**9. Space architecture and art**

There has been an increasing need to develop the field of space architecture for designing and building progressively complex spacecraft, especially those carrying humans, and for getting a jump on the habitats slated for the Moon and Mars in the probable near future [50]. "Space architecture is the theory and practice of designing and building environments for humans in outer space [51], p. 890." Mars habitat simulations conducted by the Mars Society [52], NASA, ESA, and others have tested hardware and have increasingly focused on social-scientific areas of research as well. **Figure 4** shows the Mars Society's Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station located on Devon Island, Canada. Work in these types of analogs produce valuable science that amend submarine, aircraft carrier, and terrestrial Arctic station research efforts among others.

Living in a space habitat for the rest of one's life presents adjustments, which impact different individuals in various ways. The transition from the long trip to Mars aboard a spacecraft characterized by weightlessness to one that characterized by a gravity field that is one-third of Earth's will present settlers with physical and psychological adjustments that must be made. "Through the body, sensorial data and emotional response interact to create symbolic meaning that ultimately impacts the development of new spatial habitats. The creation of such 'places' requires the understanding of the human environment interface and integration of territories

**153**

of maintenance.

to survive on the Red Planet.

*Astrosociology on Mars*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93309*

individual adjust to his or her new life on Mars.

time, even their entire lifetimes.

that range the psychological, social, ergonomic, anthropologic, perceptual, and anthropomorphic that radiate into interconnected and intra-disciplinary fields [53]." Astrosociologists on Mars also entails conducting research while on the voyage to Mars. Understanding how well or how poorly various passengers faired in weightlessness presents the researcher with challenges that entail helping each

Functional hardware alone does not result in a functional society. The human dimension, which involves social interactions and reactions to living conditions, is just as important on a medium and long-term basis. At its most basic level, the construction of the physical habitats and other structures will be built with operational functionality in mind for various purposes without regard to the humans that inhabit and work within them. Moving beyond that standard takes into account the human beings and the ecosystem in which they live. The physical structures have direct and

Space architecture, when implemented to benefit the people, moves beyond the minimum standards of function. It adds layers onto the basic survival standard. Space architecture can make living in a Martian settlement survivable, which is, of course, vital for any life, but it can also make the existence there livable and even enjoyable. The adventurous attitudes present in the initial planning and training on Earth will likely give rise to practical thoughts about the hardships that lay ahead during the voyage to Mars. Therefore, the architecture of the spacecraft is important, but the construction and details paid to the social environment of the habitat components is even more critical because that is where they will spend most of their

indirect impacts on the social structures in the various habitat components.

Art, as part of the construction process, can also provide an esthetic that reminds inhabitants of Earth. While "space art" generally depicts the wonders of universe, Earth-based art can go a long way to improve living conditions on a psychological level. It can also provide a sense of homeness as opposed to a stark minimalist enclosure. A military style is probably acceptable for small and temporary quarters such as the International Space Station. A military or quasi-military purpose is the legacy of the space age thus far, but individuals with nonmilitary

A large and growing population will need to establish an organic form of solidarity, which is social cohesion that is based on members of the population forming a dependence on one another, which includes diverse statuses or social positions [54]. Contrastingly, the mechanical form of solidarity is characterized by most of the people sharing common values and beliefs, which is workable for a small crew but not feasible for a growing settlement [54]. Astronauts at NASA are trained very intensively and similarly in order to perform extremely well-choreographed scheduled tasks. They are taught to improvise during emergencies though these are rare occurrences. In contrast, settlers on Mars will be much more diverse with educational backgrounds and experiences that may have little or nothing to do with running the settlement politically, engineering-wise, or performing various forms

Architecturally, the best approach is to make social settings within the habitat components as reminiscent of Earth as possible rather than simply following a functional scheme that fails to take advantage of the psychological, social, and cultural requirements of settlers that transcend meeting engineering standards. This will be most important for early habitats. As habitat structures increase in size and sophistication, the needs of the humans on Mars should become higher priorities. At first, in contrast, the engineering issues will prevail in order to allow for settlers

statuses and roles will not adjust well in that type of political system.

