**16. Exo-astrosociology on Mars**

Astrobiology and exobiology represent the physical and natural science approaches to the study and search for extraterrestrial life. While the distinctions and practices that separate these two fields are somewhat murky, one general expression that does so is as follows. Differences exist historically about distinguishing between astrobiology and exobiology, so a redefinition is provided here. Astrobiology seeks to find a second genesis of life within our own solar system while exobiology seeks to find it beyond our solar system, the latter of which has become more relevant with the increasing discovery of exoplanets and more recently exomoons. These are by far the most common approaches to the search for extraterrestrial life and they are specialized in the natural and physical sciences rather than the social sciences. Practically, astrobiology tends to be the overarching title for the search for all life.

Nevertheless, as with other issues, there are astrosociological implications involved with the search for extraterrestrial life. The social sciences have taken a back seat, historically, although things are changing and there were always exceptions to this general rule. For example, a NASA publication entitled "Workshop on the Societal Implications of Astrobiology" was published in 2001, which clearly focused on the importance of the social sciences and included social scientists [74]. This provided a bedrock for future off and on collaboration.

However, an academic field dedicated to the focus on the social-scientific implications of the search for extraterrestrial life was needed. "A new discipline dubbed 'astrosociology' has arisen in the past few years that addresses the societal impact of space exploration, including extraterrestrial life [75], p. 174." Thus, there are social

implications of astrobiology [76]. "The social and cultural implications of this [astrosociological] work make it too important to ignore. In fact, it is imperative that astrosociologists participate alongside their space-community counterparts to attain comprehensive knowledge; both for its own sake and for practical application should some type of reaction prove necessary [75], p. 175." This is the case on Mars or wherever a discovery is made.

*Exo-astrosociology*, which was first introduced by this author, is a recently created astrosociology subfield. It is defined as the study of extraterrestrially-related forms of astrosocial phenomena. It "involves how the very search for extraterrestrial life impacts humanity in a myriad of different ways" and "also involves how ongoing failure and potential success affects societies, cultures, social groups, subcultures, and individuals [77], p. 4." This subfield was finally introduced in order to create a community of like-minded social scientists and a way for astrobiologists to more easily collaborate with them. An exo = astrosociology literature will add a missing component in a more organized fashion than existed before its inception.

Mars is good place for conducting SETI and astrobiological research. Of course, life may well exist on the surface or subsurface of Mars and biosignatures likely exist. The concept of planetary protection, if carried out as conceptualized and described above also makes it possible to conduct research to discover extant and fossilized life. The search for life beyond Mars is also an improvement compared to Earth in some ways. The atmospheric volume is only one-percent of that of Earth's, which provides a good environment for surface-based telescopes when dust storms are not obscuring the view. It is also possible to place telescopes on the moons of Mars, Deimos and/or Phobos. There are several possibilities that require investigation.

Looking for a second genesis on Mars will be a priority for scientists. Where water exists, there could also exist Martian life. The existence of extremophiles on Earth consist of organisms that live in extreme environments such as "(1) in Mono Lake (a highly alkaline environment) (see **Figure 7**), (2) in Yellowstone's Sylvan Springs (sulfuric acid), (3) within caves deep under-ground in harsh conditions, (4) within Antarctic ice sheets (including Lake Vostok), and (5) thriving on highly radioactive control rods in nuclear power plants" [78, pp. 402-403]. Extremophiles on Earth provide optimism that similar extant or fossilized microbes can be discovered on Mars. In fact, the choice to live in lava tubes may bring about objections by astrobiologists and exo-astrosociologists due to the possibility of contaminating life and destroying fossils in these caves. Those searching for life are excited to explore potential nonhuman Martian ecosystems above the surface and below while protecting it from contamination and destruction to the extent possible.

As discussed, water is an important resource to sustain human life as well. Mining will be a priority for others. Water exists at the poles, but it also exists elsewhere at much lower latitudes (see **Figure 8** as an example) [79]. Drilling for water will occur. Putting in place the infrastructures to locate water and transfer it to habitat components is a messy enterprise. Ideally, settlements will be placed relatively close to sources of water. Thus, when humans finally live on Mars, planetary protection will become increasingly difficult, as we have witnessed on Earth when human communities encroach on previously pristine ecosystems. How will competing factions work out this clash of interests? It is important for astrosociologists to be there to study these types of dynamics and perhaps assist in resolving tensions.

