**19. Martian planetary defense**

Planetary defense efforts have logically focused on protecting against possible strikes against Earth. Moreover, it has increased in seriousness over the last couple of decades. The B612 Foundation was founded in 2002 to provide a nongovernmental voice focusing on the need to protect Earth from asteroids and comets [82]. Other space advocacy organization such as The Planetary Society [83] and The National Space Society [84] also provide resources and efforts related to improving planetary defense resources and capabilities. NASA has been searching for near Earth Objects (NEOs) since 1998 when Congress first directed it "to find and track 90 percent of NEOs 1 kilometer or more in diameter within 10 years, as objects of this size would cause a global catastrophe [85]." The newly created Space Force is slated to take over the responsibility of finding and cataloging NEOs [86]. In addition to NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA) is also taking part in locating NEOs [87]. The search for threatening asteroids and comets is serious business to

which both public and private entities contribute. Recent activity to protect Earth from a catastrophic event demonstrates how important this issue has become.

If it is serious enough for terrestrial nations to take action, the prospects for other locations in our solar system are even more dire. Both cosmic bodies first to be settled, the Moon and Mars, are more susceptible to asteroid and comet fragment strikes than the Earth due to its much denser atmosphere. While the lunar atmosphere is negligible, the Martian atmosphere does exist though projectiles from space do not burn up as readily as is the case for Earth. Because the Martian atmosphere is so thin as discussed earlier, we know from spacecraft sent there that objects hit hard. "Even though the surface gravity on Mars is only 3.7 meters/sec (compared to 9.8 meters/sec on Earth), the thin atmosphere means that the average terminal velocity hits a nail-biting 1000 km/hour or so, compared to about 200 km/ hour back home [86]." While landing on Mars is difficult due to its thin atmosphere, as exemplified by spacecraft having to do a lot of work to shed speed, asteroids and comets do not need to "worry" about that although settlers sure need to worry about being hit at such great speeds (see **Figure 10**).

Thus, based on activities on Earth, the need to keep track of Near Mars Objects (NMOs) is perhaps of greater concern. Mars is a smaller planet, but its atmosphere is much less dense, so a direct strike would be more devastating for an object of the same size. It is important to put things in perspective, however. The chances of a cosmic object striking a settlement is very low. It would increase with a larger perimeter of settlement components, but it would still be very unlikely to occur. Nevertheless, the Martian surface is full of craters caused by strikes from space. Therefore, keeping watch wherever humans reside is a good idea. Earthlings do it from their home planet and aboard the International Space Station (ISS). Infrastructure to deal with possible comet or asteroid strikes would need to be constructed as part of the settlement. Telescopes orbiting Mars, perhaps on one or both of its moons, or in nearby space, would mimic what humans do, or will do, on Earth.

As on Earth, this authored has proposed that there are three main phases related to coping with the possibility of an asteroid or comet strike: (1) detection, (2) defense, and (3) survival [88] (see **Table 1** for details). The detection and defense components of the planetary defense strategy are quite obvious and they receive by far the most coverage by scientists the information media, social media, and entertainment outlets. A potential strike of Earth is much more

**171**

*Astrosociology on Mars*

**Table 1.**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93309*

scenario could be catastrophic.

**20. Conclusions**

knowledge currently exists.

a disastrous scenario is the optimal course of action.

rather than separately as they have too often in the past.

serious than a Martian threat due to the population differences although either

*Summaries of the three components of the planetary defense strategy (modified from Pass [88], p. 8).*

threat using whatever means are available.

Even though the threat is less likely to threaten a Martian settlement, the possibility still exists. What happens if the defense efforts fail? In such a case, if the population is endangered, the survival of the settlers becomes the priority. Moving people to a safer area is easier because the population is relatively small compared to Earth and the unpopulated areas are vast. The problem that does exist is that individuals would need to be suited up in order to survive outside. Rovers could provide much needed methods of escape. As on Earth, preplanning to better cope with such

(1) Detection This component of the strategy involves the detection of possible Mars-bound asteroids and comets in orbits and trajectories that threaten to collide with Mars. (2) Defense Once a threat is verified to be on a collision course with Mars and a potential threat to a

(3) Survival Should the second component fail on a partial or complete basis, this component involves moving people and vital resources (if possible) to safer places such as lava tubes.