**Figure 4.** *Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station/photo credit: Mars Society.*

#### *Astrosociology on Mars DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93309*

*Mars Exploration - A Step Forward*

community and less like a spacecraft or base.

**9. Space architecture and art**

research efforts among others.

Habitat structures must provide adequate opportunities for Mars settlement citizens to be able to socialize, to interact when they need to be around other people. Compartmentalization, which is often depicted in artistic renderings, is not a prudent design when carried too far. Privacy is important although isolation is not healthy when socializing becomes difficult under these types of isolated and enclosed conditions. The social environment, the ecosystem inside the habitat, must become increasingly designed as it grows in size to limit isolation among those in the growing population. This should be integrated into the original plan. Space architecture should also make the design within the physical structures more like a

There has been an increasing need to develop the field of space architecture for designing and building progressively complex spacecraft, especially those carrying humans, and for getting a jump on the habitats slated for the Moon and Mars in the probable near future [50]. "Space architecture is the theory and practice of designing and building environments for humans in outer space [51], p. 890." Mars habitat simulations conducted by the Mars Society [52], NASA, ESA, and others have tested hardware and have increasingly focused on social-scientific areas of research as well. **Figure 4** shows the Mars Society's Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station located on Devon Island, Canada. Work in these types of analogs produce valuable science that amend submarine, aircraft carrier, and terrestrial Arctic station

Living in a space habitat for the rest of one's life presents adjustments, which impact different individuals in various ways. The transition from the long trip to Mars aboard a spacecraft characterized by weightlessness to one that characterized by a gravity field that is one-third of Earth's will present settlers with physical and psychological adjustments that must be made. "Through the body, sensorial data and emotional response interact to create symbolic meaning that ultimately impacts the development of new spatial habitats. The creation of such 'places' requires the understanding of the human environment interface and integration of territories

**152**

**Figure 4.**

*Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station/photo credit: Mars Society.*

that range the psychological, social, ergonomic, anthropologic, perceptual, and anthropomorphic that radiate into interconnected and intra-disciplinary fields [53]." Astrosociologists on Mars also entails conducting research while on the voyage to Mars. Understanding how well or how poorly various passengers faired in weightlessness presents the researcher with challenges that entail helping each individual adjust to his or her new life on Mars.

Functional hardware alone does not result in a functional society. The human dimension, which involves social interactions and reactions to living conditions, is just as important on a medium and long-term basis. At its most basic level, the construction of the physical habitats and other structures will be built with operational functionality in mind for various purposes without regard to the humans that inhabit and work within them. Moving beyond that standard takes into account the human beings and the ecosystem in which they live. The physical structures have direct and indirect impacts on the social structures in the various habitat components.

Space architecture, when implemented to benefit the people, moves beyond the minimum standards of function. It adds layers onto the basic survival standard. Space architecture can make living in a Martian settlement survivable, which is, of course, vital for any life, but it can also make the existence there livable and even enjoyable. The adventurous attitudes present in the initial planning and training on Earth will likely give rise to practical thoughts about the hardships that lay ahead during the voyage to Mars. Therefore, the architecture of the spacecraft is important, but the construction and details paid to the social environment of the habitat components is even more critical because that is where they will spend most of their time, even their entire lifetimes.

Art, as part of the construction process, can also provide an esthetic that reminds inhabitants of Earth. While "space art" generally depicts the wonders of universe, Earth-based art can go a long way to improve living conditions on a psychological level. It can also provide a sense of homeness as opposed to a stark minimalist enclosure. A military style is probably acceptable for small and temporary quarters such as the International Space Station. A military or quasi-military purpose is the legacy of the space age thus far, but individuals with nonmilitary statuses and roles will not adjust well in that type of political system.

A large and growing population will need to establish an organic form of solidarity, which is social cohesion that is based on members of the population forming a dependence on one another, which includes diverse statuses or social positions [54]. Contrastingly, the mechanical form of solidarity is characterized by most of the people sharing common values and beliefs, which is workable for a small crew but not feasible for a growing settlement [54]. Astronauts at NASA are trained very intensively and similarly in order to perform extremely well-choreographed scheduled tasks. They are taught to improvise during emergencies though these are rare occurrences. In contrast, settlers on Mars will be much more diverse with educational backgrounds and experiences that may have little or nothing to do with running the settlement politically, engineering-wise, or performing various forms of maintenance.

