3.1 Particulate concentration

A total of 12 samples per month (i.e., six for mass concentration and six for number concentration) for PM10, PM5.0, PM2.5, PM1.0, PM0.5, and PM0.25 were collected from three different indoor microenvironments. Tables 2 and 3 gives the statistical summary of particulate mass and number concentrations along with temperature, CO2, humidity and air exchange rate during the total sampling days. During the campaign study the mean PM10, PM5.0, PM2.5, PM1.0, PM0.5 and PM0.25 mass concentration and standard deviation (SD) was 324.17 46.70, 270.27 42.66, 223.41 48.19, 137.47 23.43, 99.84 20.39 and 52.34 11.45 <sup>μ</sup>g m<sup>3</sup> at supermarket sites, 324.57 47.13, 271.30 40.63, 225.44 49.79, 137.89 23.86, 99.41 20.72 and 53.07 11.36 <sup>μ</sup>g m<sup>3</sup> at shop sites respectively and 327.00 47.03, 272.98 40.03, 227.44 50.54, 139.17 23.75, 101.33 20.75 and 56.13 11.58 <sup>μ</sup>g m<sup>3</sup> at office sites respectively and for number concentrations for coarse and fine particles, mean values of PM10, PM5.0, PM2.5, PM1.0, PM0.5 and PM0.25 was 564,050 915,78.43, 320,394 393,85.52, 193,678 17,880.25, 174,101 23,865, 158,428 29,089.22 and 73,378 22,638

particles/L at supermarket sites, 589,882 98,489.67, 349,888 39,072.42,

Statistical summary of Number concentration during the sampling duration at sampling sites.

77,619 22,858.65 particles/L at shop sites respectively and 622,352 77,730.91, 352,319 38,052.23, 232,186 35,323.51, 193,769 28,899.68, 178,172 24,245.03

On applying the one way ANOVA (SPSS 10.0) to the mean values of particulate concentrations at all the sites for each location significant values found for PM10, PM5.0, PM2.5, PM1.0, PM0.5 and PM0.25 were close to 1 or were approximately 1. For the supermarkets it varied from 0.931 to 0.997, for shops it varied from 0.942 to 0.998 and for offices they varied from 0.938 to 0.999, indicating that there is no significant difference between the concentrations of two types of similar microenvironment and thus have similar kind of sources which lead to the generation of particulate pollutant in their indoor environment. Due to the above reason, the discussion made in this report is explained on the basis of average concentration of two types of similar microenvironment rather than six places individually. The study period for mass and number concentration trend of PM10, PM5.0, PM2.5, PM1.0, PM0.5 and PM0.25 from September 2011 to November 2011 in supermarket, shops and offices are given in Figure 6A and B. On comparing with the standards

206,648 25,422.77, 181,495 24,131.06, 166,050 28,853.73 and

Statistical summary of mass concentration during the sampling duration at sampling sites.

Mass and Number and Its Chemical Composition Distribution of Particulate Matter in Different…

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82801

and 85,121 24,879.46 particles/L at office sites respectively.

Table 2.

Table 3.

27

Mass and Number and Its Chemical Composition Distribution of Particulate Matter in Different… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82801


#### Table 2.

Statistical summary of mass concentration during the sampling duration at sampling sites.


#### Table 3.

3. Result and discussion

Figure 4.

Figure 5.

26

Handy sampler YES-206.

Indoor Environment and Health

3.1 Particulate concentration

A total of 12 samples per month (i.e., six for mass concentration and six for number concentration) for PM10, PM5.0, PM2.5, PM1.0, PM0.5, and PM0.25 were collected from three different indoor microenvironments. Tables 2 and 3 gives the statistical summary of particulate mass and number concentrations along with temperature, CO2, humidity and air exchange rate during the total sampling days. During the campaign study the mean PM10, PM5.0, PM2.5, PM1.0, PM0.5 and PM0.25

mass concentration and standard deviation (SD) was 324.17 46.70, 270.27 42.66, 223.41 48.19, 137.47 23.43, 99.84 20.39 and

Atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Perkin Elmer, AAnalyst 100), with schematic diagram.

