Nutrition for Lactation of Dairy Sheep

*Houcine Selmi, Amani Bahri and Hamadi Rouissi*

#### **Abstract**

The feeding of dairy sheep has to start exactly at the beginning of the last 2 months of gestation (the last third of gestation) and not after lambing. Indeed, during this critical physiological stage, the rumen is compressed by the uterus. Therefore, the ewe can no longer ingest the amount of food that can satisfy its ingestion capacity (2–2.5 kg DM/100Kg of weight/speed) which leads to a controversial situation therein the fact that on the one hand the needs are high (maintenance and gestation) and on the other hand the ingestion capacity is decreasing. To solve this issue, we should give the ewe a supplement based on good quality food that is not heavy and that favors rapid digestive transit. Thus, this supplement must be a concentrated feed distributed at a rate of 0.3 FU/ewe/day), during the last 2 months of gestation. This feeding technique makes it possible to have vigorous lambs at birth, a satisfactory colostrum production which makes it possible to give the lambs the antibodies, necessary for their passive immunity, and therefore reduce the perinatal mortality rate as well as allow for a good triggering of milk production which will be increased in the quantity produced and the peak of lactation. In general, the ration must always be balanced in energy and protein. Indeed, if the ration is surplus in energy, it can cause the infertility of ewes. If it is the other way around, the urea will be stored in the liver and transformed into the urine. However, if the excess is intolerable, it will persist in the liver and cause mortality of the animals and diseases, such as alkalosis. In addition to proteins and energy, ewes must receive the necessary minerals, mainly Ca and P, during pregnancy and lactation. A deficiency of Ca at the end of gestation will cause milk fever (hypocalcemia) which will not be recoverable later. Finally, excessive watering should be avoided after a water is cut to prevent diarrhea.

**Keywords:** nutritional disorders, deficiency, dairy sheep, gestation

#### **1. Introduction**

The development of ruminant livestock farming in the Mediterranean area involves different sciences (nutrition, reproduction, genetics, health) which must be conducted in parallel and in an integrated way in a breeding system. The conditions of the rearing environment (temperatures, humidity, pathologies, forage quality, etc.) are difficult and limit individual performance (production of milk and meat). Ruminant feeding in the tropics has been the subject of much work, and several approaches have been developed. The first approach focused on improving the quality of the basic ration. The low nutritional value of tropical forage is one of the main factors limiting animal performance [1]. Various works were carried

out to improve the nutritional quality of the fodder, and so many varieties were distributed. Improved digestibility and ingestibility of forages, by physicochemical treatments, on the one hand, and by urea treatment, on the other hand, were also studied [2, 3]. However, the ingestibility of these forages, their protein, and energy value remained lower than those used in temperate zones and do not cover the needs of our herds. This leads to a massive reliance on imports of animal products like dairy and meat products.

Indeed, after the good period of reproduction, the feeding behavior of the ewes at the end of gestation must allow to successfully bait and ensure a good start of lactation. Reasonable dietary behavior over the last 6 weeks of gestation strongly contributes to a good birth weight of lambs, longevity, and body condition of the ewe [4].

In theory, the needs during the control period are not different from those of the maintenance, but the overfeeding practiced (flushing) during this fight influences the egg-laying and also the grouping of the calves allowing a better control of the notion of allotment.

On the other hand, many authors have reported that diet influences prolificacy. Indeed, stimulation of ovarian activity promotes ovulation rate (based on live weight and weight gain before the fight). The heaviest ewes have a higher ovulation rate. Hence, the interest of pre-estrous flushing, which improves the number of agneaus born from 10 to 20%.

In Tunisia, the Sicilo-Sarde breed is a medium-sized sheep breed with a height of 0.7–0.8 m, heterogeneous in color with the dominance of white, with a medium weight of ewes, 40 kg and 60 kg for rams. The head is slightly elongated without horns. The neck is moderately long, the members are long and thin, and the trunk is elongated with a full belly. The udder is well developed with a strong attachment and with straight nipples. Breeding performance of the Sicilo-Sarde breed depends on several factors, such as driving, feeding, housing, and genetic factors [5]. The herd is conducted in a semi-intensive system [6], characterized by rations consisting of hay, thatch, natural pastures, crop residues, and greenery (barley in green, bersim, etc.). The use of the concentrated feed takes place throughout the year in varying amounts. Figures from the Ministry of Agriculture show that the numbers of this dairy breed are in constant decline. For this, many questions have been raised about the profitability and sustainability of this breeding [6–13].

#### **2. Physiology of lactation**

#### **2.1 Morphological and anatomical description of the mammary gland**

The udder is an exocrine gland composed of two independent quarters, located on the ventral side of the animal in inguinal position. The right and left quarters of the udder are separated by a central suspension ligament composed of elastic tissue. Branches of this ligament can extend into the quarters. The udder is covered with elastic skin [14]. It can be enlarged by the accumulation of milk between two milking or between two feeding. In lactation, each quarter contains secretory tissue consisting of mammary epithelial cells, milk ducts, a gland cistern, and a teat [15, 16].

The mammary epithelial cell is a secretory cell constituting the smallest cell unit (or acini). In lactation, the epithelial cells are polarized, with the basal side on the basement membrane side and the luminal side located on the alveolar lumen side. The constituents of the milk are secreted in the alveolar lumen by the luminal side. The epithelial cells are bound together by tight junctions and are based on

**55**

*Nutrition for Lactation of Dairy Sheep*

mic reticulum.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85344*

before being included in secretory vesicles [18].

**2.2 Hormonal mechanism of milk secretion**

a basement membrane consisting of laminin, collagen, and glycosaminoglycans. Epithelial cells contain basal part of the nucleus, surrounded by granular endoplas-

The onset of lactation or milk production is the result of the effect of two pituitary hormones, namely, prolactin and growth hormones [19]. The role of these hormones is inhibited during pregnancy by high levels of estrogen and progesterone; after lambing the sudden drop in these hormones allows the secretion of prolactin and, therefore, the onset of lactation [16]. Prolactin and GH play a pivotal role in the transition from the mammary gland proliferation phase to the milk secretion phase by acting either directly or via the mammary epithelium-secreted hormones that activate the transcription of the mammary gland. Other factors that ensure the onset of lactation [20]. Cannas et al. [21] reported that maintenance of milk synthesis and secretion is controlled by the interaction of systemic factors and local regulatory factors, whereas throughout lactation milk synthesis decreases

Refs. [22, 23] have reported that GH-specific receptors are absent in the mammary gland, so this hormone exerts its positive effect on milk production, indirectly, by stimulating synthesis and secretion of insulin growth factors whose receptors have been identified in the mammary gland of the ovine species. Aside from its role in triggering lactation, this hormone (GH) increases blood circulation

Milk is synthesized in mammary epithelial cells lining the alveoli from the nutrients provided by the blood vessels that come in contact with them. The synthesized milk is secreted in the alveolar lumen [25]. There are two mechanisms of milk evacuation; the first is the flow of milk by contraction of smooth muscles, and the second is an ejection reflex. The first mechanism for evacuating milk is the flow of the latter after opening the sphincter under the effect of the pressure of the teat at the beginning of milking. This mechanism starts 5–10 s after teat stimulation. It involves the contraction of the smooth muscles surrounding the canals, causing the evacuation of the milk they contain [10]. This flow phase allows the evacuation of 40–50% of the milk produced. The second mechanism is the milk ejection reflex. During the first stimulation of the teat or the animal (smell, vision, hearing), nerve impulses go from the teat (or any other sensory organ) to the brain, which then releases into the blood a hormone of the hypothalamo-hypophyseal complex: oxytocin. This hormone acts on the myoepithelial cells surrounding the alveoli causing their contraction [9]. Under the contraction of the myoepithelial cells, the cells are

because of increased doses of estradiol and progesterone [19].

and increases mobilization of body reserves [24].

**2.3 Mechanisms for evacuation of milk**

In the direction of the apical plasma membrane, cytoplasm contains the Golgi apparatus and secretion of different units: the lipid droplets and the secretory vesicles. The apical plasma membrane forms microvillus [17]. The synthesis of milk fat takes place within the endoplasmic reticulum and is materialized by the formation of lipid droplets between the two membrane layers of the reticulum. Once formed, the lipid droplets migrate to the apical membrane according to mechanisms that have not yet been elucidated. Lactose is synthesized in the Golgi apparatus and accumulates in secretory vesicles. Proteins are synthesized by ribosomes located on the surface of the granular endoplasmic reticulum. They, then, pass through the Golgi apparatus or begin the maturation process (phosphorylation, in particular)

#### *Nutrition for Lactation of Dairy Sheep DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85344*

*Lactation in Farm Animals - Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements…*

like dairy and meat products.

tion of the ewe [4].

notion of allotment.

agneaus born from 10 to 20%.

**2. Physiology of lactation**

out to improve the nutritional quality of the fodder, and so many varieties were distributed. Improved digestibility and ingestibility of forages, by physicochemical treatments, on the one hand, and by urea treatment, on the other hand, were also studied [2, 3]. However, the ingestibility of these forages, their protein, and energy value remained lower than those used in temperate zones and do not cover the needs of our herds. This leads to a massive reliance on imports of animal products

Indeed, after the good period of reproduction, the feeding behavior of the ewes at the end of gestation must allow to successfully bait and ensure a good start of lactation. Reasonable dietary behavior over the last 6 weeks of gestation strongly contributes to a good birth weight of lambs, longevity, and body condi-

In theory, the needs during the control period are not different from those of the maintenance, but the overfeeding practiced (flushing) during this fight influences the egg-laying and also the grouping of the calves allowing a better control of the

On the other hand, many authors have reported that diet influences prolificacy.

In Tunisia, the Sicilo-Sarde breed is a medium-sized sheep breed with a height of 0.7–0.8 m, heterogeneous in color with the dominance of white, with a medium weight of ewes, 40 kg and 60 kg for rams. The head is slightly elongated without horns. The neck is moderately long, the members are long and thin, and the trunk is elongated with a full belly. The udder is well developed with a strong attachment and with straight nipples. Breeding performance of the Sicilo-Sarde breed depends on several factors, such as driving, feeding, housing, and genetic factors [5]. The herd is conducted in a semi-intensive system [6], characterized by rations consisting of hay, thatch, natural pastures, crop residues, and greenery (barley in green, bersim, etc.). The use of the concentrated feed takes place throughout the year in varying amounts. Figures from the Ministry of Agriculture show that the numbers of this dairy breed are in constant decline. For this, many questions have been raised about the profitability and sustainability of this breeding [6–13].