Architecturally, the best approach is to make social settings within the habitat components as reminiscent of Earth as possible rather than simply following a functional scheme that fails to take advantage of the psychological, social, and cultural requirements of settlers that transcend meeting engineering standards. This will be most important for early habitats. As habitat structures increase in size and sophistication, the needs of the humans on Mars should become higher priorities. At first, in contrast, the engineering issues will prevail in order to allow for settlers to survive on the Red Planet.

### **10. Martian settlement cultures**

Every base, community, city, or society on Mars—or anywhere else—will include a culture that shapes behavior. It defines how we live in a particular society and includes the characteristics of the people who live in that society. The popular meaning of culture that includes popular movies and music, as two examples, does not apply to this discussion. The social-scientific definition, which is discussed in this section, is quite different.

Settling Mars is a cultural invention. "Of course, all rationales for space activities are cultural [36], p. 31," which means that how settlers organize their physical and social constructions will be based on ideas carried with them from Earth. "Culture is inescapable [36], p. 31". In the case of settling on Mars, rationales include exploration in order to gain scientific knowledge, the adventure related to living on another planet, and ensuring that the human race survive in case of a global catastrophe on Earth. Mars has long fascinated humans and has gone through a number of different phases, the last of which is viewing Mars as the new frontier, but this cultural idea could well result in transposing past terrestrial problems onto the Martian surface so that not enough would be learned from history [55]. Bringing imperialism and various social problems to Mars is something that needs avoiding whenever possible. Harmful cultural ideas represent unneeded baggage better left behind.

Here, the definition of culture encroaches on social life much more than the popular meaning even though popular notions can represent reflections of the social-scientific definition. Interestingly, however, many of the impacts of culture are not always recognized and understood by the general public as forces that affect them. The analogy has been made by many that "culture is to humans as water is to fish." This analogy points out that fish depend on water to survive just as humans depend on culture to survive in their society, but neither recognizes it. At Mars, the evolving culture will have the same impact on settlements and settlers. And, as discussed earlier, a well-articulated culture should be part of the planning process before lifting off for Mars.

In 1970, sociologist Robert Bierstedt identified three dimensions of culture as consisting of ideas (including values), norms (i.e., social rules), and material culture [56]. The ideas in culture provide citizens with the important priorities and acceptable standards of conduct. Norms exist to protect values. Material culture consists of the physical creations of humans in society (i.e., the physical habitat components, rovers, and spacesuits), which will become increasingly important as they are constructed and their meanings become integrated into the larger culture. These meaning can evolve into changed ideas over time.

While important, the larger culture does not totally affect all individuals and social groups in the same way. There are contrary forces in any society. Settlers from different terrestrial cultures can interact in ways that result in conflict within the same settlement or between different settlements, as can religion-based differences, for example. Subcultures exist that may oppose some aspects of the larger culture while countercultures oppose the dominant culture itself. Thus, while subcultures may produce social movements, countercultures can produce revolutions, even in a Martian settlement. Astrosociologists on Mars will need to monitor contrary patterns of behavior that will inevitably arise.

#### **11. Social institutions on Mars**

Social institutions regulate behavior, as they are part of the social order of a society. They consist of people who share a common purpose. This definition is at

**155**

*Astrosociology on Mars*

difficult.

**11.1 The economy**

**11.2 The political system**

tance of social scientists on Mars.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93309*

odds with the common public view that may view the courts or schools as institutions because they are components rather than the entire institution. An important consideration is the fact that social relationships become progressively complex as the population increases in size. As such, social institutions become increasingly more important and their missions become increasingly complex and thus more

Any settlement on Mars must involve well-defined social institutions in order to control behavior. Haphazard plans of constructing the settlement both physically and socially will result in a level of chaos that can easily lead to the failure of the settlement to sustain itself even with adequate supplies from Earth. Moreover, the physical and social constructions are intimately interconnected, which means that addressing both types as a single system is vital. As such, planning before the mission begins, including devising a culture and a set of norms, cannot be overestimated even while most existing plans seem to downplay or even ignore this requirement [44]. Below are brief issues related to some of the most important institutions of any human social system. Each requires substantially more attention in the future. Nevertheless, pointing them out here is a good start, as they are brought to the forefront of a Mars-based discussion, which does not occur nearly enough.