52.34 11.45 <sup>μ</sup>g m<sup>3</sup> at supermarket sites, 324.57 47.13, 271.30 40.63,

PM1.0, PM0.5 and PM0.25 was 564,050 915,78.43, 320,394 393,85.52,

225.44 49.79, 137.89 23.86, 99.41 20.72 and 53.07 11.36 <sup>μ</sup>g m<sup>3</sup> at shop sites respectively and 327.00 47.03, 272.98 40.03, 227.44 50.54, 139.17 23.75, 101.33 20.75 and 56.13 11.58 <sup>μ</sup>g m<sup>3</sup> at office sites respectively and for number concentrations for coarse and fine particles, mean values of PM10, PM5.0, PM2.5,

193,678 17,880.25, 174,101 23,865, 158,428 29,089.22 and 73,378 22,638

Statistical summary of Number concentration during the sampling duration at sampling sites.

particles/L at supermarket sites, 589,882 98,489.67, 349,888 39,072.42, 206,648 25,422.77, 181,495 24,131.06, 166,050 28,853.73 and 77,619 22,858.65 particles/L at shop sites respectively and 622,352 77,730.91, 352,319 38,052.23, 232,186 35,323.51, 193,769 28,899.68, 178,172 24,245.03 and 85,121 24,879.46 particles/L at office sites respectively.

On applying the one way ANOVA (SPSS 10.0) to the mean values of particulate concentrations at all the sites for each location significant values found for PM10, PM5.0, PM2.5, PM1.0, PM0.5 and PM0.25 were close to 1 or were approximately 1. For the supermarkets it varied from 0.931 to 0.997, for shops it varied from 0.942 to 0.998 and for offices they varied from 0.938 to 0.999, indicating that there is no significant difference between the concentrations of two types of similar microenvironment and thus have similar kind of sources which lead to the generation of particulate pollutant in their indoor environment. Due to the above reason, the discussion made in this report is explained on the basis of average concentration of two types of similar microenvironment rather than six places individually. The study period for mass and number concentration trend of PM10, PM5.0, PM2.5, PM1.0, PM0.5 and PM0.25 from September 2011 to November 2011 in supermarket, shops and offices are given in Figure 6A and B. On comparing with the standards

given by WHO guidelines (24 h mean = 25 μg m<sup>3</sup>

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82801

dards (24 h mean = 60 μg m<sup>3</sup>

3.2 Full day variation trend

sizes showed similar trends.

3.3 Inter particulate ratios

29

PM2.5 exceeded 9 times and PM10 exceeded 6.5 times in all the indoor microenvironment (i.e., supermarkets, shops, and offices). On comparing with NAAQS stan-

Mass and Number and Its Chemical Composition Distribution of Particulate Matter in Different…

particles exceeded 6 to 4 times at all the sampling locations. For coarse and fine particles similar kind of trend was obtained at all the different microenvironments. However, the mass and number concentration trends for coarse and fine particles were somewhat higher for all the particle sizes in the offices in comparison to shops and supermarkets. The higher concentration trend in the offices can be due to particle resuspension from vacuum cleaning, sweeping, low air exchange rate as or due to the movements of office workers [14, 15]. PM concentrations are also greatly affected in the offices by the use of printers and multitask devices [16]. During the campaign study a slight increase was notice in the PM concentrations during month of October in comparison to September and November. On applying the one way ANOVA (SPSS 10.0) to the mean values of particulate concentrations at all the working environment; significance values were found forPM10, PM5.0, PM2.5, PM1.0, PM0.5 and PM0.25 were close to 1 or approximately 1. They varied from 0.923 to 0.998 at two offices site, 0.918 to 0.993 at two shop sites and 0.920 to 0.987 at two commercial center sites indicating that there is no significant difference between the concentrations of same type of working environment and thus have similar kind of sources which lead to the generation of particulate pollutant in their environment.