Martian settlement, either directly or indirectly, this component involves eliminating the

Too many important astrosociological issues exist to cover in a single chapter, although many are found here, which has resulted in cursory coverage of some areas. It does demonstrate, however, how many issues require astrosociological research so much more astrosociological research is needed. This means that many more trained astrosociologists must exist to accomplish it. This will require a substantial increase in astrosociology education that will, in turn, result in an increase in related research. While an astrosociology course is being taught at Harvard University, it is imperative for astrosociological education to spread throughout academia in order to settle Mars successfully. ARI's "Astrosociology in the Classroom" program is important for a number of other reasons as well. This discussion about a hypothetical Mars settlement demonstrates the fact that too little

Thus, while it is true that no human has yet landed on the Martian surface, it is not too early to think about it and study these types of astrosociological issues because the underpinnings of planning for a Martian settlement already exist and they are becoming increasingly prevalent. The movement of lunar and Martian human exploration and permanent settlement has spread to the private sector with the advent of NewSpace companies and nonprofit organizations. Space advocacy groups proliferate. Progress in support of space exploration continues. In order to further this movement, more space professionals and students versed in both the physical and social sciences need to access their astrosociological imagination. They need to understand the true impact of astrosocial phenomena in their lives and in their societies. Only then will they better recognize the value of working together

Many complex issues are discussed in this chapter. Planning for all three stages (i.e., on Earth before launch, during the transit phase, and once arriving at Mars) represents a crucial approach that must involve all types of scientists and scholars who are relevant contributors to space exploration and living in isolated and confined

**Figure 10.** *Artist illustration of an object striking Mars/photo credit: Don Dixon.*


#### **Table 1.**

*Mars Exploration - A Step Forward*

about being hit at such great speeds (see **Figure 10**).

space, would mimic what humans do, or will do, on Earth.

*Artist illustration of an object striking Mars/photo credit: Don Dixon.*

which both public and private entities contribute. Recent activity to protect Earth from a catastrophic event demonstrates how important this issue has become. If it is serious enough for terrestrial nations to take action, the prospects for other locations in our solar system are even more dire. Both cosmic bodies first to be settled, the Moon and Mars, are more susceptible to asteroid and comet fragment strikes than the Earth due to its much denser atmosphere. While the lunar atmosphere is negligible, the Martian atmosphere does exist though projectiles from space do not burn up as readily as is the case for Earth. Because the Martian atmosphere is so thin as discussed earlier, we know from spacecraft sent there that objects hit hard. "Even though the surface gravity on Mars is only 3.7 meters/sec (compared to 9.8 meters/sec on Earth), the thin atmosphere means that the average terminal velocity hits a nail-biting 1000 km/hour or so, compared to about 200 km/ hour back home [86]." While landing on Mars is difficult due to its thin atmosphere, as exemplified by spacecraft having to do a lot of work to shed speed, asteroids and comets do not need to "worry" about that although settlers sure need to worry

Thus, based on activities on Earth, the need to keep track of Near Mars Objects (NMOs) is perhaps of greater concern. Mars is a smaller planet, but its atmosphere is much less dense, so a direct strike would be more devastating for an object of the same size. It is important to put things in perspective, however. The chances of a cosmic object striking a settlement is very low. It would increase with a larger perimeter of settlement components, but it would still be very unlikely to occur. Nevertheless, the Martian surface is full of craters caused by strikes from space. Therefore, keeping watch wherever humans reside is a good idea. Earthlings do it from their home planet and aboard the International Space Station (ISS). Infrastructure to deal with possible comet or asteroid strikes would need to be constructed as part of the settlement. Telescopes orbiting Mars, perhaps on one or both of its moons, or in nearby

As on Earth, this authored has proposed that there are three main phases related to coping with the possibility of an asteroid or comet strike: (1) detection, (2) defense, and (3) survival [88] (see **Table 1** for details). The detection and defense components of the planetary defense strategy are quite obvious and they receive by far the most coverage by scientists the information media, social media, and entertainment outlets. A potential strike of Earth is much more

**170**

**Figure 10.**

*Summaries of the three components of the planetary defense strategy (modified from Pass [88], p. 8).*

serious than a Martian threat due to the population differences although either scenario could be catastrophic.