The economy is an important institution to consider because, among other things, it determines how resources are distributed to other institutions, groups and other entities, and individuals. At Mars, the economy initially will be rather straightforward and dependent on supplies from Earth. As time goes on, however, Martian resources may well build production in several areas that can lead to exchange functions with entities on Earth. In general, how fair the resources are

Settlers must feed themselves, which means that they will rely on sources of nourishment. This will become increasingly more difficult as the population increases. While growing food in greenhouses will be necessary, most resources will come from Earth. The early Martian economy will be difficult to sustain requiring much hardship at first. Over time, the economy can begin to flourish as settlers take advantage of in situ resources and develop unique services such as tourist destina-

The political system is a vital component that determines how the settlement functions. Who governs? Will the leadership be characterized as a military, quasimilitary, democratic, authoritarian, totalitarian, or charismatic political system? The structure and actions of politics can shape the structure of the social system and quality of life of citizens. Therefore, the comparison between two settlements could very well reveal significant differences between the two on a number of social and cultural dimensions. The experiences of each of the populations could be quite different. What type of class system will exist upon landing, or even en route, and how will it evolve in the future? How will different categories of people be treated?

As we have witnessed on Earth, the leaders change over time and they can move in extremes such as from a democracy to a charismatic or even totalitarian orientation. Astrosociologists will need to conduct research to determine how the political system functions and what changes occur. This is another example of the impor-

distributed is an important issue for astrosociologists.

tions such as rover and lander monuments, or hotel lodgings.

Will discrimination be an overwhelmingly harmful characteristic?

#### *Astrosociology on Mars DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93309*

*Mars Exploration - A Step Forward*

this section, is quite different.

before lifting off for Mars.

**10. Martian settlement cultures**

Every base, community, city, or society on Mars—or anywhere else—will include a culture that shapes behavior. It defines how we live in a particular society and includes the characteristics of the people who live in that society. The popular meaning of culture that includes popular movies and music, as two examples, does not apply to this discussion. The social-scientific definition, which is discussed in

Settling Mars is a cultural invention. "Of course, all rationales for space activities are cultural [36], p. 31," which means that how settlers organize their physical and social constructions will be based on ideas carried with them from Earth. "Culture is inescapable [36], p. 31". In the case of settling on Mars, rationales include exploration in order to gain scientific knowledge, the adventure related to living on another planet, and ensuring that the human race survive in case of a global catastrophe on Earth. Mars has long fascinated humans and has gone through a number of different phases, the last of which is viewing Mars as the new frontier, but this cultural idea could well result in transposing past terrestrial problems onto the Martian surface so that not enough would be learned from history [55]. Bringing imperialism and various social problems to Mars is something that needs avoiding whenever possible. Harmful cultural ideas represent unneeded baggage better left behind. Here, the definition of culture encroaches on social life much more than the popular meaning even though popular notions can represent reflections of the social-scientific definition. Interestingly, however, many of the impacts of culture are not always recognized and understood by the general public as forces that affect them. The analogy has been made by many that "culture is to humans as water is to fish." This analogy points out that fish depend on water to survive just as humans depend on culture to survive in their society, but neither recognizes it. At Mars, the evolving culture will have the same impact on settlements and settlers. And, as discussed earlier, a well-articulated culture should be part of the planning process

In 1970, sociologist Robert Bierstedt identified three dimensions of culture as consisting of ideas (including values), norms (i.e., social rules), and material culture [56]. The ideas in culture provide citizens with the important priorities and acceptable standards of conduct. Norms exist to protect values. Material culture consists of the physical creations of humans in society (i.e., the physical habitat components, rovers, and spacesuits), which will become increasingly important as they are constructed and their meanings become integrated into the larger culture.