Indeed, stimulation of ovarian activity promotes ovulation rate (based on live weight and weight gain before the fight). The heaviest ewes have a higher ovulation rate. Hence, the interest of pre-estrous flushing, which improves the number of

**2.1 Morphological and anatomical description of the mammary gland**

The udder is an exocrine gland composed of two independent quarters, located on the ventral side of the animal in inguinal position. The right and left quarters of the udder are separated by a central suspension ligament composed of elastic tissue. Branches of this ligament can extend into the quarters. The udder is covered with elastic skin [14]. It can be enlarged by the accumulation of milk between two milking or between two feeding. In lactation, each quarter contains secretory tissue consisting of mammary epithelial cells, milk ducts, a gland cistern, and a

The mammary epithelial cell is a secretory cell constituting the smallest cell unit (or acini). In lactation, the epithelial cells are polarized, with the basal side on the basement membrane side and the luminal side located on the alveolar lumen side. The constituents of the milk are secreted in the alveolar lumen by the luminal side. The epithelial cells are bound together by tight junctions and are based on

**54**

teat [15, 16].

a basement membrane consisting of laminin, collagen, and glycosaminoglycans. Epithelial cells contain basal part of the nucleus, surrounded by granular endoplasmic reticulum.

In the direction of the apical plasma membrane, cytoplasm contains the Golgi apparatus and secretion of different units: the lipid droplets and the secretory vesicles. The apical plasma membrane forms microvillus [17]. The synthesis of milk fat takes place within the endoplasmic reticulum and is materialized by the formation of lipid droplets between the two membrane layers of the reticulum. Once formed, the lipid droplets migrate to the apical membrane according to mechanisms that have not yet been elucidated. Lactose is synthesized in the Golgi apparatus and accumulates in secretory vesicles. Proteins are synthesized by ribosomes located on the surface of the granular endoplasmic reticulum. They, then, pass through the Golgi apparatus or begin the maturation process (phosphorylation, in particular) before being included in secretory vesicles [18].

#### **2.2 Hormonal mechanism of milk secretion**

The onset of lactation or milk production is the result of the effect of two pituitary hormones, namely, prolactin and growth hormones [19]. The role of these hormones is inhibited during pregnancy by high levels of estrogen and progesterone; after lambing the sudden drop in these hormones allows the secretion of prolactin and, therefore, the onset of lactation [16]. Prolactin and GH play a pivotal role in the transition from the mammary gland proliferation phase to the milk secretion phase by acting either directly or via the mammary epithelium-secreted hormones that activate the transcription of the mammary gland. Other factors that ensure the onset of lactation [20]. Cannas et al. [21] reported that maintenance of milk synthesis and secretion is controlled by the interaction of systemic factors and local regulatory factors, whereas throughout lactation milk synthesis decreases because of increased doses of estradiol and progesterone [19].

Refs. [22, 23] have reported that GH-specific receptors are absent in the mammary gland, so this hormone exerts its positive effect on milk production, indirectly, by stimulating synthesis and secretion of insulin growth factors whose receptors have been identified in the mammary gland of the ovine species. Aside from its role in triggering lactation, this hormone (GH) increases blood circulation and increases mobilization of body reserves [24].

#### **2.3 Mechanisms for evacuation of milk**

Milk is synthesized in mammary epithelial cells lining the alveoli from the nutrients provided by the blood vessels that come in contact with them. The synthesized milk is secreted in the alveolar lumen [25]. There are two mechanisms of milk evacuation; the first is the flow of milk by contraction of smooth muscles, and the second is an ejection reflex. The first mechanism for evacuating milk is the flow of the latter after opening the sphincter under the effect of the pressure of the teat at the beginning of milking. This mechanism starts 5–10 s after teat stimulation. It involves the contraction of the smooth muscles surrounding the canals, causing the evacuation of the milk they contain [10]. This flow phase allows the evacuation of 40–50% of the milk produced. The second mechanism is the milk ejection reflex. During the first stimulation of the teat or the animal (smell, vision, hearing), nerve impulses go from the teat (or any other sensory organ) to the brain, which then releases into the blood a hormone of the hypothalamo-hypophyseal complex: oxytocin. This hormone acts on the myoepithelial cells surrounding the alveoli causing their contraction [9]. Under the contraction of the myoepithelial cells, the cells are

pressed causing the ejection of the milk contained in the acini lumen toward the terminal ducts and then the intralobular, interlobular, and interlobar ducts where it reaches the cistern of the gland and then that of the teat. The milk ejection reflex usually takes place 20–30 s after the initial stimulation [26]. In this same context, [25] have shown that the level of secretion of oxytocin differs significantly depending on the season in the Lacaune race, as the level of secretion in autumn is higher than in spring (27.5 ± 1.9 μg/ml against 12 ± 1.4 μg/ml, respectively).

#### **3. Dietary requirements of dairy sheep during gestation**

#### **3.1 Feeding gestante females**

As we have reported, the feeding of pregnant females, especially during the last third of gestation, has an impact on fetal weights, vigor of newborn lambs, mortality, milk production of the mother, growth rate of lambs, the onset of pregnancy toxemia and body weight, and maturity on sale. As a result, this energy, protein, mineral, and vitamin diet can be broken down into three periods.

In early pregnancy, fetal growth is minimal, and the feeding requirements of ewes differ a little from those observed at the maintenance stage. We can therefore give the ewes a similar ration in a slightly higher quantity. Grain is rarely needed early in pregnancy unless forage is of poor quality and the body condition of the ewe is affected.

At the beginning of gestation (1 month), any sudden modification of the diet during this period can cause embryonic mortalities. The embryo settles 16 days after fertilization. In the second period, during the mid-gestation period (2nd and 3rd month), the animals' needs are still low; they are equivalent to those of a maintenance of a female (**Table 1**).

The third period, which is the end of gestation period, is the most critical period, as the needs are higher and higher because of the development of the fetus or fetuses. The volume of the uterus takes more and more place in the abdomen; it also compresses the digestive tract. The capacity of ingestion of the ewe decreases strongly; it requires a complementation with a small food (food has a fast digestive transit) which is especially rich in energy. This complementation is called steaming.


**57**

**Table 2.**

*Nutrition for Lactation of Dairy Sheep*

summarized in **Table 2**.

tion, it is recommended to:

of concentrate, per day.

Month of gestation

Lactation month

*Mineral requirements according to the physiological stage.*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85344*

In addition to lactation, this is the most nutritionally demanding stage because

During calving, the ewe will experience a relatively low intake because of the loss of appetite. Thus, to cover the needs of lactation (0.6 FU and 120 g DNM/liter of milk), the diet must be based on grazing or feeding in green along with a feed-concentrated supplement, to allow the ewe to restore fat reserves lost in late gestation. It is strongly recommended that the grass should not be young to avoid certain diseases such as grass tetany, resulting from Mg deficiency, which can lead to ewe mortality. The greenery should not be rich in legumes to avoid weathering resulting

The mineral requirements of sheep during the gestation and milking phase are

• Scan ewes and separate those with single lambs from those with double lambs.

The success of the births needs a food preparation. In practice, it is necessary to provide energy intakes equal to 1.5 times that of maintenance during the last 6–8 weeks of gestation for ewes carrying multiples. Indeed, we use steaming which is an operation of providing a complement to the ewe during this critical phase. This supplementation varies according to the state of the courses at the rate of 200–400 g

**Physiological stage Ca P**

2 05 04 3 05.5 04 4 08.5 05.5 5 08.5 05.5

1 14 09 2 12 08 3 10 07 4 08 06

A deficiency of nitrogenous materials and minerals always has regrettable consequences on the viability and the weight of the lambs. An important energy undernourishment causes an excessive mobilization of the reserves bodily, risking of a toxemia of gestation. To remedy this difficulty and ensure a good start of lacta-

of fetal growth and the development of milk production potential. More than 80% of fetal growth occurs during the last 6 weeks of gestation. A deficient nutrition (especially in energy) during this period has detrimental effects on the milk production of the ewe, the birth weight, and the vigor (survival potential) of the lambs. Ewes must receive at least 335 g (0.75 lbs. of a mixture of grains, per ewe, per

from a buildup of gas in the rumen that would cause digestive disorders.

day, for those with a lambing percentage greater than 200%.

• Make the batches according to the body condition.

• Avoid manipulations, especially thermal stress.

#### **Table 1.**

*Maintenance needs of sheep in FU and DNM.*

#### *Nutrition for Lactation of Dairy Sheep DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85344*

*Lactation in Farm Animals - Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements…*

than in spring (27.5 ± 1.9 μg/ml against 12 ± 1.4 μg/ml, respectively).

**3. Dietary requirements of dairy sheep during gestation**

mineral, and vitamin diet can be broken down into three periods.

**3.1 Feeding gestante females**

maintenance of a female (**Table 1**).

*FU, fodder unit; DNM, digested nitrogenous materials.*

*Maintenance needs of sheep in FU and DNM.*

ewe is affected.

pressed causing the ejection of the milk contained in the acini lumen toward the terminal ducts and then the intralobular, interlobular, and interlobar ducts where it reaches the cistern of the gland and then that of the teat. The milk ejection reflex usually takes place 20–30 s after the initial stimulation [26]. In this same context, [25] have shown that the level of secretion of oxytocin differs significantly depending on the season in the Lacaune race, as the level of secretion in autumn is higher

As we have reported, the feeding of pregnant females, especially during the last third of gestation, has an impact on fetal weights, vigor of newborn lambs, mortality, milk production of the mother, growth rate of lambs, the onset of pregnancy toxemia and body weight, and maturity on sale. As a result, this energy, protein,

In early pregnancy, fetal growth is minimal, and the feeding requirements of ewes differ a little from those observed at the maintenance stage. We can therefore give the ewes a similar ration in a slightly higher quantity. Grain is rarely needed early in pregnancy unless forage is of poor quality and the body condition of the

At the beginning of gestation (1 month), any sudden modification of the diet during this period can cause embryonic mortalities. The embryo settles 16 days after fertilization. In the second period, during the mid-gestation period (2nd and 3rd month), the animals' needs are still low; they are equivalent to those of a

The third period, which is the end of gestation period, is the most critical period, as the needs are higher and higher because of the development of the fetus or fetuses. The volume of the uterus takes more and more place in the abdomen; it also compresses the digestive tract. The capacity of ingestion of the ewe decreases strongly; it requires a complementation with a small food (food has a fast digestive transit) which is especially rich in energy. This complementation is called steaming.