The diurnal trend of particulate number and mass concentration during the sampling duration has been monitored continuously throughout the night and day in indoors at the supermarket, shop and office (Figure 7A and B). Full-day variation trend of particulate pollutant around the clock covers all the indoor activities taking place. The highest mass and number concentration peaks were observed basically during the morning hours from 9:00 to 10:00 AM and late in the evening hours from 18:00 to 19:00 PM. The maximum concentrations of the particulate matter during this time can be due to resuspension generated by traffic and other human activities, as these sites are mostly adjacent to busy traffic roads of the city (Figure 1A). As a result concentrations reaches maximum during the rush hours in the evening and morning [17]. The low concentrations for all the particles are observed during 3:00–4:00 AM in the early morning hours. Whereas, during the working hours low concentrations were reported between 14:00 and 15:00 PM in the afternoon hours at all the microenvironments. All the coarse and fine particulate

For better understanding of these particles in the different indoor environment,

inter particulate ratios have also been evaluated and reported in Table 4. The average contribution of finer particles (i.e., PM0.25, PM0.50, PM1.0, and PM2.5) to coarse particles (i.e., PM5.0 and PM10) in indoors during the study period for September was around 44.7% at supermarket sites, 44.8% at shops sites and 47% at office sites. In October it was 45.7% at supermarket sites, 46.2% at shops sites and 47.9% at office sites. In November it was 37.1% at supermarket sites, 37.5% at shops sites and 38.0% at office sites. Particles especially PM2.5 and below are resuspended in air with high intensive activities during indoor activities when there is low

, 50 μg m<sup>3</sup> for PM2.5 and PM10),

, 100 μg m<sup>3</sup> for PM2.5 and PM10), Coarse to fine

#### Figure 6.

(A) Mass concentration of PM10, PM5.0, PM2.5, PM1.0, PM0.5 and PM0.25 at supermarkets, shops and offices from September 2011 to November 2011, and (B) number concentration of PM10, PM5.0, PM2.5, PM1.0, PM0.5 and PM0.25 at supermarkets, shops, and offices from September 2011 to November 2011.

Mass and Number and Its Chemical Composition Distribution of Particulate Matter in Different… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82801

given by WHO guidelines (24 h mean = 25 μg m<sup>3</sup> , 50 μg m<sup>3</sup> for PM2.5 and PM10), PM2.5 exceeded 9 times and PM10 exceeded 6.5 times in all the indoor microenvironment (i.e., supermarkets, shops, and offices). On comparing with NAAQS standards (24 h mean = 60 μg m<sup>3</sup> , 100 μg m<sup>3</sup> for PM2.5 and PM10), Coarse to fine particles exceeded 6 to 4 times at all the sampling locations. For coarse and fine particles similar kind of trend was obtained at all the different microenvironments. However, the mass and number concentration trends for coarse and fine particles were somewhat higher for all the particle sizes in the offices in comparison to shops and supermarkets. The higher concentration trend in the offices can be due to particle resuspension from vacuum cleaning, sweeping, low air exchange rate as or due to the movements of office workers [14, 15]. PM concentrations are also greatly affected in the offices by the use of printers and multitask devices [16]. During the campaign study a slight increase was notice in the PM concentrations during month of October in comparison to September and November. On applying the one way ANOVA (SPSS 10.0) to the mean values of particulate concentrations at all the working environment; significance values were found forPM10, PM5.0, PM2.5, PM1.0, PM0.5 and PM0.25 were close to 1 or approximately 1. They varied from 0.923 to 0.998 at two offices site, 0.918 to 0.993 at two shop sites and 0.920 to 0.987 at two commercial center sites indicating that there is no significant difference between the concentrations of same type of working environment and thus have similar kind of sources which lead to the generation of particulate pollutant in their environment.

#### 3.2 Full day variation trend

The diurnal trend of particulate number and mass concentration during the sampling duration has been monitored continuously throughout the night and day in indoors at the supermarket, shop and office (Figure 7A and B). Full-day variation trend of particulate pollutant around the clock covers all the indoor activities taking place. The highest mass and number concentration peaks were observed basically during the morning hours from 9:00 to 10:00 AM and late in the evening hours from 18:00 to 19:00 PM. The maximum concentrations of the particulate matter during this time can be due to resuspension generated by traffic and other human activities, as these sites are mostly adjacent to busy traffic roads of the city (Figure 1A). As a result concentrations reaches maximum during the rush hours in the evening and morning [17]. The low concentrations for all the particles are observed during 3:00–4:00 AM in the early morning hours. Whereas, during the working hours low concentrations were reported between 14:00 and 15:00 PM in the afternoon hours at all the microenvironments. All the coarse and fine particulate sizes showed similar trends.