While important, the larger culture does not totally affect all individuals and social groups in the same way. There are contrary forces in any society. Settlers from different terrestrial cultures can interact in ways that result in conflict within the same settlement or between different settlements, as can religion-based differences, for example. Subcultures exist that may oppose some aspects of the larger culture while countercultures oppose the dominant culture itself. Thus, while subcultures may produce social movements, countercultures can produce revolutions, even in a Martian settlement. Astrosociologists on Mars will need to monitor contrary

Social institutions regulate behavior, as they are part of the social order of a society. They consist of people who share a common purpose. This definition is at

These meaning can evolve into changed ideas over time.

patterns of behavior that will inevitably arise.

**11. Social institutions on Mars**

**154**

odds with the common public view that may view the courts or schools as institutions because they are components rather than the entire institution. An important consideration is the fact that social relationships become progressively complex as the population increases in size. As such, social institutions become increasingly more important and their missions become increasingly complex and thus more difficult.

Any settlement on Mars must involve well-defined social institutions in order to control behavior. Haphazard plans of constructing the settlement both physically and socially will result in a level of chaos that can easily lead to the failure of the settlement to sustain itself even with adequate supplies from Earth. Moreover, the physical and social constructions are intimately interconnected, which means that addressing both types as a single system is vital. As such, planning before the mission begins, including devising a culture and a set of norms, cannot be overestimated even while most existing plans seem to downplay or even ignore this requirement [44].

Below are brief issues related to some of the most important institutions of any human social system. Each requires substantially more attention in the future. Nevertheless, pointing them out here is a good start, as they are brought to the forefront of a Mars-based discussion, which does not occur nearly enough.

### **11.1 The economy**

The economy is an important institution to consider because, among other things, it determines how resources are distributed to other institutions, groups and other entities, and individuals. At Mars, the economy initially will be rather straightforward and dependent on supplies from Earth. As time goes on, however, Martian resources may well build production in several areas that can lead to exchange functions with entities on Earth. In general, how fair the resources are distributed is an important issue for astrosociologists.

Settlers must feed themselves, which means that they will rely on sources of nourishment. This will become increasingly more difficult as the population increases. While growing food in greenhouses will be necessary, most resources will come from Earth. The early Martian economy will be difficult to sustain requiring much hardship at first. Over time, the economy can begin to flourish as settlers take advantage of in situ resources and develop unique services such as tourist destinations such as rover and lander monuments, or hotel lodgings.

### **11.2 The political system**

The political system is a vital component that determines how the settlement functions. Who governs? Will the leadership be characterized as a military, quasimilitary, democratic, authoritarian, totalitarian, or charismatic political system? The structure and actions of politics can shape the structure of the social system and quality of life of citizens. Therefore, the comparison between two settlements could very well reveal significant differences between the two on a number of social and cultural dimensions. The experiences of each of the populations could be quite different. What type of class system will exist upon landing, or even en route, and how will it evolve in the future? How will different categories of people be treated? Will discrimination be an overwhelmingly harmful characteristic?

As we have witnessed on Earth, the leaders change over time and they can move in extremes such as from a democracy to a charismatic or even totalitarian orientation. Astrosociologists will need to conduct research to determine how the political system functions and what changes occur. This is another example of the importance of social scientists on Mars.

#### **11.3 Criminal/juvenile justice system**

Criminal/juvenile justice system operations exist to ensure social order by acting proactively and reacting to unlawful behavior. One thing that is certain in all human societies is the fact that deviance is a cultural universal and will exist in any social system, including on Mars. Therefore, it is important to devise a preconception of a justice system that can handle violations of the law and conflict that may arise even during travel phase before reaching Mars. Relatedly, laws must be understood by the population and protected by law enforcement. Equality in policing and court decision making must be seen as fair. Otherwise, protests can arise as is evident in terrestrial societies.

Enforcement of other types of norm violations such as those involving the health and safety of settlers is also an important consideration, especially in an enclosed and confined living situation in which a single mistake or act of sabotage could have deadly consequences [57]. Overwork could lead a person to cut corners during maintenance activities or inspections. Unsafe conditions may also result in protests and more serious reactions. This is an important aspect of life in a Martian settlement that requires constant maintenance and inspections in order to ensure health and safety standards for the protection of the population.