**Live weight FU DNM** 05 0.18 15 10 0.26 22 15 0.33 28 20 0.38 32 30 0.47 40 40 0.53 45 50 0.59 50 60 0.65 55 70 0.70 60 80 0.74 64

**56**

**Table 1.**

In addition to lactation, this is the most nutritionally demanding stage because of fetal growth and the development of milk production potential. More than 80% of fetal growth occurs during the last 6 weeks of gestation. A deficient nutrition (especially in energy) during this period has detrimental effects on the milk production of the ewe, the birth weight, and the vigor (survival potential) of the lambs. Ewes must receive at least 335 g (0.75 lbs. of a mixture of grains, per ewe, per day, for those with a lambing percentage greater than 200%.

During calving, the ewe will experience a relatively low intake because of the loss of appetite. Thus, to cover the needs of lactation (0.6 FU and 120 g DNM/liter of milk), the diet must be based on grazing or feeding in green along with a feed-concentrated supplement, to allow the ewe to restore fat reserves lost in late gestation.

It is strongly recommended that the grass should not be young to avoid certain diseases such as grass tetany, resulting from Mg deficiency, which can lead to ewe mortality. The greenery should not be rich in legumes to avoid weathering resulting from a buildup of gas in the rumen that would cause digestive disorders.

The mineral requirements of sheep during the gestation and milking phase are summarized in **Table 2**.

A deficiency of nitrogenous materials and minerals always has regrettable consequences on the viability and the weight of the lambs. An important energy undernourishment causes an excessive mobilization of the reserves bodily, risking of a toxemia of gestation. To remedy this difficulty and ensure a good start of lactation, it is recommended to:


The success of the births needs a food preparation. In practice, it is necessary to provide energy intakes equal to 1.5 times that of maintenance during the last 6–8 weeks of gestation for ewes carrying multiples. Indeed, we use steaming which is an operation of providing a complement to the ewe during this critical phase. This supplementation varies according to the state of the courses at the rate of 200–400 g of concentrate, per day.


**Table 2.**

*Mineral requirements according to the physiological stage.*

#### **3.2 Feeding lactating females**

During the first month of lactation, the lamb is dependent on the milk production of the mother. Needs are important, but the ingestion capacity is limited for 3 weeks. The maximum milk production level is reached very quickly after the farrowing period:


During this period, the energy balance is negative, and the animal can on his bodily reserves. We accept a loss of weight of 2 kg per month (1–4 kg depending on the state of the female before the birth).

Lactating ewes typically reach maximum milk production 3–4 weeks after lambing and produce 75% of their total milk yield during the first 8 weeks of lactation [2]. The ewe that seals two lambs produces 20–40% more milk than the one that only feeds one.

As the growth of lamb is paramount and depends on the production of sheep's milk, it is essential to optimize milk production. Too often, we see herds where ewes do not receive sufficient amounts of food in relation to the number of lambs they breastfeed. In most cases, the rations do not contain a sufficient proportion of grains during the first 4–6 weeks of lactation, which results in energy deficiency and often protein. In ewes, milk production depends on the same diet as in dairy cattle.

During this period of lactation, it will be necessary to:


The above information discusses production stages in the case of lambing, once a year, whether in summer or winter. To be successful, pastoralists who adopt an accelerated lambing program must ensure that the health status of their ewes is above average. Ewes should not lose too much weight during lactation if the breeder expects that they are giving birth again and is performing well in the number of lambs and their weight at weaning.

The most often overlooked step for good herd nutrition is the assessment of body condition. The farmer must measure the body condition of his flock to determine how ewes respond to feeds. If this step is neglected, forage sampling and ration evaluation will be unnecessary. The farmer must evaluate how the herd reacts to the food provided to them. In the absence of an assessment of body condition, good herd nutrition cannot be achieved.

#### **4. Effect of diet on the production and composition of sheep's milk**

Food is one of the main factors conditioning animal production. Its effects can be noted on the quantity as well as the quality of the animal products. In dairy sheep, milk production is dependent on the level of food and the quality of the constituents of the diet [27].

**59**

*a*

**Table 3.**

(p < 0.05).

*Nutrition for Lactation of Dairy Sheep*

richer in fat and protein (p < 0.05).

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85344*

A study conducted by [28] on two forage species, barley in green and vetch with or without supplementation, showed that total milk production was not affected by complementation, as well as daily production was 460 and 430 ml, respectively, on barley and vetch with no significant difference, while milk produced on vetch is

In the same context, [6] mentioned that the amount of milk produced by Sicilo-Sarde ewes grazing oats is higher than on pasture of *Phalaris*. Milk produced with a pasture-based diet is richer in fat and protein than that produced by sheep fed with hay and silage in sheepfolds [29, 30]. These results have been confirmed by [7] who have argued that the milk of ewes fed with green fodder supplemented or not is

The use of legume pasture such as bersim, sulla, and medicago significantly increases the protein quality of sheep's milk and the level of production [31], leading to an intense marketing of milk and a quality of cheese. Better and with less burden because of the low use of the concentrated feed [32]. Similarly, [33] showed that the herbage was accompanied by very important changes in most milk characteristics, and in particular the urea content (+0.12 g/kg between samples taken in March and May) and mineral contents (respectively, +0.06 g/kg, +0.09 g/kg,

Pirisi et al. [11] tested the effect of diets on the physicochemical and microbiological characteristics of milk produced by Sardinian ewes fed with hay, silage, and mixed concentrate (R1) and with ryegrass grazing. Italy (R2) showed that the level of butyric spores was higher (p < 0.01) in milk R1 (1140 vs. 20 germs/l) and the concentration of somatic cells was higher in milk (R1), while the fat content is higher in cheese (R1) characterized by a poor structure (**Table 3**). Similarly, [34] reported that milk production increases during winter–spring with pasture and supplementation only during the autumn (pasture alone). In the same context, the ejection of ewes previously fed with preserved fodder results in an increase in milk production, which leads to a second peak of lactation around March [29, 35].

Atti et al. [36] reported that the amount of milk produced by Sicilo-Sarde dairy sheep on green barley or fat strip grazing was significantly higher (p < 0.05) than that of ewes receiving milk. In sheep-fed silage (616, 618, and 363 ml/day), the fat content and the protein content are higher for sheep in sheepfold than for ewes grazing barley in green or fat ray (**Table 4**). However, there is no significant difference in either production or milk quality between the two pasture forage species

The milk content in urea nitrogen depends on the protein content of the ration; it is better correlated with it (R2 = 0.82) than with the amount of protein ingested (R2 = 0.56), which is in fact an effective indicator of nitrogen use [37]. The urea content of milk varied between 12 and 27 mg/dl depending on the protein level

pH 6.6 ± 0.03 6.72 ± 0.03 Solide total (g/100 g) 18.54 ± 0.42 18.09 ± 0.28 MG (g/100 ml) 7.24 ± 0.37 6.98 ± 0.33 MP (g/100 g) 5.28 ± 0.12a 5.66 ± 0.11a Casein (g/100 g) 4.26 ± 0.16 4.36 ± 0.17

*The averages of the same line bearing different letters are significantly different (p < 0.01).*

*Physicochemical criteria of milk from ewes fed at the trough or on pasture.*

**R1 R2**

richer in fat (77.4 vs. 69.1 g/kg) and in proteins (62.4 vs. 59.4 g/kg).

−0.26 g/kg for calcium, phosphorus, and citrates).

*Lactation in Farm Animals - Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements…*

• At 15 days when the ewe is nursing two lambs.

• At 3 weeks when the ewe is nursing one lamb.

During this period of lactation, it will be necessary to:

the state of the female before the birth).

During the first month of lactation, the lamb is dependent on the milk production of the mother. Needs are important, but the ingestion capacity is limited for 3 weeks. The maximum milk production level is reached very quickly after the

During this period, the energy balance is negative, and the animal can on his bodily reserves. We accept a loss of weight of 2 kg per month (1–4 kg depending on

Lactating ewes typically reach maximum milk production 3–4 weeks after lambing and produce 75% of their total milk yield during the first 8 weeks of lactation [2]. The ewe that seals two lambs produces 20–40% more milk than the one that

As the growth of lamb is paramount and depends on the production of sheep's milk, it is essential to optimize milk production. Too often, we see herds where ewes do not receive sufficient amounts of food in relation to the number of lambs they breastfeed. In most cases, the rations do not contain a sufficient proportion of grains during the first 4–6 weeks of lactation, which results in energy deficiency and often protein. In ewes, milk production depends on the same diet as in dairy cattle.

• Cover the nitrogen requirements of mothers (they have more reserves).

• Limit the energy deficit knowing that the animal mobilizes its reserves.

• Ensure ingestion capacity. In fact, it reaches its optimal level again 5–6 weeks

The above information discusses production stages in the case of lambing, once a year, whether in summer or winter. To be successful, pastoralists who adopt an accelerated lambing program must ensure that the health status of their ewes is above average. Ewes should not lose too much weight during lactation if the breeder expects that they are giving birth again and is performing well in the number of

The most often overlooked step for good herd nutrition is the assessment of body condition. The farmer must measure the body condition of his flock to determine how ewes respond to feeds. If this step is neglected, forage sampling and ration evaluation will be unnecessary. The farmer must evaluate how the herd reacts to the food provided to them. In the absence of an assessment of body condition,

**4. Effect of diet on the production and composition of sheep's milk**

Food is one of the main factors conditioning animal production. Its effects can be noted on the quantity as well as the quality of the animal products. In dairy sheep, milk production is dependent on the level of food and the quality of the

**3.2 Feeding lactating females**

farrowing period:

only feeds one.

after lambing.

lambs and their weight at weaning.

good herd nutrition cannot be achieved.

constituents of the diet [27].

**58**

A study conducted by [28] on two forage species, barley in green and vetch with or without supplementation, showed that total milk production was not affected by complementation, as well as daily production was 460 and 430 ml, respectively, on barley and vetch with no significant difference, while milk produced on vetch is richer in fat and protein (p < 0.05).

In the same context, [6] mentioned that the amount of milk produced by Sicilo-Sarde ewes grazing oats is higher than on pasture of *Phalaris*. Milk produced with a pasture-based diet is richer in fat and protein than that produced by sheep fed with hay and silage in sheepfolds [29, 30]. These results have been confirmed by [7] who have argued that the milk of ewes fed with green fodder supplemented or not is richer in fat (77.4 vs. 69.1 g/kg) and in proteins (62.4 vs. 59.4 g/kg).