#### 3.3 Inter particulate ratios

For better understanding of these particles in the different indoor environment, inter particulate ratios have also been evaluated and reported in Table 4. The average contribution of finer particles (i.e., PM0.25, PM0.50, PM1.0, and PM2.5) to coarse particles (i.e., PM5.0 and PM10) in indoors during the study period for September was around 44.7% at supermarket sites, 44.8% at shops sites and 47% at office sites. In October it was 45.7% at supermarket sites, 46.2% at shops sites and 47.9% at office sites. In November it was 37.1% at supermarket sites, 37.5% at shops sites and 38.0% at office sites. Particles especially PM2.5 and below are resuspended in air with high intensive activities during indoor activities when there is low

Figure 6.

Indoor Environment and Health

28

(A) Mass concentration of PM10, PM5.0, PM2.5, PM1.0, PM0.5 and PM0.25 at supermarkets, shops and offices from September 2011 to November 2011, and (B) number concentration of PM10, PM5.0, PM2.5, PM1.0, PM0.5 and PM0.25 at supermarkets, shops, and offices from September 2011 to November 2011.

#### Indoor Environment and Health

ventilation rates due to closed doors and windows, which get reduced to some level during the infiltration from higher air exchange rates [18]. The shops are more ventilated in comparison to offices and supermarkets (Tables 2 and 3).

At offices contribution of finer particles to coarse particles is 44% while at the shops and supermarket is around 42%. This suggests that office sites are more exposed to finer particles then in comparison to shops or supermarkets.

#### 3.4 Metal concentrations

Characterization of PM components, including inorganic elements, is of central importance in proposing mechanisms for health effects and in source apportionment studies [19, 20]. Data obtained by chemical analysis for seven metals in PM2.5 particulate size collected from 36 samples of different indoor environment of supermarkets, shops and offices sites is shown in Table 5. Observations on the basis of these tables are as follows:

3.4.1 Metal concentrate particles

Inter Particulate Ratios at sampling sites.

L in different indoor microenvironment.

Figure 7.

Table 4.

31

At supermarket sites the sum of the average concentrations for fine particles were found to be 223.41 μg m<sup>3</sup> and ranged from 243.27 to 188.85 μg m<sup>3</sup> in indoors,

(A) Full day variation in μg m<sup>3</sup> in different indoor microenvironment and (B) full day variation in particles/

Mass and Number and Its Chemical Composition Distribution of Particulate Matter in Different…

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82801

Mass and Number and Its Chemical Composition Distribution of Particulate Matter in Different… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82801

#### Figure 7.

ventilation rates due to closed doors and windows, which get reduced to some level during the infiltration from higher air exchange rates [18]. The shops are more ventilated in comparison to offices and supermarkets (Tables 2 and 3).

At offices contribution of finer particles to coarse particles is 44% while at the shops and supermarket is around 42%. This suggests that office sites are more exposed to finer particles then in comparison to shops or supermarkets.

Characterization of PM components, including inorganic elements, is of central importance in proposing mechanisms for health effects and in source apportionment studies [19, 20]. Data obtained by chemical analysis for seven metals in PM2.5 particulate size collected from 36 samples of different indoor environment of supermarkets, shops and offices sites is shown in Table 5. Observations on the basis

3.4 Metal concentrations

Indoor Environment and Health

of these tables are as follows:

30

(A) Full day variation in μg m<sup>3</sup> in different indoor microenvironment and (B) full day variation in particles/ L in different indoor microenvironment.


#### Table 4. Inter Particulate Ratios at sampling sites.

### 3.4.1 Metal concentrate particles

At supermarket sites the sum of the average concentrations for fine particles were found to be 223.41 μg m<sup>3</sup> and ranged from 243.27 to 188.85 μg m<sup>3</sup> in indoors,


contribution of 0.16% at shop sites and 0.20% at office sites percentage contribution of each metal is shown in Figure 8B and C. Global emissions reported shows that natural and anthropogenic sources can contribute to the principal aerosol classes, but values change according the local scenario (coarse and fine) of atmospheric particulate matter (PM). About 10–20% of the aerosols can be characterized as anthropogenic on a global scale [21], but these values may drastically change due to local scenarios, human activities, and the prevailing particle cutoff. The principal component analysis is the most common multivariate statistical methods applied in environmental studies. The SPSS software package version 10.0 was used for the multivariate analysis. The levels of various elements vary by different orders of magnitude and hence the principal component analysis was applied to the correla-