#### **11.4 The family**

The family is an institution that receives little attention in the midst of attention to other issues related to settling on Mars. While children would be highly unlikely to go to Mars initially, couples will very likely be in the population. Additionally, romantic relationships will undoubtedly develop and that could result in children down the line. Support for families would be required including their rights and supportive policies.

Family structures will differ, as they do here on Earth, which is something that is important to monitor. Some structures may receive condemnation by official sources including other institutions that may result in inequality suffered by family members. Hardships caused by the harsh conditions on Mars from the environment outside and the ecosystem inside (including isolation) can produce stressors and strains between family members and couples that endanger their relationships even when inequality is not the root problem.

#### **11.5 Religion**

Religion can foster fellowship and community within the population, but it can also cause conflict between religious groups and individuals with different religious backgrounds. Atheists will also impact on this social dimension. Some forms of tolerance policies should exist so that harmony rather than conflict exemplifies the religious dimension. In any case, "living in close quarters in hazardous environments will make interreligious dialogue all the more important…" [58]. Settlers will need to find a way to get along if the settlement will be characterized by a minimum of religious-based deviance.

Politics can influence how the institution of religion interacts with non-religious institutions. Will there be a sort of separation between religion and state? Conversely, will the settlement's government promote secular society or be based on a religious dogma such as Christianity or a sect of the Muslim faith? This example demonstrates how social institutions interact and complicate social life in any society.

There is another interesting possibility. Living on Mars could well involve social forces that produce one or more new religious groups in the form of cults (new religions), sects (fully branched off religious groups), and new denominations (slightly offended branches off religious groups from their established

**157**

*Astrosociology on Mars*

**11.6 Education**

desirable attributes.

**11.7 Health care**

**11.8 The military**

**11.9 Sports and the media**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93309*

confined and enclosed ecosystem.

requires social-scientific scrutiny, just as all others.

churches). These types of evolutionary occurrences could add new complexities to the social system. Cults and sects may challenge other religious groups or the Martian government itself. Religion is an inevitable dimension of social life that

Education is important, not only for children and young adults who would arrive later in the migratory process, but also for older adults who must learn how to live in the new settlement. New members need to learn the differences from Earth that they first encounter in a substantially new and different ecosystem. For example, they cannot easily go outside of the habitat components and must learn to live in a

Additionally, settlers, especially early in the construction of the settlement, will need to learn new skills and concepts. They will need to conduct multiple tasks and teachers will need to pass them on to new settlers as they arrive. The needs of the settlement will change over time so that arrivals will not always possess the most

Health care is an extremely important issue in harsh environments such as that of Mars. The potential for illness absolutely increases due to the harsh Martian conditions that include solar radiation and the one-third gravity field. Ethical issues include right-to-die disagreements and the potential inequitable distribution of medical resources, which will be limited [59]. Conflicts or disagreements between patients and/or their family members and medical practitioners can result in conflict. Social problems such as racism, sexism, and classism can affect the quality and very implementation of life saving interventions as witnessed on Earth. (See

The military on Mars may exist in order to protect one settlement from another's transgressions once they begin to appear. Another possibility is providing defense against entities on Earth that they fear may interfere with their operations and priorities. This latter situation could be complicated if they a Martian settlement possesses valuable Martian in situ resources that an Earth-based entity covets. A military presence may exist just because it is how things work on Earth. The possibility of a military existence is something for astrosociologists to monitor because

the medical astrosociology section below for additional details).

its members may interfere with civilian authority in inappropriate ways.

Sports and the media must not be viewed as extraneous to a well-functioning Martian settlement. As witnessed in terrestrial societies, the absence of sports and simultaneously the importance of entertainment and news in their various formats demonstrate that these two social institutions provide important lessons for settling beyond Earth. It is important for the citizens of a Martian settlement to distract their attentions away somewhat from their hardships associated with living on an isolated and potentially deadly planet. Two forms of sports and media consumption exist. First, on Mars, planners of the habitat modules—and to the extent possible aboard the spacecraft—should focus on establishing community areas because

churches). These types of evolutionary occurrences could add new complexities to the social system. Cults and sects may challenge other religious groups or the Martian government itself. Religion is an inevitable dimension of social life that requires social-scientific scrutiny, just as all others.