Even though the threat is less likely to threaten a Martian settlement, the possibility still exists. What happens if the defense efforts fail? In such a case, if the population is endangered, the survival of the settlers becomes the priority. Moving people to a safer area is easier because the population is relatively small compared to Earth and the unpopulated areas are vast. The problem that does exist is that individuals would need to be suited up in order to survive outside. Rovers could provide much needed methods of escape. As on Earth, preplanning to better cope with such a disastrous scenario is the optimal course of action.

#### **20. Conclusions**

Too many important astrosociological issues exist to cover in a single chapter, although many are found here, which has resulted in cursory coverage of some areas. It does demonstrate, however, how many issues require astrosociological research so much more astrosociological research is needed. This means that many more trained astrosociologists must exist to accomplish it. This will require a substantial increase in astrosociology education that will, in turn, result in an increase in related research. While an astrosociology course is being taught at Harvard University, it is imperative for astrosociological education to spread throughout academia in order to settle Mars successfully. ARI's "Astrosociology in the Classroom" program is important for a number of other reasons as well. This discussion about a hypothetical Mars settlement demonstrates the fact that too little knowledge currently exists.

Thus, while it is true that no human has yet landed on the Martian surface, it is not too early to think about it and study these types of astrosociological issues because the underpinnings of planning for a Martian settlement already exist and they are becoming increasingly prevalent. The movement of lunar and Martian human exploration and permanent settlement has spread to the private sector with the advent of NewSpace companies and nonprofit organizations. Space advocacy groups proliferate. Progress in support of space exploration continues. In order to further this movement, more space professionals and students versed in both the physical and social sciences need to access their astrosociological imagination. They need to understand the true impact of astrosocial phenomena in their lives and in their societies. Only then will they better recognize the value of working together rather than separately as they have too often in the past.

Many complex issues are discussed in this chapter. Planning for all three stages (i.e., on Earth before launch, during the transit phase, and once arriving at Mars) represents a crucial approach that must involve all types of scientists and scholars who are relevant contributors to space exploration and living in isolated and confined spaces. There are both physical and social environments that involve architecture and art, cultural considerations, and the construction of social institutions beyond construction of spacecraft and habitat components. Deviance and other social problems will manifest on a continuing basis that will require astrosociological research and intervention. Other areas relevant to settling on Mars that are covered here include medical astrosociology, space law to Martian law, planetary protection, exo-astrosociology, space archeology, interplanetary relations, and Martian planetary defense.

All of these space-related social-scientific issues – astrosocial phenomena – reflect a type of inquiry that requires significantly greater attention by social scientists. The hope here is that these issues are brought to the forefront so that future Martian settlements are successfully constructed and that the social systems in which their citizens live can thrive beyond simple survival, whether they become realities in 10 years or further down the line. Otherwise, rejecting astrosociology on Mars will result in hardships and social problems that could have been avoided or at least greatly mitigated by astrosociologists.

The Astrosociology Research Institute exists to make astrosociology on Mars possible. As emphasized throughout this chapter, the settling of Mars involves many issues that transcend those covered by STEM disciplines and fields alone. Astrosocial phenomena include realities that focus on the human dimension, which goes beyond the concerns of physical and natural scientists. However, these individuals often make remarks about social, cultural, behavioral, and psychological issues. At the same time, most of them have not studied these types of issues in any great detail although it demonstrates the connection between the physical and social sciences. These types of scientists as well as humanities scholars and artists are needed because they are trained in these subjects. Together, when they collaborate, they can provide expertise from both branches of science to elicit insights that neither side alone can produce. As **Figure 11** illustrates, astrosociology is a multidisciplinary, collaborative scientific field, and convergence among all relevant disciplines and fields represents a major objective that is currently on the path to significant realization.

