World War II. Admiral C.W. Nimitz was the last five-star admiral (general) of the US Army.

**Figure 5.**

*Scheme of the nuclear propulsion system of ships and submarines (http://www.subadventures.net/ Sub\_04\_719\_files/image018.jpg).*


**Figure 5** presents the scheme of operation for the nuclear propulsion system of ships and submarines.
