**3. Physical science and social science contributions**

Accordingly, this author founded astrosociology in 2004 due to the lack of social-scientific input into the study of astrosocial phenomena [8]. This was always a relative situation, however. When it is compared to the input by physical and natural scientists, the overwhelming emphasis remains on the STEM-related issues and concerns, and therefore the overwhelming funding goes to non-social-science individuals as well as private and public entities. The equal distribution and attention to social science will likely never reach that of physical science, but a substantial increase is sorely needed at a time when sending hundreds of people to Mars is seriously being considered by the Space Exploration Technologies Corporation (SpaceX).

To be fair, scientists and scholars from the physical and natural sciences such as the search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI), astrobiology, astronomy, planetary science, planetary defense, space architecture, and engineering have recognized the potential of the social sciences and humanities, and they have worked with social scientists in some instances. Examples include Ben R. Finney [9], Christopher McKay [10], Penny Boston [11], and Seth Shostak [12]. Too many exist to reference here so the reader is urged to do research to find them. An early place to start is this reference from 1988, which is an edited book that actually includes physical *and* social scientists [13]. This additional publication is a good example of a social scientist (an anthropologist) and a space-related physical scientist (an astronomer) working together [14].

This recognition is important because it opens the door to the realization that the social sciences are relevant. It is also problematic because physical and natural scientists are not well versed in the social sciences unless they work with social scientists. This area of knowledge, which includes sociology that is over 200 years old in terrestrial societies, is more relevant to study social science issues related to space—that is, astrosocial phenomena—because they possess the expertise. For this reason, the best overall approach is for the two branches of science to cooperate and collaborate on a formal basis.

Social scientists and humanities scholars have, in fact, contributed to the study of space issues. This trend increased somewhat during the early days of the space age when science did not know if astronauts could functional well mentally and physically in space environments [15]. Rudimentary space psychology existed to monitor National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) astronauts before the United States launched its astronauts. It continued starting with the Mercury program during training, missions, and afterwards. Space psychology and psychosocial research continues today [16, 17]. Space historians also played a large part throughout the space age and they also continue to do so into the "NewSpace" age, which is characterized by commercial space activities [18–21]. Many other social scientists have also contributed in meaningful and less impactful ways. Again, there are too many examples to go into detail here, but they are listed in the reference section as a good starting point [22–37]. There are many more examples, and even this listing may seem quite overwhelming, but these social scientists represent just a trickle of contributions compared with the physical and natural sciences during the advent of the space age through today. There was a concern about the lack of social science input. For example, Rudoff voiced it succinctly in 1996 when he asked, "And where is sociology?" [25], p. 75. The other disciplines were also silent.

"The social sciences and humanities cannot afford to remain silent, and the traditional space community cannot afford to allow them to remain so" [4]. One of the most frustrating realities is that many social scientists work in isolation, which is a central reason why this author created astrosociology. It is intended to provide for a community in which social scientists can more easily collaborate and create a cohesive and easy to locate literature. This is changing, however. It is hoped that the creation of astrosociology and the work of the Astrosociology Research Institute has played a part although the increasing impact of astrosocial phenomena in larger culture have also contributed apart from it as well. It is hoped that the future will yield a much better level of collaboration between the two branches of science as time passes.

## **4. The Astrosociology Research Institute (ARI)**

In 2008, the Astrosociology Research Institute was created by this author in order to advance the development of astrosociology beyond 2004 when this author first founded this academic field. The mission of ARI is to facilitate opportunities for others and to contribute directly to the development of astrosociology. ARI is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit educational and research organization that depends on donations to advance its mission.1 It also depends on the participation of volunteers

**147**

issues.<sup>2</sup>

**Figure 2.**

chapter.

their universities and colleges.

*The ARI logo and the planet Mars.*

and to even create entire courses.3

*Astrosociology on Mars*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93309*

to contribute to its development. Regardless of its resources, ARI continues to promote and advance the need for the social sciences to become more involved in research and educational efforts related to outer space exploration and related

 Settling on Mars requires more research by professional social scientists and their students, as **Figure 2** represents. At the moment, too few opportunities exist for social science majors and graduate students to pursue astrosociology at

Therefore, another important part of ARI's mission, besides encouraging social science and humanities professionals to take part in astrosociological education and research, is to help interested students to gain access to the study of astrosociological issues. Related to this is the "Astrosociology in the Classroom" program. It encourages educators and programs to include astrosociology in their classes

related issues, to getting many more social scientists involved with Mars education and research focusing on a number of fronts, many of which are covered in this

Students pursuing STEM-related space science degrees are encouraged to also take social science, humanities, and art classes. Professionals from the space sciences seem to be increasingly recognizing that the so-called "liberal arts" are valuable to their own research. This author is also being contacted much more frequently recently about astrosociology. A more holistic education results in a more

<sup>2</sup> Materials from this author and others, which include issues of the *Astrosociological Insights* newsletter and *The Journal of Astrosociology* are available at no cost in the Virtual Library at www.astrosociology.org. <sup>3</sup> The first ongoing course was introduced at Harvard University by Dr. Gerhard Sonnert who is now a

member of ARI's Advisory Board and Editorial Board for The Journal of Astrosociology.

holistic approach to understanding astrosocial phenomena.