It is unwise for planners of a Martian settlement to move forward without socialscientific input, if individuals visit the settlement as tourists and especially if they commit to staying permanently. There are too many statuses and roles that need to depend on one another, which means that planners must focus on the intricacies

**173**

**Thanks**

*Astrosociology on Mars*

extent in physical systems.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93309*

life in Martian settlements and beyond.

decided to found astrosociology in 2004.

involving constructing a functional social system—especially as its population grows—just as the greatest attention is traditionally paid to the construction of physical assets such as rockets and the habitats and their systems. Like the engineering systems in a spacecraft, for example, a Martian city or smaller settlement, possesses its own intricate systems in the form of human relationships. The latter is more difficult to plan for and keep functioning in a positive way because the components, in this case humans, keep changing unlike what occurs to the same

So, while rocket science can get people to Mars and engineering can keep the habitat functioning, it cannot ensure societal success within the habitat. The crux of the matter boils down to one question. What will happen to human life if astrosociology fails to get to Mars? Without a semblance of social order and cultural consistency, rocket scientists or mathematicians can do very little to construct a stable Martian society. Both branches of science must work together. Only cooperation and collaboration between those in both branches can result in a successful outcome on a sustainable basis. Physical and social systems must work together, as they are complementary, and that requires physical and social scientists to work together. This chapter has focused on some of the major issues relating to Martian settlements, and perhaps some of them are not frequently discussed as part of this larger theme, but it will be the first location to be settled beyond the cislunar environment and it is important to expand our astrosociological imagination beyond what is common. Moreover, the difficulties of humans seeking to settle in other space environments will only become more pronounced the farther away from Earth that they migrate. Social life will become increasingly difficult in a number of social, cultural, and psychological dimensions. If human settlements can successfully transform themselves into well-functioning space societies, they will provide those who migrate beyond Mars with invaluable lessons of survival. Additionally, the social problems and failures that become documented will also provide these intrepid settlers with lessons of what to avoid if possible. Thus, it is important for astrosociologists to be among the settlers in order to monitor, document, and support social

It is not logical to exclude those trained in the social sciences. They are important on Earth, so why would they be less so on a planet inhospitable to human life, which challenge settlers socially, culturally, and psychologically? They are important wherever humans reside, whether here on Earth or beyond. Astrosociology on Mars makes logical sense because astrosociology on Earth is also invaluable to human societies and their citizens because they offer complementary insights to those in the physical and natural sciences who traditionally study space settlement issues.

I would like to thank two late individuals who inspired me, Dr. Allen M. Tough (1936–2012) and Dr. Albert A. Harrison (1940–2015), as a reminder to all those who support astrosociology. Allen Tough was a futurist and SETI scholar who mentioned the term "astrosociology" as a possible new social science field in an article that prompted me to found the field immediately after reading it [26]. I met him one time in person at a conference and he encouraged me to continue my efforts. Albert A. Harrison was a social psychologist who I met online initially after reading one of his books [27]. He became a friend and the first advisor to The Astrosociology Research Institute. He attended several conferences with me and we cowrote a few publications. His early inspiration in 2005 helped me greatly to carry on when things were not always easy. These two individuals inspired me the most when I

**Figure 11.** *Astrosociology is a multidisciplinary academic field.*

#### *Astrosociology on Mars DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93309*

*Mars Exploration - A Step Forward*

least greatly mitigated by astrosociologists.

spaces. There are both physical and social environments that involve architecture and art, cultural considerations, and the construction of social institutions beyond construction of spacecraft and habitat components. Deviance and other social problems will manifest on a continuing basis that will require astrosociological research and intervention. Other areas relevant to settling on Mars that are covered here include medical astrosociology, space law to Martian law, planetary protection, exo-astrosociology, space archeology, interplanetary relations, and Martian planetary defense. All of these space-related social-scientific issues – astrosocial phenomena – reflect a type of inquiry that requires significantly greater attention by social scientists. The hope here is that these issues are brought to the forefront so that future Martian settlements are successfully constructed and that the social systems in which their citizens live can thrive beyond simple survival, whether they become realities in 10 years or further down the line. Otherwise, rejecting astrosociology on Mars will result in hardships and social problems that could have been avoided or at