The use of legume pasture such as bersim, sulla, and medicago significantly increases the protein quality of sheep's milk and the level of production [31], leading to an intense marketing of milk and a quality of cheese. Better and with less burden because of the low use of the concentrated feed [32]. Similarly, [33] showed that the herbage was accompanied by very important changes in most milk characteristics, and in particular the urea content (+0.12 g/kg between samples taken in March and May) and mineral contents (respectively, +0.06 g/kg, +0.09 g/kg, −0.26 g/kg for calcium, phosphorus, and citrates).

Pirisi et al. [11] tested the effect of diets on the physicochemical and microbiological characteristics of milk produced by Sardinian ewes fed with hay, silage, and mixed concentrate (R1) and with ryegrass grazing. Italy (R2) showed that the level of butyric spores was higher (p < 0.01) in milk R1 (1140 vs. 20 germs/l) and the concentration of somatic cells was higher in milk (R1), while the fat content is higher in cheese (R1) characterized by a poor structure (**Table 3**). Similarly, [34] reported that milk production increases during winter–spring with pasture and supplementation only during the autumn (pasture alone). In the same context, the ejection of ewes previously fed with preserved fodder results in an increase in milk production, which leads to a second peak of lactation around March [29, 35].

Atti et al. [36] reported that the amount of milk produced by Sicilo-Sarde dairy sheep on green barley or fat strip grazing was significantly higher (p < 0.05) than that of ewes receiving milk. In sheep-fed silage (616, 618, and 363 ml/day), the fat content and the protein content are higher for sheep in sheepfold than for ewes grazing barley in green or fat ray (**Table 4**). However, there is no significant difference in either production or milk quality between the two pasture forage species (p < 0.05).

The milk content in urea nitrogen depends on the protein content of the ration; it is better correlated with it (R2 = 0.82) than with the amount of protein ingested (R2 = 0.56), which is in fact an effective indicator of nitrogen use [37]. The urea content of milk varied between 12 and 27 mg/dl depending on the protein level


#### **Table 3.**

*Physicochemical criteria of milk from ewes fed at the trough or on pasture.*


#### **Table 4.**

*Average production (ml/day) and milk composition of Sicilo-Sarde sheep according to the food mode.*

of the diet: these values, lower than those measured in dairy cows, are consistent with those observed on Lacaune ewes during the milking phase, when increase in the coverage rate of average needs in DINP (from 120 to 160%) causes a significant increase in the content of milk in urea (from 38 to 52 mg/dl, i.e., + 36%) which is linked (R2 = 0, 90) imbalance (DINP-PDIE)/UFL rations [38], while total dry matter intake does not affect milk urea [9, 39].

Ewes fed with a 34.1% starch concentrate produce more milk than those receiving a 12.2% concentrate (1.088 vs. 0.902 kg/d), without affecting milk fat and protein composition (TB, 8.04 vs. 8.57%; TP, 5.96 vs. 5.83%, respectively), for starchy and starchy concentrate feed [40]. On the other hand, [41] reported that a food rich in starch that is rapidly fermentable in the rumen leads to a more intense production of propionate and a drop in the milk fat content. In addition, the same authors reported that there is no systematic influence of the rate of starch degradation on protein levels and raw milk yield when comparing corn and barley. However, Sinas et al. [42] have shown that when rations comprise a large proportion of untreated sorghum which is the richest cereal in terms of slow starch, there is a decrease in milk yield compared with sorghum treated with steam under pressure. These results may reveal the existence of a maximum threshold not to exceed protected starch in the diet [43]. The relationship between volatile fatty acids and ruminal pH, on one side, and the production and composition of milk, on the other, has been studied by [44]. Thus, the proportion of propionate and butyrate is positively correlated with the amount of milk unlike acetate, while the butyrous rate evolves in the same direction as the C2 and conversely with C3 and C4.

#### **5. Conclusion**

Since there is a great deal of variation in the quality of the fodder, their analysis is paramount and must include the following nutrient content: crude protein, acid detergent fiber (FDA), calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, and possibly even micronutrients (copper, manganese, and zinc), understanding the changes in nutrient requirements according to the production cycle. To easily manage sheep farming and meet their needs, it is essential to know at all times the production cycle of sheep and each group of ewes, to be able to separate the sheep and ensure adequate management of each group. Regardless of the production system adopted by the farmer (accelerated or once a year), profitability is closely linked to a nutrition adapted to the production cycle, to know at what stage of production are the ewes you feed and to reduce feed costs by avoiding unnecessary overfeeding. The production cycle of the ewe is generally considered to have six important stages of production: maintenance, intensive feeding, early gestation, late gestation, and early lactation. Management in general, and more specifically nutrition management, should be modified at each of these stages if the farmer wants the herd to be healthy and above all to obtain a satisfactory selling price.

**61**

**Author details**

Houcine Selmi1

Mateur, Tunisia

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*, Amani Bahri<sup>2</sup>

\*Address all correspondence to: houcine\_selmi@live.fr

*Nutrition for Lactation of Dairy Sheep*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85344*

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

and Hamadi Rouissi3

1 Sylvo-Pastoral Institute of Tabarka, University of Jendouba, Tabarka, Tunisia

2 National Agronomic Institute of Tunisia, University of Carthage, Tunis, Tunisia

3 Department of Animal Productions, Higher School of Agriculture of Mateur,

*Nutrition for Lactation of Dairy Sheep DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85344*

*Lactation in Farm Animals - Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements…*

of the diet: these values, lower than those measured in dairy cows, are consistent with those observed on Lacaune ewes during the milking phase, when increase in the coverage rate of average needs in DINP (from 120 to 160%) causes a significant increase in the content of milk in urea (from 38 to 52 mg/dl, i.e., + 36%) which is linked (R2 = 0, 90) imbalance (DINP-PDIE)/UFL rations [38], while total dry mat-

*Average production (ml/day) and milk composition of Sicilo-Sarde sheep according to the food mode.*

Milk production 363 616 618 37.5 \*\*\* FAT 88.8 77.2 76.8 1.15 \*\*\* Protein 57.6 54.6 53 0.51 \*\*\*

**Bergerie Orge en vert Ryegrass ESM P**

Ewes fed with a 34.1% starch concentrate produce more milk than those receiving a 12.2% concentrate (1.088 vs. 0.902 kg/d), without affecting milk fat and protein composition (TB, 8.04 vs. 8.57%; TP, 5.96 vs. 5.83%, respectively), for starchy and starchy concentrate feed [40]. On the other hand, [41] reported that a food rich in starch that is rapidly fermentable in the rumen leads to a more intense production of propionate and a drop in the milk fat content. In addition, the same authors reported that there is no systematic influence of the rate of starch degradation on protein levels and raw milk yield when comparing corn and barley. However, Sinas et al. [42] have shown that when rations comprise a large proportion of untreated sorghum which is the richest cereal in terms of slow starch, there is a decrease in milk yield compared with sorghum treated with steam under pressure. These results may reveal the existence of a maximum threshold not to exceed protected starch in the diet [43]. The relationship between volatile fatty acids and ruminal pH, on one side, and the production and composition of milk, on the other, has been studied by [44]. Thus, the proportion of propionate and butyrate is positively correlated with the amount of milk unlike acetate, while the butyrous rate evolves in the same

Since there is a great deal of variation in the quality of the fodder, their analysis is paramount and must include the following nutrient content: crude protein, acid detergent fiber (FDA), calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, and possibly even micronutrients (copper, manganese, and zinc), understanding the changes in nutrient requirements according to the production cycle. To easily manage sheep farming and meet their needs, it is essential to know at all times the production cycle of sheep and each group of ewes, to be able to separate the sheep and ensure adequate management of each group. Regardless of the production system adopted by the farmer (accelerated or once a year), profitability is closely linked to a nutrition adapted to the production cycle, to know at what stage of production are the ewes you feed and to reduce feed costs by avoiding unnecessary overfeeding. The production cycle of the ewe is generally considered to have six important stages of production: maintenance, intensive feeding, early gestation, late gestation, and early lactation. Management in general, and more specifically nutrition management, should be modified at each of these stages if the farmer wants the herd to be

ter intake does not affect milk urea [9, 39].

*\*\*\*p < 0.01; ESM, error standard mean [36].*

**Table 4.**

direction as the C2 and conversely with C3 and C4.

healthy and above all to obtain a satisfactory selling price.

**60**

**5. Conclusion**

### **Author details**

Houcine Selmi1 \*, Amani Bahri<sup>2</sup> and Hamadi Rouissi3

1 Sylvo-Pastoral Institute of Tabarka, University of Jendouba, Tabarka, Tunisia

2 National Agronomic Institute of Tunisia, University of Carthage, Tunis, Tunisia

3 Department of Animal Productions, Higher School of Agriculture of Mateur, Mateur, Tunisia

\*Address all correspondence to: houcine\_selmi@live.fr

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

### **References**

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[2] Dudouet C. La production du mouton. Editions France Agricole. 3ème édition. 2012. 330 p

[3] Kayouli C. Traitement à l'urée des fourrages grossiers. Projet FAOPNUD/ NER/89/016/Niger. 1994

[4] Selmi H, Bouzourrâa I, Ben Gara A, Rekik B, Rouissi H. Effects of incorporating protected FAT into the ration on Milk yield and quality in Sicilo-Sarde dairy ewes. American-Euroasian Journal of Agricultural and Environment Science. 2010;**9**(5):545-547

[5] Gabina D. Les nouvelles techniques de reproduction et les programmes de selectionchez les ovins laitiers. Options méditerranéennes, série A, n° 12. 1990

[6] Rouissi H, Rekik B, Selmi H, Hammami M, Ben Gara A. Performances laitières de la brebis Sicilo-Sarde Tunisienne complémentée par un concentré local. Livestock Research for Rural Development. 2008;**20**(7)

[7] Moujahed N, Ben Henda N, Darej C, Rekik B, Damergi C, Kayouli C. Analyse des principaux facteurs de variation de la production laitière et de la composition du lait chez la brebis Sicilo Sarde dans la région de Béja (Tunisie). Livestock Research for Rural Development. 2009;**21**(4)

[8] Muwalla MM, Harb MY. Optimum use of straw based diets for suckled Awassi ewes. Annales de Zootechnie. 1999;**48**:389-395

[9] Negrao JA, Marnet PG. Cortisol, adrenalin, noradrenalin and oxytocin release and milk yield during first milkings in primiparous ewes. Small Ruminant Research. 2003;**47**:69-75

[10] Negrao JA, Marnet PG, Labussière J. Effect of milking frequency on oxytocin release and milk production in dairy ewes. Small Ruminant Research. 2001;**39**:181-187