Mass and Number and Its Chemical Composition Distribution of Particulate Matter in Different…

Principal component analysis (PCA) is a well-established tool for analyzing structure in multivariate data sets [22]. A varimax rotated factor analysis was performed to identify the major sources responsible for the particulate pollutants and the sampling sites. It is a statistical method; in which a set of multiple

intercorrelated variables are replaced by small number of independent variables or factors by orthogonal transformations also called as rotations. This is achieved by analyzing the correlation matrix of the variable, i.e., by computing their Eigen values and the Eigen vectors. "Factor loadings" obtained after the varimax rotation give the correlation between the variables and the factors. Data which is included in the matrix only if their Eigen values of tat factor is bigger than 1. The varimax technique was adopted for rotation of the factor matrix to allocate the initial matrix into one that was easier to understand. For this SPSS version 10.0 was used to perform factor analysis. At supermarket, shop and offices sites we have mostly multistory modern types of construction, as they have been built recently; usually their outside environment is of high traffic during the day with both heavy and light motor vehicles. These are in the busy commercial places of the city with many kinds of other activities like major hospitals, hotels, railway station, big or small restau-

At supermarket sites indoors three sources identifying 90% of metal concentration were identified (Table 6). Zn, Ni, Cr and Mn represent the factor 1 with 36% variance. The common source attributed to the smoking of the occupants in the indoor environment [23]. Factor two is represented by Cu and Fe with 31% variance and was attributed to resuspension of dust due to indoor human activities [23]. Third factor is comprised of Pb with 24% and is attributed to emission of paints

At shop sites indoors three sources identifying 93% of metal concentration were identified (Table 7). Zn, Cr and Mn represent the factor 1 with 37% variance. The common source attributed to the smoking of the occupants in the indoor environment [25]. Factor two is represented by Ni, Cu and Fe with 28% variance

tion matrix.

rants and banks etc.

from wall, ceiling and furniture [24].

3.5.1 Supermarket

3.5.2 Shops

33

3.5 Multivariate principal component analysis

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82801

#### Table 5.

Statistical profile of metal concentrations in PM2.5 (N = 36).

at shops site the concentration was 225.44 μg m<sup>3</sup> and ranged from 238.17– 192.93 μg m<sup>3</sup> in indoors and whereas at offices sites the concentration was found to be 227.44 μg m<sup>3</sup> and the range from 245.65 to 194.00 μg m<sup>3</sup> in indoor environment respectively. The total analyzed parameters contributed 65% at supermarket sites, 70% at shop sites while 75% at the offices site of the particulate concentration respectively. The trends in increasing order of metal concentrations at supermarket, shop and office sites are as follows:

$$\text{Ni} \le \text{Cu} \le \text{Cr} \le \text{Pb} \le \text{Fe} \le \text{Zn} \le \text{Mn} \tag{1}$$

A similar kind of trends were found for metal concentrations in all the three microenvironment, indicating one or more similar kind of sources contributing to these microenvironment, being present in similar kind of commercial areas of the city. Out of 0.14% contribution of analyzed metals in PM5 at supermarket percentage contribution of each metal is shown in Figure 8A while from the total

Figure 8. (A–C) Percent contribution of each metal at supermarket, shop, and office sites.

Mass and Number and Its Chemical Composition Distribution of Particulate Matter in Different… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82801

contribution of 0.16% at shop sites and 0.20% at office sites percentage contribution of each metal is shown in Figure 8B and C. Global emissions reported shows that natural and anthropogenic sources can contribute to the principal aerosol classes, but values change according the local scenario (coarse and fine) of atmospheric particulate matter (PM). About 10–20% of the aerosols can be characterized as anthropogenic on a global scale [21], but these values may drastically change due to local scenarios, human activities, and the prevailing particle cutoff. The principal component analysis is the most common multivariate statistical methods applied in environmental studies. The SPSS software package version 10.0 was used for the multivariate analysis. The levels of various elements vary by different orders of magnitude and hence the principal component analysis was applied to the correlation matrix.