The Astrosociology Research Institute exists to make astrosociology on Mars possible. As emphasized throughout this chapter, the settling of Mars involves many issues that transcend those covered by STEM disciplines and fields alone. Astrosocial phenomena include realities that focus on the human dimension, which goes beyond the concerns of physical and natural scientists. However, these individuals often make remarks about social, cultural, behavioral, and psychological issues. At the same time, most of them have not studied these types of issues in any great detail although it demonstrates the connection between the physical and social sciences. These types of scientists as well as humanities scholars and artists are needed because they are trained in these subjects. Together, when they collaborate, they can provide expertise from both branches of science to elicit insights that neither side alone can produce. As **Figure 11** illustrates, astrosociology is a multidisciplinary, collaborative scientific field, and convergence among all relevant disciplines and fields represents a major objective that is currently on the path to significant realization. It is unwise for planners of a Martian settlement to move forward without socialscientific input, if individuals visit the settlement as tourists and especially if they commit to staying permanently. There are too many statuses and roles that need to depend on one another, which means that planners must focus on the intricacies

**172**

**Figure 11.**

*Astrosociology is a multidisciplinary academic field.*

involving constructing a functional social system—especially as its population grows—just as the greatest attention is traditionally paid to the construction of physical assets such as rockets and the habitats and their systems. Like the engineering systems in a spacecraft, for example, a Martian city or smaller settlement, possesses its own intricate systems in the form of human relationships. The latter is more difficult to plan for and keep functioning in a positive way because the components, in this case humans, keep changing unlike what occurs to the same extent in physical systems.

So, while rocket science can get people to Mars and engineering can keep the habitat functioning, it cannot ensure societal success within the habitat. The crux of the matter boils down to one question. What will happen to human life if astrosociology fails to get to Mars? Without a semblance of social order and cultural consistency, rocket scientists or mathematicians can do very little to construct a stable Martian society. Both branches of science must work together. Only cooperation and collaboration between those in both branches can result in a successful outcome on a sustainable basis. Physical and social systems must work together, as they are complementary, and that requires physical and social scientists to work together.

This chapter has focused on some of the major issues relating to Martian settlements, and perhaps some of them are not frequently discussed as part of this larger theme, but it will be the first location to be settled beyond the cislunar environment and it is important to expand our astrosociological imagination beyond what is common. Moreover, the difficulties of humans seeking to settle in other space environments will only become more pronounced the farther away from Earth that they migrate. Social life will become increasingly difficult in a number of social, cultural, and psychological dimensions. If human settlements can successfully transform themselves into well-functioning space societies, they will provide those who migrate beyond Mars with invaluable lessons of survival. Additionally, the social problems and failures that become documented will also provide these intrepid settlers with lessons of what to avoid if possible. Thus, it is important for astrosociologists to be among the settlers in order to monitor, document, and support social life in Martian settlements and beyond.

It is not logical to exclude those trained in the social sciences. They are important on Earth, so why would they be less so on a planet inhospitable to human life, which challenge settlers socially, culturally, and psychologically? They are important wherever humans reside, whether here on Earth or beyond. Astrosociology on Mars makes logical sense because astrosociology on Earth is also invaluable to human societies and their citizens because they offer complementary insights to those in the physical and natural sciences who traditionally study space settlement issues.

#### **Thanks**

I would like to thank two late individuals who inspired me, Dr. Allen M. Tough (1936–2012) and Dr. Albert A. Harrison (1940–2015), as a reminder to all those who support astrosociology. Allen Tough was a futurist and SETI scholar who mentioned the term "astrosociology" as a possible new social science field in an article that prompted me to found the field immediately after reading it [26]. I met him one time in person at a conference and he encouraged me to continue my efforts. Albert A. Harrison was a social psychologist who I met online initially after reading one of his books [27]. He became a friend and the first advisor to The Astrosociology Research Institute. He attended several conferences with me and we cowrote a few publications. His early inspiration in 2005 helped me greatly to carry on when things were not always easy. These two individuals inspired me the most when I decided to found astrosociology in 2004.

I would also like to thank Dr. Thomas Gangale and the late Dr. Marilyn Dudley-Rowley who I met in 2004 at a sociology conference. They were early supporters and participants in astrosociological efforts including helping me to found The Astrosociology Research Institute. I also wish to thank Dr. Gangale for creating ARI's logo (see **Figure 2**).