### **17. Space archeology on Mars**

Space archeology is defined as the study of human-made items, or material culture, found in space environments (including on Earth) and their relationships

**167**

**Figure 8.**

**Figure 7.** *Mono Lake.*

*Astrosociology on Mars*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93309*

to human exploration, which includes efforts to preserve them as cultural heritage [80]. Interestingly, space archeology has only gained acceptance in the last decade or so according to Dr. Alice Gorman [81]. Dr. Gorman and other space archeologists focus on protecting artifacts on the Moon in orbit around the Earth, and material culture on Earth's surface including space debris. Examples include the Apollo 11 site and others visited by humans, rovers, and landers. The same arguments apply to protecting the heritage of sites on Mars as well, and wherever humans leave their material culture. Preserving history for generations represents a laudable goal.

*Artist concept of a glacier on Mars discovered in 2008. Photo credit: NASA/JPL.*

Beyond protection of potential life is that of the material culture, potential monuments, that rest on the Martian surface. These emissaries of humankind include the Viking landers, the Pathfinder lander and Sojourner rover, the Spirit and Opportunity rovers, the Phoenix Science Laboratory, the Curiosity rover (see **Figure 9**), and the InSight lander. Interestingly, the Spirit Rover ended operations on the north face of the Troy plateau in January of 2009. Crash sites could also be of value, as the debris

**Figure 7.** *Mono Lake.*

*Mars Exploration - A Step Forward*

or wherever a discovery is made.

implications of astrobiology [76]. "The social and cultural implications of this [astrosociological] work make it too important to ignore. In fact, it is imperative that astrosociologists participate alongside their space-community counterparts to attain comprehensive knowledge; both for its own sake and for practical application should some type of reaction prove necessary [75], p. 175." This is the case on Mars

component in a more organized fashion than existed before its inception.

Phobos. There are several possibilities that require investigation.

contamination and destruction to the extent possible.

**17. Space archeology on Mars**

*Exo-astrosociology*, which was first introduced by this author, is a recently created astrosociology subfield. It is defined as the study of extraterrestrially-related forms of astrosocial phenomena. It "involves how the very search for extraterrestrial life impacts humanity in a myriad of different ways" and "also involves how ongoing failure and potential success affects societies, cultures, social groups, subcultures, and individuals [77], p. 4." This subfield was finally introduced in order to create a community of like-minded social scientists and a way for astrobiologists to more easily collaborate with them. An exo = astrosociology literature will add a missing

Mars is good place for conducting SETI and astrobiological research. Of course, life may well exist on the surface or subsurface of Mars and biosignatures likely exist. The concept of planetary protection, if carried out as conceptualized and described above also makes it possible to conduct research to discover extant and fossilized life. The search for life beyond Mars is also an improvement compared to Earth in some ways. The atmospheric volume is only one-percent of that of Earth's, which provides a good environment for surface-based telescopes when dust storms are not obscuring the view. It is also possible to place telescopes on the moons of Mars, Deimos and/or

Looking for a second genesis on Mars will be a priority for scientists. Where water exists, there could also exist Martian life. The existence of extremophiles on Earth consist of organisms that live in extreme environments such as "(1) in Mono Lake (a highly alkaline environment) (see **Figure 7**), (2) in Yellowstone's Sylvan Springs (sulfuric acid), (3) within caves deep under-ground in harsh conditions, (4) within Antarctic ice sheets (including Lake Vostok), and (5) thriving on highly radioactive control rods in nuclear power plants" [78, pp. 402-403]. Extremophiles on Earth provide optimism that similar extant or fossilized microbes can be discovered on Mars. In fact, the choice to live in lava tubes may bring about objections by astrobiologists and exo-astrosociologists due to the possibility of contaminating life and destroying fossils in these caves. Those searching for life are excited to explore potential nonhuman Martian ecosystems above the surface and below while protecting it from

As discussed, water is an important resource to sustain human life as well. Mining will be a priority for others. Water exists at the poles, but it also exists elsewhere at much lower latitudes (see **Figure 8** as an example) [79]. Drilling for water will occur. Putting in place the infrastructures to locate water and transfer it to habitat components is a messy enterprise. Ideally, settlements will be placed relatively close to sources of water. Thus, when humans finally live on Mars, planetary protection will become increasingly difficult, as we have witnessed on Earth when human communities encroach on previously pristine ecosystems. How will competing factions work out this clash of interests? It is important for astrosociologists to be there to study these types of dynamics and perhaps assist in resolving tensions.

Space archeology is defined as the study of human-made items, or material culture, found in space environments (including on Earth) and their relationships

**166**

#### **Figure 8.**

*Artist concept of a glacier on Mars discovered in 2008. Photo credit: NASA/JPL.*

to human exploration, which includes efforts to preserve them as cultural heritage [80]. Interestingly, space archeology has only gained acceptance in the last decade or so according to Dr. Alice Gorman [81]. Dr. Gorman and other space archeologists focus on protecting artifacts on the Moon in orbit around the Earth, and material culture on Earth's surface including space debris. Examples include the Apollo 11 site and others visited by humans, rovers, and landers. The same arguments apply to protecting the heritage of sites on Mars as well, and wherever humans leave their material culture. Preserving history for generations represents a laudable goal.