### 3.5 Multivariate principal component analysis

Principal component analysis (PCA) is a well-established tool for analyzing structure in multivariate data sets [22]. A varimax rotated factor analysis was performed to identify the major sources responsible for the particulate pollutants and the sampling sites. It is a statistical method; in which a set of multiple intercorrelated variables are replaced by small number of independent variables or factors by orthogonal transformations also called as rotations. This is achieved by analyzing the correlation matrix of the variable, i.e., by computing their Eigen values and the Eigen vectors. "Factor loadings" obtained after the varimax rotation give the correlation between the variables and the factors. Data which is included in the matrix only if their Eigen values of tat factor is bigger than 1. The varimax technique was adopted for rotation of the factor matrix to allocate the initial matrix into one that was easier to understand. For this SPSS version 10.0 was used to perform factor analysis. At supermarket, shop and offices sites we have mostly multistory modern types of construction, as they have been built recently; usually their outside environment is of high traffic during the day with both heavy and light motor vehicles. These are in the busy commercial places of the city with many kinds of other activities like major hospitals, hotels, railway station, big or small restaurants and banks etc.

#### 3.5.1 Supermarket

at shops site the concentration was 225.44 μg m<sup>3</sup> and ranged from 238.17– 192.93 μg m<sup>3</sup> in indoors and whereas at offices sites the concentration was found to be 227.44 μg m<sup>3</sup> and the range from 245.65 to 194.00 μg m<sup>3</sup> in indoor environment respectively. The total analyzed parameters contributed 65% at supermarket sites, 70% at shop sites while 75% at the offices site of the particulate concentration respectively. The trends in increasing order of metal concentrations

A similar kind of trends were found for metal concentrations in all the three microenvironment, indicating one or more similar kind of sources contributing to these microenvironment, being present in similar kind of commercial areas of the city. Out of 0.14% contribution of analyzed metals in PM5 at supermarket percent-

age contribution of each metal is shown in Figure 8A while from the total

(A–C) Percent contribution of each metal at supermarket, shop, and office sites.

Ni , Cu , Cr , Pb , Fe , Zn , Mn (1)

) Zn Ni Cr Mn Cu Fe Pb

Average 0.60 0.04 0.09 1.36 0.07 0.38 0.17 SD 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.13 0.01 0.04 0.03 Maximum 0.62 0.06 0.10 1.50 0.08 0.42 0.20 Minimum 0.58 0.03 0.08 1.24 0.06 0.35 0.15

Average 0.62 0.07 0.10 1.52 0.09 0.42 0.21 SD 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.13 0.01 0.03 0.03 Maximum 0.65 0.09 0.12 1.65 0.10 0.45 0.25 Minimum 0.60 0.06 0.09 1.40 0.08 0.40 0.19

Average 0.67 0.08 0.12 1.78 0.13 0.45 0.25 SD 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.15 0.02 0.03 0.04 Maximum 0.70 0.10 0.15 1.95 0.15 0.48 0.29 Minimum 0.65 0.07 0.10 1.66 0.11 0.42 0.22

at supermarket, shop and office sites are as follows:

Statistical profile of metal concentrations in PM2.5 (N = 36).

Metal concentration (μg m<sup>3</sup>

Indoor Environment and Health

Supermarket

Shops

Offices

Table 5.

Figure 8.

32

At supermarket sites indoors three sources identifying 90% of metal concentration were identified (Table 6). Zn, Ni, Cr and Mn represent the factor 1 with 36% variance. The common source attributed to the smoking of the occupants in the indoor environment [23]. Factor two is represented by Cu and Fe with 31% variance and was attributed to resuspension of dust due to indoor human activities [23]. Third factor is comprised of Pb with 24% and is attributed to emission of paints from wall, ceiling and furniture [24].

#### 3.5.2 Shops

At shop sites indoors three sources identifying 93% of metal concentration were identified (Table 7). Zn, Cr and Mn represent the factor 1 with 37% variance. The common source attributed to the smoking of the occupants in the indoor environment [25]. Factor two is represented by Ni, Cu and Fe with 28% variance


#### Table 6.

Factor analysis at supermarket sites.