[11] Pirisi A, Pes M, Furesi S, Riu G, Piredda G, Mucchetti G. Production of fat-reduced ovine Ricotta cheese from whey concentrated by ultrafiltration. Le Lait. 2005;**55**:502-516

[12] Rouissi H, Atti N, Othmane MH. Alimentation de la brebis Sicilo-Sarde: Effets de l'éspece fourragère, du mode d'exploitation et de la complémentation. Annale de l'INRAT. 2005;**78**

[13] Selmi H, Hammami M, Rekik B, Ben Gara A, Rouissi H. Effet du remplacement du soja par la féverole sur la production du gaz "in vitro" chez les béliers de race Sicilo-Sarde. Livestock Research for Rural Development. 2009;**21**(7)

[14] Frandson RD. Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger; 1986

[15] Frimawaty E, Manalu W. Milk yield and lactose synthetase activity in the mammary glands of super ovulated ewes. Small Ruminant Research. 1999;**33**:271-278

[16] Svennersten-Sjaunja K, Olsson K. Endocrinology of milk production. Domestic Animal Endocrinology. 2005;**14**(3):272-276

[17] Mather IH, Keenan TW. The cell biology of milk secretion: Historical notes. Journal of Mammary Gland Biology and Neoplasia. 1998;**3**(3):227-232

**63**

1993

1998;**28**:183-191

*Nutrition for Lactation of Dairy Sheep*

[18] Jarrell VL, Dziuk PJ. Effect of number of corpora lutea and fetuses on concentrations of progesterone in blood of goats. Journal Animal Science.

[19] Akers RM. Lactation and the

[20] Lamote I, Meyer E, Massart-Leen AM, Burvenich C. Sex steroids and growth factors in the regulation of mammary gland proliferation, differentiation and involution. Steroids.

Mammary Gland. USA: Iowa State Press;

[21] Cannas A, Pes A, Mancuso R, Vodret B, Nudda A. Effect of dietary energy and protein concentration of milk urea nitrogen in dairy ewes. Journal Dairy

[22] Flint DJ, Knight CH. Interactions of prolactin and growth hormone (GH) in the regulation of mammary gland function and epithelial cell survival. Journal Mammary Gland Biology

1991;**69**:770-773

2004;**69**:145-159

Science. 1998;**81**:499-508

Neoplasia. 1997;**2**:41-48

[23] Hull KL, Harvey S. Growth

hormone: Roles in female reproduction. Journal Endocrinoly. 2001;**168**:1-23

[24] Capuco AV, Ellis SF, Hale SA, Long E, Erdman RA, Zhao X. Lactation persistency: Insights from mammary cell proliferation studies. Journal Animal Science. 2003;**81**:18-31

[25] Marnet PG, Negrao JA, Labussière J. Oxytocin release and Milk ejection parameters during milking of dairy ewes in and out natural season of lactation. Small Ruminant Research.

[26] Labussière J. Physiologie de l'éjection du lait. Conséquence sur la traite. In: Martinet J, Houdebine LM, editors. Biologie de la lactation. Les editions INSERM–INRA editions;

2002

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85344*

[27] Bocquier F, Caja G. Production et composition du lait de brebis: Effets del'alimentation. INRAT Production Animale. 2001;**14**(2):129-140

[28] Atti N, Rouissi H. La production de lait de brebis Sicilo Sarde: Effet de la nature de pâturage et du niveau de la complémentation. Annales de l' I.N.R.A

[29] Abdouli H, Atti N. Amélioration de la production laitière ovine. Rapport

[30] Ligios S, Sitzia M, Fois N, Decandia M, Molle G, Roggero PP, et al. Effet de la disponibilité en herbe et de la structure du couvert herbacé sur l'ingestion et la production de brebis au pâturage. Options Méditerranéennes, Série B.

[31] Molle G, Decandia M, Cabiddu A, Landau SY, Cannas A. An update on the nutrition of dairy sheep grazing Mediterranean pastures. Small Ruminant Research. 2008;**77**:93-112

[32] Bocquier F, Guillouet P, Barillet F. Alimentation hivernale des brebis laitières: Intérêt de la mise en lots. INRA Production Animale. 1995;**8**:19-28

[33] Agabriel C, Coulon JP, Journal C, De Rancourt C. Composition chimiquedu lait et système de production dans les exploitations du massif central. INRA Production

[34] Molina MP, Molle G, Ligios S, Ruda G, Casu S. Evolution de la note d'état corporel des brebis de race Sarde dans différents systèmes d'élevage et relation avec la production laitière. Options Méditerranéennes. 1991;**13**:91-96

[35] Atti N. Effet du mode de conduite et de l'age au sevrage de l'agneau sur les performances de production de la race laitière Sicilo-Sarde. Annales de

Animale. 2001;**14**:119-128

l'INRAT. 1998;**71**

de Tunisie. 2003;**76**:209-224

Final dePNM. 1997. p. 12

2002;**42**:73-84

*Nutrition for Lactation of Dairy Sheep DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85344*

[18] Jarrell VL, Dziuk PJ. Effect of number of corpora lutea and fetuses on concentrations of progesterone in blood of goats. Journal Animal Science. 1991;**69**:770-773

[19] Akers RM. Lactation and the Mammary Gland. USA: Iowa State Press; 2002

[20] Lamote I, Meyer E, Massart-Leen AM, Burvenich C. Sex steroids and growth factors in the regulation of mammary gland proliferation, differentiation and involution. Steroids. 2004;**69**:145-159

[21] Cannas A, Pes A, Mancuso R, Vodret B, Nudda A. Effect of dietary energy and protein concentration of milk urea nitrogen in dairy ewes. Journal Dairy Science. 1998;**81**:499-508

[22] Flint DJ, Knight CH. Interactions of prolactin and growth hormone (GH) in the regulation of mammary gland function and epithelial cell survival. Journal Mammary Gland Biology Neoplasia. 1997;**2**:41-48

[23] Hull KL, Harvey S. Growth hormone: Roles in female reproduction. Journal Endocrinoly. 2001;**168**:1-23

[24] Capuco AV, Ellis SF, Hale SA, Long E, Erdman RA, Zhao X. Lactation persistency: Insights from mammary cell proliferation studies. Journal Animal Science. 2003;**81**:18-31

[25] Marnet PG, Negrao JA, Labussière J. Oxytocin release and Milk ejection parameters during milking of dairy ewes in and out natural season of lactation. Small Ruminant Research. 1998;**28**:183-191

[26] Labussière J. Physiologie de l'éjection du lait. Conséquence sur la traite. In: Martinet J, Houdebine LM, editors. Biologie de la lactation. Les editions INSERM–INRA editions; 1993

[27] Bocquier F, Caja G. Production et composition du lait de brebis: Effets del'alimentation. INRAT Production Animale. 2001;**14**(2):129-140

[28] Atti N, Rouissi H. La production de lait de brebis Sicilo Sarde: Effet de la nature de pâturage et du niveau de la complémentation. Annales de l' I.N.R.A de Tunisie. 2003;**76**:209-224

[29] Abdouli H, Atti N. Amélioration de la production laitière ovine. Rapport Final dePNM. 1997. p. 12

[30] Ligios S, Sitzia M, Fois N, Decandia M, Molle G, Roggero PP, et al. Effet de la disponibilité en herbe et de la structure du couvert herbacé sur l'ingestion et la production de brebis au pâturage. Options Méditerranéennes, Série B. 2002;**42**:73-84

[31] Molle G, Decandia M, Cabiddu A, Landau SY, Cannas A. An update on the nutrition of dairy sheep grazing Mediterranean pastures. Small Ruminant Research. 2008;**77**:93-112

[32] Bocquier F, Guillouet P, Barillet F. Alimentation hivernale des brebis laitières: Intérêt de la mise en lots. INRA Production Animale. 1995;**8**:19-28

[33] Agabriel C, Coulon JP, Journal C, De Rancourt C. Composition chimiquedu lait et système de production dans les exploitations du massif central. INRA Production Animale. 2001;**14**:119-128

[34] Molina MP, Molle G, Ligios S, Ruda G, Casu S. Evolution de la note d'état corporel des brebis de race Sarde dans différents systèmes d'élevage et relation avec la production laitière. Options Méditerranéennes. 1991;**13**:91-96

[35] Atti N. Effet du mode de conduite et de l'age au sevrage de l'agneau sur les performances de production de la race laitière Sicilo-Sarde. Annales de l'INRAT. 1998;**71**

**62**

*Lactation in Farm Animals - Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements…*

release and milk yield during first milkings in primiparous ewes. Small Ruminant Research. 2003;**47**:69-75

2001;**39**:181-187

Lait. 2005;**55**:502-516

2005;**78**

2009;**21**(7)

1999;**33**:271-278

2005;**14**(3):272-276

1998;**3**(3):227-232

[10] Negrao JA, Marnet PG, Labussière J. Effect of milking frequency on oxytocin release and milk production in dairy ewes. Small Ruminant Research.

[11] Pirisi A, Pes M, Furesi S, Riu G, Piredda G, Mucchetti G. Production of fat-reduced ovine Ricotta cheese from whey concentrated by ultrafiltration. Le

[12] Rouissi H, Atti N, Othmane MH. Alimentation de la brebis Sicilo-Sarde: Effets de l'éspece fourragère, du mode d'exploitation et de la

complémentation. Annale de l'INRAT.

[13] Selmi H, Hammami M, Rekik B, Ben Gara A, Rouissi H. Effet du remplacement du soja par la féverole sur la production du gaz "in vitro" chez les béliers de race Sicilo-Sarde. Livestock Research for Rural Development.

[14] Frandson RD. Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger; 1986

[15] Frimawaty E, Manalu W. Milk yield and lactose synthetase activity in the mammary glands of super ovulated ewes. Small Ruminant Research.

[16] Svennersten-Sjaunja K, Olsson K. Endocrinology of milk production. Domestic Animal Endocrinology.

[17] Mather IH, Keenan TW. The cell biology of milk secretion:

Gland Biology and Neoplasia.

Historical notes. Journal of Mammary

**References**

1990;**3**:277-303

édition. 2012. 330 p

2010;**9**(5):545-547

NER/89/016/Niger. 1994

[4] Selmi H, Bouzourrâa I, Ben Gara A, Rekik B, Rouissi H. Effects of incorporating protected FAT into the ration on Milk yield and quality in Sicilo-Sarde dairy ewes. American-Euroasian Journal of

[1] Leng RA. Factors affecting the utilisation of poor-quality forages by ruminants particularly under tropical conditions. Nutrition Research Revue.