Beyond protection of potential life is that of the material culture, potential monuments, that rest on the Martian surface. These emissaries of humankind include the Viking landers, the Pathfinder lander and Sojourner rover, the Spirit and Opportunity rovers, the Phoenix Science Laboratory, the Curiosity rover (see **Figure 9**), and the InSight lander. Interestingly, the Spirit Rover ended operations on the north face of the Troy plateau in January of 2009. Crash sites could also be of value, as the debris

**Figure 9.** *Curiosity snaps a belly selfie at Buckskin Mountain base drill site. Photo credit: NASA/JPL.*

may finally help determine causes of the failures. One example is the Mars Polar Lander. The Beagle 2 landed successfully and began some preliminary operations, but it shut down and failed to contact Earth. Protection of these historically significant items may seem like an obvious way to handle them, but history has shown that some individuals opt to grab pieces for souvenirs and others simply favor destroying them. Scientists may also abscond with pieces of rovers and other artifacts for analyses of various types. Destruction of artifacts, or at least serious damage to them, is possible or even probable without adequate protections and Martian laws in place.

Legal prohibitions may not allow direct access to heritage sites with some logical exceptions, but adherence to such laws may be unheeded by some settlers. As with other areas of social life, social and behavioral scientists need to study social, cultural, and behavioral patterns that can inform policy makers and law enforcement officials of violations. They can also help to design tourist venues assuming that they are practically accessible by settlers while also being protected. Study of this behavior would also be of value to exo-astrosociologists and therefore the Martian settlement.

### **18. Interplanetary relations**

It cannot be emphasized enough that settlers on Mars (or anywhere off the planet Earth) will adapt to their physical environment within the habitat. They will seek to protect themselves from health and safety risks that impinge on them from the larger environment beyond its walls such as radiation, an altered gravitational field, and the inability to breathe without a spacesuit on the Martian surface. This is because isolation and confinement alone will impact on both physiology and behavior [67]. These factors and several others will cause human populations to adapt to these physical factors, which will result in social forces that will inevitably modify the base culture set up during the planning stages on Earth and that have been modified during the voyage. For the settlement, social and cultural change will continue from the training on Earth to the landing on the Martian surface, and beyond that point [44].

A significant part of this process will alter the culture in ways that eventually cause residents to view themselves as members of the Martian settlement apart

**169**

*Astrosociology on Mars*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93309*

from their identities as humans from terrestrial societies such as the United States or Russia. A socialization process will develop in which a group mentality reinforces their Martian or specific settlement identity over time. For those who stay permanently, this process will occur due to individuals interacting with others around them

Dependence on Earth-based governments and private organizations for supplies can

rather than relying on past memories of their time before settling on Mars.

become very different than when the social system started.

case, behave in accordance with their own laws.

(2) a particular Martian settlement.

**19. Martian planetary defense**

take its toll as can difficulties during their interactions. Group cohesion among settlers will develop and increase over time, and ethnocentrism could well result in them thinking of themselves as "different." In such a situation, they will become part of their in-group and Earth dwellers will become the out-group, at least to some extent. At first, settlers will require assistance in many forms including food, water, and other supplies in order to survive. However, to the extent that they can fend for themselves over time and provide goods and services unique to Mars, they may be able to wean themselves off of their dependency from relying on Earth for at least *all* of their requirements. These processes may take quite a bit of time although we have seen these patterns on Earth in the development of nations, including their realignments and border changes. Changing cultural norms and values can result in dramatic changes of fundamentally held ideas and the resulting changes in behavior. Ideas can forge new social institutions and behavioral patterns of the larger population that can

Economically, humans have been used to transacting with other Earth-based partners. However, for settlers on Mars, Earth-to-Earth transactions for which they were familiar will have changed to an Earth-to-Mars relationship. In this scenario, the supply run from an Earth-based nation, corporation, or other entity to an extraterrestrial human settlement would change for both those on Earth and those on Mars. For settlers, to the extent that leaders of the Martian settlement perceive they are being mistreated in some ways, this can escalate the path toward separation of the settlement from all forms of Earth-based jurisdictions. They would, in this

The process of getting to a point in which this type of relationship between the two planets manifests is theoretically a long one. However, it can be accelerated to the extent that leaders evaluate the situation in a way that they feel being exploited. This becomes a shift to *interplanetary relations* – which is akin to the international relations found on Earth – that takes place between (1) Earth-based governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), corporations, and other entities, and