ARI is dedicated, among many other space-

<sup>1</sup> ARI's webpage is the following: www.astrosociology.org, which includes the Virtual Library and donation page.

*Mars Exploration - A Step Forward*

collaborate on a formal basis.

disciplines were also silent.

time passes.

This recognition is important because it opens the door to the realization that the social sciences are relevant. It is also problematic because physical and natural scientists are not well versed in the social sciences unless they work with social scientists. This area of knowledge, which includes sociology that is over 200 years old in terrestrial societies, is more relevant to study social science issues related to space—that is, astrosocial phenomena—because they possess the expertise. For this reason, the best overall approach is for the two branches of science to cooperate and

Social scientists and humanities scholars have, in fact, contributed to the study of space issues. This trend increased somewhat during the early days of the space age when science did not know if astronauts could functional well mentally and physically in space environments [15]. Rudimentary space psychology existed to monitor National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) astronauts before the United States launched its astronauts. It continued starting with the Mercury program during training, missions, and afterwards. Space psychology and psychosocial research continues today [16, 17]. Space historians also played a large part throughout the space age and they also continue to do so into the "NewSpace" age, which is characterized by commercial space activities [18–21]. Many other social scientists have also contributed in meaningful and less impactful ways. Again, there are too many examples to go into detail here, but they are listed in the reference section as a good starting point [22–37]. There are many more examples, and even this listing may seem quite overwhelming, but these social scientists represent just a trickle of contributions compared with the physical and natural sciences during the advent of the space age through today. There was a concern about the lack of social science input. For example, Rudoff voiced it succinctly in 1996 when he asked, "And where is sociology?" [25], p. 75. The other

"The social sciences and humanities cannot afford to remain silent, and the traditional space community cannot afford to allow them to remain so" [4]. One of the most frustrating realities is that many social scientists work in isolation, which is a central reason why this author created astrosociology. It is intended to provide for a community in which social scientists can more easily collaborate and create a cohesive and easy to locate literature. This is changing, however. It is hoped that the creation of astrosociology and the work of the Astrosociology Research Institute has played a part although the increasing impact of astrosocial phenomena in larger culture have also contributed apart from it as well. It is hoped that the future will yield a much better level of collaboration between the two branches of science as

In 2008, the Astrosociology Research Institute was created by this author in order to advance the development of astrosociology beyond 2004 when this author first founded this academic field. The mission of ARI is to facilitate opportunities for others and to contribute directly to the development of astrosociology. ARI is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit educational and research organization that depends on

<sup>1</sup> ARI's webpage is the following: www.astrosociology.org, which includes the Virtual Library and dona-

It also depends on the participation of volunteers

**4. The Astrosociology Research Institute (ARI)**

donations to advance its mission.1

**146**

tion page.

**Figure 2.** *The ARI logo and the planet Mars.*

to contribute to its development. Regardless of its resources, ARI continues to promote and advance the need for the social sciences to become more involved in research and educational efforts related to outer space exploration and related issues.<sup>2</sup> Settling on Mars requires more research by professional social scientists and their students, as **Figure 2** represents. At the moment, too few opportunities exist for social science majors and graduate students to pursue astrosociology at their universities and colleges.

Therefore, another important part of ARI's mission, besides encouraging social science and humanities professionals to take part in astrosociological education and research, is to help interested students to gain access to the study of astrosociological issues. Related to this is the "Astrosociology in the Classroom" program. It encourages educators and programs to include astrosociology in their classes and to even create entire courses.3 ARI is dedicated, among many other spacerelated issues, to getting many more social scientists involved with Mars education and research focusing on a number of fronts, many of which are covered in this chapter.

Students pursuing STEM-related space science degrees are encouraged to also take social science, humanities, and art classes. Professionals from the space sciences seem to be increasingly recognizing that the so-called "liberal arts" are valuable to their own research. This author is also being contacted much more frequently recently about astrosociology. A more holistic education results in a more holistic approach to understanding astrosocial phenomena.

<sup>2</sup> Materials from this author and others, which include issues of the *Astrosociological Insights* newsletter and *The Journal of Astrosociology* are available at no cost in the Virtual Library at www.astrosociology.org. <sup>3</sup> The first ongoing course was introduced at Harvard University by Dr. Gerhard Sonnert who is now a