[2] Dudouet C. La production du

mouton. Editions France Agricole. 3ème

[3] Kayouli C. Traitement à l'urée des fourrages grossiers. Projet FAOPNUD/

Agricultural and Environment Science.

[5] Gabina D. Les nouvelles techniques de reproduction et les programmes de selectionchez les ovins laitiers. Options méditerranéennes, série A, n° 12. 1990

Hammami M, Ben Gara A. Performances

[7] Moujahed N, Ben Henda N, Darej C,

[8] Muwalla MM, Harb MY. Optimum use of straw based diets for suckled Awassi ewes. Annales de Zootechnie.

[9] Negrao JA, Marnet PG. Cortisol, adrenalin, noradrenalin and oxytocin

[6] Rouissi H, Rekik B, Selmi H,

laitières de la brebis Sicilo-Sarde Tunisienne complémentée par un concentré local. Livestock Research for Rural Development. 2008;**20**(7)

Rekik B, Damergi C, Kayouli C. Analyse des principaux facteurs de variation de la production laitière et de la composition du lait chez la brebis Sicilo Sarde dans la région de Béja (Tunisie). Livestock Research for Rural

Development. 2009;**21**(4)

1999;**48**:389-395

[36] Atti N, Rouissi H, Othmane MH. Milk production, milk fatty acid composition and conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) content in dairy ewes raised on feed lot orgrazing pasture. Livestock Science. 2006;**104**:121-127

[37] Faverdin P, Vérité R. Utilisation de la teneur en urée du lait comme indicateur de la nutrition protéique et des rejets azotés chez la vache laitière. Rencontre Recherche Ruminants. 1998;**5**:209

[38] Lagriffoul G, Guitard JP, Arranz JM, Autran P, Drux B, Delmas G, Gautier JM, Jaudon JP, Morin F, Saby C, Vacaresse C, Van Quackebeke E

[39] Whitaker DA, Kelly JM, Eayres HF. Assessing dairy cow diets through milk urea tests. Veterinary Research. 1995;**136**:179-180

[40] Archimède H, Sauvant D, Hervieu J, Ternois F, Poncet C. Effects of the nature of forage and concentrate and their proportion on ruminal characteristics of non lactating goats, consequences on digestive interactions. Animal Feed Science and Technology. 1996;**58**:2472-2485

[41] Sauvant D, Chapoutot P, Archimède H. La digestion des amidons par les ruminants et ses conséquences. INRA Production Animale. 1994;**7**:115-124

[42] Sinas J, Huber JT, Wu Z, Theurer CB. Effect of steam flaked sorghum grain on milk and milk components yield in cows fed supplemental fat. Journal Dairy Science. 1992;**75**(S1):296

[43] Chen KH, Huber JT, Theurer CB, Sinas J. Steam flaked corn or sorghum grain compared to steam rolled corn or dry rolled sorghum grain for high producing dairy cows. Journal Dairy Science. 1992;**75**(S1):296

[44] Seymour WM, Campbell DR, Johnson ZB. Relationships between rumen volatile fatty acid concentrations and milk production in dairy cows: A literature study. Animal Feed Science and Technology. 2005;**119**:155-169

**65**

**Chapter 4**

*Irum Arif*

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

Probiotic Supplement Improves

the Health Status and Lactation

*Shakira Ghazanfar, Aayesha Riaz, Muhammad Naeem Tahir,* 

Probiotics are essential for the effective growth of beneficial bacteria present in enteric line. They help in the physiological functions of new-born calves that are highly susceptible to a variety of fatal syndromes. The criterion for the selection of strains for the design of probiotic products are based on retaining functional health characteristics. Samples from Nili-Ravi buffaloes were collected, and rumen strains are identified for probiotic product. Microscopic techniques with different biochemical tests and molecular techniques such as BLAST have performed for identification. Following species of *Weisella* has been identified based on genotypic analysis (16S rRNA) under accession number MK336765 (F2) and MK336779 (F4) in the NCBI GenBanK. The strains sharing some of the specific properties evaluated were identified genetically, and their compatibility and exopolysaccharide production were assayed. All of this will be helpful in the production of multi-stain-

The innovative development in the dairy industry is possible only due to scrupulous research, nutrition, genetics, and management strategies and its oriented implementation. The high risk of contagion is due to occasional bouts and improper feed of nutritional contents which become the ultimate cause of debility and economic and resource loss. To avoid the prevalence of such harms on dairy animals' proper nutritional content, management of hygiene adoption is required [1, 2]. For this, a term is defined in the 1960s which is "probiotic," which is a curious mixture of Latin (pro = for, in favor of) and Greek (bios = life). Probiotic which is discovered by Elie Metchnikoff in the early twentieth century is defined as "Live microorganisms which when administrated in an adequate amount to organism body confer a health benefit on the host and alter the gastrointestinal tract flora into the beneficial form" [3]. The nature of probiotics is on the basis of human, animals, and plants [4]. But, here we will focus on the probiotic types of animals because we are dealing with dairy animals.

probiotic product for the nourishment of dairy calves.

**Keywords:** calves, lactic acid bacteria, probiotic, rumen, product

*Saad Maqbool, Ghulam Muhammad Ali, Fatima Tariq and* 

Performance in Dairy Animals

#### **Chapter 4**

*Lactation in Farm Animals - Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements…*

and milk production in dairy cows: A literature study. Animal Feed Science and Technology. 2005;**119**:155-169

[36] Atti N, Rouissi H, Othmane MH. Milk production, milk fatty acid composition and conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) content in dairy ewes raised on feed lot orgrazing pasture. Livestock

[37] Faverdin P, Vérité R. Utilisation de la teneur en urée du lait comme indicateur de la nutrition protéique et des rejets azotés chez la vache laitière. Rencontre Recherche Ruminants. 1998;**5**:209

[38] Lagriffoul G, Guitard JP, Arranz JM, Autran P, Drux B, Delmas G, Gautier JM, Jaudon JP, Morin F, Saby C,

[39] Whitaker DA, Kelly JM, Eayres HF. Assessing dairy cow diets through milk urea tests. Veterinary Research.

[40] Archimède H, Sauvant D, Hervieu J, Ternois F, Poncet C. Effects of the nature of forage and concentrate and their proportion on ruminal characteristics of non lactating goats, consequences on digestive interactions. Animal Feed Science and Technology.

[41] Sauvant D, Chapoutot P, Archimède H. La digestion des amidons par les ruminants et ses conséquences. INRA Production Animale. 1994;**7**:115-124

[42] Sinas J, Huber JT, Wu Z, Theurer CB. Effect of steam flaked sorghum grain on milk and milk components yield in cows fed supplemental fat. Journal Dairy Science. 1992;**75**(S1):296

[43] Chen KH, Huber JT, Theurer CB, Sinas J. Steam flaked corn or sorghum grain compared to steam rolled corn or dry rolled sorghum grain for high producing dairy cows. Journal Dairy

[44] Seymour WM, Campbell DR, Johnson ZB. Relationships between rumen volatile fatty acid concentrations

Science. 1992;**75**(S1):296

Vacaresse C, Van Quackebeke E

1995;**136**:179-180

1996;**58**:2472-2485

Science. 2006;**104**:121-127

**64**

## Probiotic Supplement Improves the Health Status and Lactation Performance in Dairy Animals

*Shakira Ghazanfar, Aayesha Riaz, Muhammad Naeem Tahir, Saad Maqbool, Ghulam Muhammad Ali, Fatima Tariq and Irum Arif*

#### **Abstract**

Probiotics are essential for the effective growth of beneficial bacteria present in enteric line. They help in the physiological functions of new-born calves that are highly susceptible to a variety of fatal syndromes. The criterion for the selection of strains for the design of probiotic products are based on retaining functional health characteristics. Samples from Nili-Ravi buffaloes were collected, and rumen strains are identified for probiotic product. Microscopic techniques with different biochemical tests and molecular techniques such as BLAST have performed for identification. Following species of *Weisella* has been identified based on genotypic analysis (16S rRNA) under accession number MK336765 (F2) and MK336779 (F4) in the NCBI GenBanK. The strains sharing some of the specific properties evaluated were identified genetically, and their compatibility and exopolysaccharide production were assayed. All of this will be helpful in the production of multi-stainprobiotic product for the nourishment of dairy calves.

**Keywords:** calves, lactic acid bacteria, probiotic, rumen, product

#### **1. Introduction**

The innovative development in the dairy industry is possible only due to scrupulous research, nutrition, genetics, and management strategies and its oriented implementation. The high risk of contagion is due to occasional bouts and improper feed of nutritional contents which become the ultimate cause of debility and economic and resource loss. To avoid the prevalence of such harms on dairy animals' proper nutritional content, management of hygiene adoption is required [1, 2]. For this, a term is defined in the 1960s which is "probiotic," which is a curious mixture of Latin (pro = for, in favor of) and Greek (bios = life). Probiotic which is discovered by Elie Metchnikoff in the early twentieth century is defined as "Live microorganisms which when administrated in an adequate amount to organism body confer a health benefit on the host and alter the gastrointestinal tract flora into the beneficial form" [3]. The nature of probiotics is on the basis of human, animals, and plants [4]. But, here we will focus on the probiotic types of animals because we are dealing with dairy animals.

Microbial infections which become the cause of mortality in dairy animals are animals scouring at early stage and perturbation in microbial GIT and the most enteric infections caused by *Escherichia coli*, *Clostridium perfringens*, *Salmonella*, and some *Streptococcus* and *Staphylococcus* species [5]. The major microbial density is present in the reticulum, rectum, and colon mostly. So, to eradicate the prevalence and outcomes of these infections and to nourish the local microbiota of the gastrointestinal tract. Due to the indiscriminate use of antibiotics, antibiotics resistance has become dominant characteristics in microorganisms [6]. Increase in the dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes is reducing the therapeutic possibilities in infectious disease. So, in order to alleviate the problems associated with the antibiotic use, a number of replacement have been proposed, and one of them is the effectiveness of probiotics [7].

Probiotic microbiota-based feed supplements are used to combat major enteric infections [8]. So, different types of probiotics strains are used for making the GIT congenial for proper health and growth. These probiotics strains are collected from a

#### **Figure 1.**

*Impact of the Probiotics on the GIT of dairy animal: The microbial flora degrades the feed and improve feed intake and ultimately improve milk production.*

**67**

bacteria:

cial bacteria.