3.6 Risk assessment from carcinogenic metals in different working

its unit risk is currently being amended by the US EPA.

Excess cancer risks (ECRs) were calculated using the unit risk and the PMbound concentration of the metals which represents the total concentration of the metals. ECRs can be calculated simply by using the formula given below

Zn 0.57 0.47 0.46 Ni 0.55 0.38 0.47 Cr 0.54 0.62 0.48 Mn 0.62 0.47 0.32 Cu 0.41 0.82 0.40 Fe 0.39 0.84 0.34 Pb 0.32 0.47 0.87 Total 2.40 2.24 2.10 % of variance 30.22 32.03 29.99 Cumulative % 30.22 66.25 96.24

Mass and Number and Its Chemical Composition Distribution of Particulate Matter in Different…

123

Excess cancer risk inhalation ð Þ¼ concentration of pollutant <sup>μ</sup>g m\_3 � unit risk <sup>μ</sup>g m\_3 �<sup>1</sup>

The information on the carcinogenic types and the unit risks of the metals was obtained from the US EPA database for IRIS (Integrated Risk Information System) [28]. Fine particles, PM2.5-bound metals such as Cd, Cr, Ni and Pb are the known carcinogenic metals which can cause serious health risks to occupants in these microenvironments. They are introduced to the occupants by exposure through the inhalation pathway [27]. Cadmium have been categorized as the B1 carcinogen, while Cr (VI) is classified as group A which indicates that it is a known human carcinogen by the inhalation route of exposure. Therefore, the concentration of Cr (VI) used for the carcinogenic risk assessment was calculated as one seventh of the total Cr concentration. Nickel also has been classified as group A materials, known human carcinogens. From the research findings it is evident that Ni was mainly emitted from tobacco or cigarette smoke and outdoor sources like the industrial or refinery emissions can contribute to it in an indoor environment [29]. Lead on the other hand is also a probable human carcinogen (group B2), but human evidence is inadequate and

PM2.5-bound metals such as Cd, Cr and Ni, respectively, based on PM concentrations. The particles whose diameters are less than 4 mm can penetrate into the trachea, bronchi and the alveoli [28, 29]. In Table 9, the estimated ECR of PM2.5-bound carcinogenic elements in the indoor environment for the average values and the 95th percentile values of Cd, Cr and Ni. The total ECRs based on the average values of Cd, Cr (VI) and Ni in PM2.5 in different indoor environment varied from 0.47 to 0.32 � <sup>10</sup>\_6, respectively. Ni had the highest

(2)

environment

Factor analysis at office sites.

Rotated component matrix at office sites

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82801

[26, 27]:

35

Table 8.

#### Table 7.

Factor analysis at shop sites.

and was attributed to electrical wiring or appliances [1]. Third factor is comprised of Pb with 27% and is attributed to emission of paints from wall, ceiling and furniture [24].

#### 3.5.3 Offices

At office sites indoors three sources identifying 92% of metal concentration were identified (Table 8). Zn, Ni, Cr and Mn represent the factor 1 with 30% variance. The common source attributed to the smoking of the occupants in the indoor environment [25]. Factor two is represented by Cu and Fe with 32% variance and was attributed to resuspension of dust due to indoor human activities [23]. Third factor is comprised of Pb with 30% and is attributed to emission of paints from wall, ceiling, and furniture [24].

Mass and Number and Its Chemical Composition Distribution of Particulate Matter in Different… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82801


Table 8.

Factor analysis at office sites.

### 3.6 Risk assessment from carcinogenic metals in different working environment

Excess cancer risks (ECRs) were calculated using the unit risk and the PMbound concentration of the metals which represents the total concentration of the metals. ECRs can be calculated simply by using the formula given below [26, 27]:

Excess cancer risk inhalation ð Þ¼ concentration of pollutant <sup>μ</sup>g m\_3 � unit risk <sup>μ</sup>g m\_3 �<sup>1</sup> (2)