Planetary defense efforts have logically focused on protecting against possible strikes against Earth. Moreover, it has increased in seriousness over the last couple of decades. The B612 Foundation was founded in 2002 to provide a nongovernmental voice focusing on the need to protect Earth from asteroids and comets [82]. Other space advocacy organization such as The Planetary Society [83] and The National Space Society [84] also provide resources and efforts related to improving planetary defense resources and capabilities. NASA has been searching for near Earth Objects (NEOs) since 1998 when Congress first directed it "to find and track 90 percent of NEOs 1 kilometer or more in diameter within 10 years, as objects of this size would cause a global catastrophe [85]." The newly created Space Force is slated to take over the responsibility of finding and cataloging NEOs [86]. In addition to NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA) is also taking part in locating NEOs [87]. The search for threatening asteroids and comets is serious business to

#### *Astrosociology on Mars DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93309*

*Mars Exploration - A Step Forward*

may finally help determine causes of the failures. One example is the Mars Polar Lander. The Beagle 2 landed successfully and began some preliminary operations, but it shut down and failed to contact Earth. Protection of these historically significant items may seem like an obvious way to handle them, but history has shown that some individuals opt to grab pieces for souvenirs and others simply favor destroying them. Scientists may also abscond with pieces of rovers and other artifacts for analyses of various types. Destruction of artifacts, or at least serious damage to them, is possible

*Curiosity snaps a belly selfie at Buckskin Mountain base drill site. Photo credit: NASA/JPL.*

or even probable without adequate protections and Martian laws in place.

Legal prohibitions may not allow direct access to heritage sites with some logical exceptions, but adherence to such laws may be unheeded by some settlers. As with other areas of social life, social and behavioral scientists need to study social, cultural, and behavioral patterns that can inform policy makers and law enforcement officials of violations. They can also help to design tourist venues assuming that they are practically accessible by settlers while also being protected. Study of this behavior would also be of value to exo-astrosociologists and therefore the Martian settlement.

It cannot be emphasized enough that settlers on Mars (or anywhere off the planet Earth) will adapt to their physical environment within the habitat. They will seek to protect themselves from health and safety risks that impinge on them from the larger environment beyond its walls such as radiation, an altered gravitational field, and the inability to breathe without a spacesuit on the Martian surface. This is because isolation and confinement alone will impact on both physiology and behavior [67]. These factors and several others will cause human populations to adapt to these physical factors, which will result in social forces that will inevitably modify the base culture set up during the planning stages on Earth and that have been modified during the voyage. For the settlement, social and cultural change will continue from the training

on Earth to the landing on the Martian surface, and beyond that point [44].

A significant part of this process will alter the culture in ways that eventually cause residents to view themselves as members of the Martian settlement apart

**168**

**Figure 9.**

**18. Interplanetary relations**

from their identities as humans from terrestrial societies such as the United States or Russia. A socialization process will develop in which a group mentality reinforces their Martian or specific settlement identity over time. For those who stay permanently, this process will occur due to individuals interacting with others around them rather than relying on past memories of their time before settling on Mars.

Dependence on Earth-based governments and private organizations for supplies can take its toll as can difficulties during their interactions. Group cohesion among settlers will develop and increase over time, and ethnocentrism could well result in them thinking of themselves as "different." In such a situation, they will become part of their in-group and Earth dwellers will become the out-group, at least to some extent. At first, settlers will require assistance in many forms including food, water, and other supplies in order to survive. However, to the extent that they can fend for themselves over time and provide goods and services unique to Mars, they may be able to wean themselves off of their dependency from relying on Earth for at least *all* of their requirements.

These processes may take quite a bit of time although we have seen these patterns on Earth in the development of nations, including their realignments and border changes. Changing cultural norms and values can result in dramatic changes of fundamentally held ideas and the resulting changes in behavior. Ideas can forge new social institutions and behavioral patterns of the larger population that can become very different than when the social system started.

Economically, humans have been used to transacting with other Earth-based partners. However, for settlers on Mars, Earth-to-Earth transactions for which they were familiar will have changed to an Earth-to-Mars relationship. In this scenario, the supply run from an Earth-based nation, corporation, or other entity to an extraterrestrial human settlement would change for both those on Earth and those on Mars. For settlers, to the extent that leaders of the Martian settlement perceive they are being mistreated in some ways, this can escalate the path toward separation of the settlement from all forms of Earth-based jurisdictions. They would, in this case, behave in accordance with their own laws.

The process of getting to a point in which this type of relationship between the two planets manifests is theoretically a long one. However, it can be accelerated to the extent that leaders evaluate the situation in a way that they feel being exploited. This becomes a shift to *interplanetary relations* – which is akin to the international relations found on Earth – that takes place between (1) Earth-based governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), corporations, and other entities, and (2) a particular Martian settlement.