*Probiotic Supplement Improves the Health Status and Lactation Performance in Dairy Animals*

different source of host such as feces, milk, and directly from GIT. Probiotic bacteria produce protein segments or polypeptide bacteriocins which reduce the growth of harmful bacteria [9]. Probiotics help to prevent and control gastrointestinal pathogens and improve the performance and production of animals through various biochemical mechanisms. Closely related strains may differ in their mode of action [10]. Increased nutrient digestion in the diet may be due to the speed-up of enzyme activity in the intestine due to probiotics [11]. *Lactobacillus* probiotics altered the digestive enzyme activity in the GIT of dairy animals and enhanced the growth rate [12]. However, there is no change in proteolytic and lipolytic activity of the animal's digestive enzyme activity. This improvement in amylase activity is associated with a 4.6% increase in body weight gain and 5% improvement in feed use efficiency [13]. Probiotics increased the height of intestinal villi and villus height crypt ratio in dairy animals,

The rumen has complex integrated microbial ecology which degrades the ingested polysaccharide and proteins resulting in short-chain fatty acids which are further used by a host as energy and protein source [16]. The probiotic concept was raised around 1900 which is hypothesized by Elin Metchnikoff, and later he was convinced that yoghurt contained the organisms which are necessary for protecting the intestine from the damaging effects of other harmful bacteria [17]. The first clinical trials were performed in the 1930s. In the 1950s, a probiotic product was licenced by the United States Department of Agriculture as a drug for the treatment of scouring (*Escherichia coli* infection) among pigs [18]. In 1994, the World Health Organization deemed probiotics to be the next most important immune defence system when the commonly prescribed antibiotics are rendered useless by antibiotic

resistance, altering the natural mechanism of the body [19] (**Figure 1**).

The most common organism used in the vital preparation of probiotics in the lactic acid bacteria (LAB) is highly effective because it is also the natural flora of organism GIT system and it is regarded as safe in the words of US FDA [20]. Microorganisms other than LABs which are currently used in probiotic preparation are *Bacillus* sp. and yeasts (*Saccharomyces cerevisiae* and *S. boulardii*). Different species of *Lactobacillus*, *Bifidobacterium*, and *Enterococcus* are used for probiotic preparation with fructooligosaccharides (FOS). The probiotic products are in the

The following abilities should be manifested by bacteria used as lactic acid

• It should exert a beneficial effect on the host's life and metabolic activities.

• It should withstand into a foodstuff at high cell counts and remain viable

• It should withstand through the GIT tract and help in colonization of benefi-

throughout the shelf life of the probiotic-containing product.

• It should adhere to the intestinal epithelium cell lining.

**2. Microbial composition of the GIT of dairy animals**

form of spray, pastes, tablets, powder, and capsules [21].

**3. Selection of probiotics to improve milk yield**

thus increasing the surface area for nutrient absorption [14, 15].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85779*

*Probiotic Supplement Improves the Health Status and Lactation Performance in Dairy Animals DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85779*

different source of host such as feces, milk, and directly from GIT. Probiotic bacteria produce protein segments or polypeptide bacteriocins which reduce the growth of harmful bacteria [9]. Probiotics help to prevent and control gastrointestinal pathogens and improve the performance and production of animals through various biochemical mechanisms. Closely related strains may differ in their mode of action [10]. Increased nutrient digestion in the diet may be due to the speed-up of enzyme activity in the intestine due to probiotics [11]. *Lactobacillus* probiotics altered the digestive enzyme activity in the GIT of dairy animals and enhanced the growth rate [12]. However, there is no change in proteolytic and lipolytic activity of the animal's digestive enzyme activity. This improvement in amylase activity is associated with a 4.6% increase in body weight gain and 5% improvement in feed use efficiency [13]. Probiotics increased the height of intestinal villi and villus height crypt ratio in dairy animals, thus increasing the surface area for nutrient absorption [14, 15].

The rumen has complex integrated microbial ecology which degrades the ingested polysaccharide and proteins resulting in short-chain fatty acids which are further used by a host as energy and protein source [16]. The probiotic concept was raised around 1900 which is hypothesized by Elin Metchnikoff, and later he was convinced that yoghurt contained the organisms which are necessary for protecting the intestine from the damaging effects of other harmful bacteria [17]. The first clinical trials were performed in the 1930s. In the 1950s, a probiotic product was licenced by the United States Department of Agriculture as a drug for the treatment of scouring (*Escherichia coli* infection) among pigs [18]. In 1994, the World Health Organization deemed probiotics to be the next most important immune defence system when the commonly prescribed antibiotics are rendered useless by antibiotic resistance, altering the natural mechanism of the body [19] (**Figure 1**).

#### **2. Microbial composition of the GIT of dairy animals**

The most common organism used in the vital preparation of probiotics in the lactic acid bacteria (LAB) is highly effective because it is also the natural flora of organism GIT system and it is regarded as safe in the words of US FDA [20]. Microorganisms other than LABs which are currently used in probiotic preparation are *Bacillus* sp. and yeasts (*Saccharomyces cerevisiae* and *S. boulardii*). Different species of *Lactobacillus*, *Bifidobacterium*, and *Enterococcus* are used for probiotic preparation with fructooligosaccharides (FOS). The probiotic products are in the form of spray, pastes, tablets, powder, and capsules [21].

#### **3. Selection of probiotics to improve milk yield**

The following abilities should be manifested by bacteria used as lactic acid bacteria:


*Lactation in Farm Animals - Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements…*

Microbial infections which become the cause of mortality in dairy animals are animals scouring at early stage and perturbation in microbial GIT and the most enteric infections caused by *Escherichia coli*, *Clostridium perfringens*, *Salmonella*, and some *Streptococcus* and *Staphylococcus* species [5]. The major microbial density is present in the reticulum, rectum, and colon mostly. So, to eradicate the prevalence and outcomes of these infections and to nourish the local microbiota of the gastrointestinal tract. Due to the indiscriminate use of antibiotics, antibiotics resistance has become dominant characteristics in microorganisms [6]. Increase in the dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes is reducing the therapeutic possibilities in infectious disease. So, in order to alleviate the problems associated with the antibiotic use, a number of replacement have been proposed, and one of them is the effectiveness of probiotics [7]. Probiotic microbiota-based feed supplements are used to combat major enteric infections [8]. So, different types of probiotics strains are used for making the GIT congenial for proper health and growth. These probiotics strains are collected from a

*Impact of the Probiotics on the GIT of dairy animal: The microbial flora degrades the feed and improve feed* 

**66**

**Figure 1.**

*intake and ultimately improve milk production.*

*Lactation in Farm Animals - Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements…*


#### **Table 1.**

*Most Common species of LAB'S in animal probiotic preparation.*


These strains are used for the preparation of probiotics with or without FOS (**Table 1**).

#### **4. Physiology of dairy animal's digestive system**

The primary roles of the gastrointestinal epithelium (GE) are to shield the host from the mixture of pathogenic microorganisms, toxins, and chemicals in the lumen and to prevent unregulated movement of these compounds into the lymphatic or portal circulation [22]. The GE continuously endeavors to enhance nutrient absorption. Careful consideration of gut health—promoting the action of a particular nutrient or feeding strategy—is important. Food goes down to the reticulorumen from the esophagus, and this is like a fermentation chamber which converts plant carbohydrate to volatile fatty acids, lactate, hydrogen, and methane which are used by the ruminant host. In ruminants, process starts with the peptic digestion in the abomasum [23]. The digestive system of the rumen is composed of the first reticulum then rumen, then omasum, and finally abomasum. The rumen is a complex biological system which is like a fermentative vat where nutrients are consumed by different organisms. Energy from forages are acquired by ruminants through fermentation process which is done by microorganisms by different enzymatic activities [24]. Different factors including pH, temperature, osmotic pressure, buffering capacity, and redox potential affect the activity and growth of rumen microorganisms [25]. Different environmental and physiological conditions determined these prime factors. The normal temperature of the rumen is in the range of 39–39.5°C, but as fermentation occurs after food intake, the rumen generates heat which increases temperature up to the limit of 41°C. pH is affected by short-chain fatty acid production, feed intake level, as well as exchange and absorption of ions like phosphate and bicarbonate [25] (**Figure 2**).

**69**

from ruminant [1].

*Probiotic Supplement Improves the Health Status and Lactation Performance in Dairy Animals*

Different bacteria are present in the rumen, and they are more in ratio than other microbes which include *Megasphaera elsdenii*, *Lactobacillus ruminis*, *Streptococcus bovis*, *Fibrobacter succinogenes*, *Prevotella*, *Bacteroidaceae*, *Lachnospiraceae*,

*Prevotellaceae*, *Ruminococcaceae*, *Succinivibrionaceae*, and *Veillonellaceae* [26]. There are a total of five groups of bacteria: 1, free living in liquid phase; 2, loosely attached with feed; 3, firmly attached with feed; 4, attached with rumen epithelial lining;

**6. Culture-based method to develop the indigenous probiotic feed to** 

We have finalized the simple protocols that will guide researchers in identifying the most ideal probiotics for animal use to improve milk yield. There are two methods which have been utilized till now for the identification and characterization of the microbial flora, i.e. culture-dependent method and culture-independent method. Milk products own the major economic importance all over the globe especially in countries where agriculture and livestock cover the major area of industry. The milk we consume is derived from cattle, buffaloes, goats, sheep, and camels that come under categories of ruminants. And 99% of this milk is produced

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85779*

**5. Rumen microbiology**

**Figure 2.**

and 5, attached with protozoa/fungi.