The information on the carcinogenic types and the unit risks of the metals was obtained from the US EPA database for IRIS (Integrated Risk Information System) [28]. Fine particles, PM2.5-bound metals such as Cd, Cr, Ni and Pb are the known carcinogenic metals which can cause serious health risks to occupants in these microenvironments. They are introduced to the occupants by exposure through the inhalation pathway [27]. Cadmium have been categorized as the B1 carcinogen, while Cr (VI) is classified as group A which indicates that it is a known human carcinogen by the inhalation route of exposure. Therefore, the concentration of Cr (VI) used for the carcinogenic risk assessment was calculated as one seventh of the total Cr concentration. Nickel also has been classified as group A materials, known human carcinogens. From the research findings it is evident that Ni was mainly emitted from tobacco or cigarette smoke and outdoor sources like the industrial or refinery emissions can contribute to it in an indoor environment [29]. Lead on the other hand is also a probable human carcinogen (group B2), but human evidence is inadequate and its unit risk is currently being amended by the US EPA.

PM2.5-bound metals such as Cd, Cr and Ni, respectively, based on PM concentrations. The particles whose diameters are less than 4 mm can penetrate into the trachea, bronchi and the alveoli [28, 29]. In Table 9, the estimated ECR of PM2.5-bound carcinogenic elements in the indoor environment for the average values and the 95th percentile values of Cd, Cr and Ni. The total ECRs based on the average values of Cd, Cr (VI) and Ni in PM2.5 in different indoor environment varied from 0.47 to 0.32 � <sup>10</sup>\_6, respectively. Ni had the highest

and was attributed to electrical wiring or appliances [1]. Third factor is comprised of Pb with 27% and is attributed to emission of paints from wall, ceiling and

Zn 0.62 0.47 0.46 Ni 0.48 0.68 0.42 Cr 0.70 0.33 0.26 Mn 0.83 0.34 0.41 Cu 0.44 0.89 0.38 Fe 0.39 0.76 0.30 Pb 0.42 0.34 0.87 Total 2.89 1.99 1.89 % of variance 37.28 28.45 26.99 Cumulative % 37.28 69.73 96.72

Rotated component matrix at office sites

Zn 0.71 0.29 0.43 Ni 0.78 0.44 0.30 Cr 0.74 0.43 0.19 Mn 0.79 0.29 0.48 Cu 0.23 0.75 0.22 Fe 0.38 0.62 0.45 Pb 0.44 0.31 0.76 Total 2.51 2.16 2.14 % of variance 35.88 30.79 23.62 Cumulative % 35.88 66.67 82.29

123

123

At office sites indoors three sources identifying 92% of metal concentration were identified (Table 8). Zn, Ni, Cr and Mn represent the factor 1 with 30% variance. The common source attributed to the smoking of the occupants in the indoor environment [25]. Factor two is represented by Cu and Fe with 32% variance and was attributed to resuspension of dust due to indoor human activities [23]. Third factor is comprised of Pb with 30% and is attributed to emission of paints from wall,

furniture [24].

Factor analysis at shop sites.

ceiling, and furniture [24].

3.5.3 Offices

34

Table 7.

Table 6.

Factor analysis at supermarket sites.

Indoor Environment and Health

Rotated component matrix at office sites


Acknowledgements

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82801

facilities.

Author details

Mahima Habil<sup>1</sup>

37

\*, David D. Massey<sup>1</sup> and Ajay Taneja<sup>2</sup>

2 Department of Chemistry, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar University, Agra, India

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

1 Department of Chemistry, St John's College, Agra, India

\*Address all correspondence to: mahi.habil@gmail.com

provided the original work is properly cited.

Support is duly acknowledged by Council of Science and Industrial Research (Project No. 8/109 (0010)/2011-EMR-I). I would like to thank Principal and Head of the Chemistry Department, St. John's College Agra for providing necessary

Mass and Number and Its Chemical Composition Distribution of Particulate Matter in Different…

Table 9.

Excess cancer risks of carcinogenic elements in PM2.5 in different indoor environment.

ECRs followed by Cd and Cr in the different indoor environment. The results indicates that occupant exposure to toxic trace metals in indoor environments can easily get cancer in different indoor working environments. Thus, trace metals in airborne fine and ultrafine particles be used in order to more accurately assess environmental and health risks. Thus chemical speciation of metal is important and should become a routine analysis in future study of air pollution.