**improve milk yield in dairy animals**

*Effect of probiotic on the development of the microbial flora in newborn calves.*

*Probiotic Supplement Improves the Health Status and Lactation Performance in Dairy Animals DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85779*

**Figure 2.** *Effect of probiotic on the development of the microbial flora in newborn calves.*

### **5. Rumen microbiology**

*Lactation in Farm Animals - Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements…*

**Common bacterial type of probiotics Yeast probiotics** *Lactobacillus* **sp.** *Bifidobacterium* **sp.** *Enterococcus Saccharomyces L. acidophilus B. bifidum E. faecalis S. cerevisiae L. casei B. infantis E. faecium S. boulardii*

• It should stabilize the intestinal microflora and be associated with the health

• It should enhance the functionality of the immune system and enhance the

These strains are used for the preparation of probiotics with or without FOS

The primary roles of the gastrointestinal epithelium (GE) are to shield the host from the mixture of pathogenic microorganisms, toxins, and chemicals in the lumen and to prevent unregulated movement of these compounds into the lymphatic or portal circulation [22]. The GE continuously endeavors to enhance nutrient absorption. Careful consideration of gut health—promoting the action of a particular nutrient or feeding strategy—is important. Food goes down to the reticulorumen from the esophagus, and this is like a fermentation chamber which converts plant carbohydrate to volatile fatty acids, lactate, hydrogen, and methane which are used by the ruminant host. In ruminants, process starts with the peptic digestion in the abomasum [23]. The digestive system of the rumen is composed of the first reticulum then rumen, then omasum, and finally abomasum. The rumen is a complex biological system which is like a fermentative vat where nutrients are consumed by different organisms. Energy from forages are acquired by ruminants through fermentation process which is done by microorganisms by different enzymatic activities [24]. Different factors including pH, temperature, osmotic pressure, buffering capacity, and redox potential affect the activity and growth of rumen microorganisms [25]. Different environmental and physiological conditions determined these prime factors. The normal temperature of the rumen is in the range of 39–39.5°C, but as fermentation occurs after food intake, the rumen generates heat which increases temperature up to the limit of 41°C. pH is affected by short-chain fatty acid production, feed intake level, as well as exchange

and absorption of ions like phosphate and bicarbonate [25] (**Figure 2**).

• It should contain viable cells at the time of consumption.

• It should reduce symptoms of lactose intolerance.

*Most Common species of LAB'S in animal probiotic preparation.*

**4. Physiology of dairy animal's digestive system**

bioavailability of nutrients.

*L. bulgaricus B. longum L. fermentum B. animalis L. lactis B. thermophilum*

**68**

benefits.

*L. plantarum L. brevis*

**Table 1.**

(**Table 1**).

Different bacteria are present in the rumen, and they are more in ratio than other microbes which include *Megasphaera elsdenii*, *Lactobacillus ruminis*, *Streptococcus bovis*, *Fibrobacter succinogenes*, *Prevotella*, *Bacteroidaceae*, *Lachnospiraceae*, *Prevotellaceae*, *Ruminococcaceae*, *Succinivibrionaceae*, and *Veillonellaceae* [26]. There are a total of five groups of bacteria: 1, free living in liquid phase; 2, loosely attached with feed; 3, firmly attached with feed; 4, attached with rumen epithelial lining; and 5, attached with protozoa/fungi.

#### **6. Culture-based method to develop the indigenous probiotic feed to improve milk yield in dairy animals**

We have finalized the simple protocols that will guide researchers in identifying the most ideal probiotics for animal use to improve milk yield. There are two methods which have been utilized till now for the identification and characterization of the microbial flora, i.e. culture-dependent method and culture-independent method. Milk products own the major economic importance all over the globe especially in countries where agriculture and livestock cover the major area of industry. The milk we consume is derived from cattle, buffaloes, goats, sheep, and camels that come under categories of ruminants. And 99% of this milk is produced from ruminant [1].

LABs as feed supplements can help in improving the milk quality and quantity in lactating dairy buffaloes [27]. The literature showed that the species-specific probiotic can improve the host performance in a better way than the nonspecific. In our lab, we have isolated and molecularly characterized the bacterial strains that are basically animal origin probiotics. We used the culture-dependent method to isolate the animal probiotic-bacteria strains.

#### **7. Experimental proof**

#### **7.1 Experiment no. 1: isolation, identification, and characterization of LAB from the gut of dairy lactating buffalo**

Three healthy lactating *Nili-Ravi* buffaloes raised at NARC, Islamabad, Pakistan, were randomly selected for sampling. A sample was taken fresh from deep rumen with the hand using aseptic techniques. Samples were transported to the laboratory under controlled conditions for further processing. For pure isolates, 1 g of feces sample was diluted in PBS (phosphate buffer saline). Commercially available MRS (De Man, Rogosa, and Sharpe) agar media plates were inoculated with diluted fecal samples and incubated at 37°C for 24 h. Initial screening was done by using the basic microbiological methods. For that purpose, colony morphology was examined, and gram staining was done. For complete morphology scanning electron microscopy was performed. Common biochemical tests like catalase and oxidase were done. For molecular identification of the isolated strains, we used the PCR. The pure cultures were subjected to a polymerase chain reaction for amplification of DNA. Amplified products were sequenced and identified at the species level, and a phylogenetic tree was constructed. A total of 30 bacterial strains was isolated from buffalo gut. These were mostly gram-positive and catalase-negative bacterial strains. We noted that very important bacterial strains were isolated from buffalo gut (**Table 2**).

Gram staining showed that isolated strains were either gram-positive rod or gram-positive cocci, as the strains retained primary stain (crystal violet) that is one of the major characteristics of LAB (**Figure 3**). The strains appeared as a single cell or in the form of short chains or small clusters under a microscope. The colony on MRS agar was round, irregular with a smooth shiny surface, cream in color, and with entire or convex margins. If we talk about elevation and opacity, most of grampositive colonies were raised and opaque (**Figure 4**).

The isolated strains were further subjected to biochemical characterization. We performed a catalase test. I took an isolated colony using a sterilized toothpick and mixed with a drop of hydrogen peroxide and noted the bubble formation. Many strains resulted in negative result and few were positive. I noted that the negative results were of the strains that retained crystal violet stain during gram staining, i.e. those were gram-positive rods or cocci. Selected strains were identified on a molecular level by blasting the amplified DNA using the BLAST tool at the National Centre for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) website. And the strains F2 and F4 were identified as different species of *Weisella*, on the basis of genotypic analysis. These 16S rRNA sequences were submitted to the NCBI GenBank under the accession numbers MK336765 and MK336779 assigned to strains F2 and F4, respectively (**Table 3**).

#### **7.2 Phylogenetic analysis**

Phylogenetic trees of the strains were constructed to see the closely related species of the strains (**Figure 5**). We found the following results.

**71**

**Selected bacterial strains**

**Colony characteristics**

**Gram staining**

> F1

F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8 F9 F10 **Table 2.**

*Morphological, biochemical identification of bacterial isolates on MRS agar.*

+ve

Cocci

Round

Smooth/shiny

cream

Entire

raised

Opaque

−ve

+ve +ve +ve −ve −ve

Rod

Circular

Shiny

Rod

Round

Smooth

Cream Cream white

Entire

Slightly

Opaque

+ve

raised

Convex

Raised

Opaque

+ve

Rod

Round

Smooth

White

Entire

Convex

Translucent

−ve

Cocci Cocci

Round

Smooth/shiny

Cream white

Entire

Raised

Opaque

−ve

Circular

Smooth

Pinkish white

Entire

Raised

Opaque

−ve

+ve

Curved Rod

Round

Shiny

White

Entire

Raised

Moist

−ve

+ve +ve +ve

Cocci

Circular

Smooth/shiny

Cream white

Convex

Slightly raised

Opaque

−ve

**Shape**

Rod Rod

Round

Smooth

Cream

Entire

Raised

Transparent

−ve

Round

Smooth/shiny

Cream white

Entire

Raised

Opaque

−ve

**Form**

**Surface**

**Color**

**Margin**

**Elevation**

**Opacity**

**Catalase**

*Probiotic Supplement Improves the Health Status and Lactation Performance in Dairy Animals*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85779*

**Biochemical characteristics**


**Table 2.**

*Morphological, biochemical identification of bacterial isolates on MRS agar.*

#### *Probiotic Supplement Improves the Health Status and Lactation Performance in Dairy Animals DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85779*

**71**

*Lactation in Farm Animals - Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements…*

the animal probiotic-bacteria strains.

**the gut of dairy lactating buffalo**

were isolated from buffalo gut (**Table 2**).

positive colonies were raised and opaque (**Figure 4**).

**7. Experimental proof**

LABs as feed supplements can help in improving the milk quality and quantity in lactating dairy buffaloes [27]. The literature showed that the species-specific probiotic can improve the host performance in a better way than the nonspecific. In our lab, we have isolated and molecularly characterized the bacterial strains that are basically animal origin probiotics. We used the culture-dependent method to isolate

**7.1 Experiment no. 1: isolation, identification, and characterization of LAB from** 

Three healthy lactating *Nili-Ravi* buffaloes raised at NARC, Islamabad, Pakistan, were randomly selected for sampling. A sample was taken fresh from deep rumen with the hand using aseptic techniques. Samples were transported to the laboratory under controlled conditions for further processing. For pure isolates, 1 g of feces sample was diluted in PBS (phosphate buffer saline). Commercially available MRS (De Man, Rogosa, and Sharpe) agar media plates were inoculated with diluted fecal samples and incubated at 37°C for 24 h. Initial screening was done by using the basic microbiological methods. For that purpose, colony morphology was examined, and gram staining was done. For complete morphology scanning electron microscopy was performed. Common biochemical tests like catalase and oxidase were done. For molecular identification of the isolated strains, we used the PCR. The pure cultures were subjected to a polymerase chain reaction for amplification of DNA. Amplified products were sequenced and identified at the species level, and a phylogenetic tree was constructed. A total of 30 bacterial strains was isolated from buffalo gut. These were mostly gram-positive and catalase-negative bacterial strains. We noted that very important bacterial strains

Gram staining showed that isolated strains were either gram-positive rod or gram-positive cocci, as the strains retained primary stain (crystal violet) that is one of the major characteristics of LAB (**Figure 3**). The strains appeared as a single cell or in the form of short chains or small clusters under a microscope. The colony on MRS agar was round, irregular with a smooth shiny surface, cream in color, and with entire or convex margins. If we talk about elevation and opacity, most of gram-

The isolated strains were further subjected to biochemical characterization. We performed a catalase test. I took an isolated colony using a sterilized toothpick and mixed with a drop of hydrogen peroxide and noted the bubble formation. Many strains resulted in negative result and few were positive. I noted that the negative results were of the strains that retained crystal violet stain during gram staining, i.e. those were gram-positive rods or cocci. Selected strains were identified on a molecular level by blasting the amplified DNA using the BLAST tool at the National Centre for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) website. And the strains F2 and F4 were identified as different species of *Weisella*, on the basis of genotypic analysis. These 16S rRNA sequences were submitted to the NCBI GenBank under the accession numbers MK336765 and MK336779 assigned to strains F2 and F4, respectively (**Table 3**).

Phylogenetic trees of the strains were constructed to see the closely related spe-

cies of the strains (**Figure 5**). We found the following results.

**70**

**7.2 Phylogenetic analysis**

#### **Figure 3.** *Colony morphology of strain F2 and F4 isolated from animal gut.*

**Figure 4.** *Gram staining and electron microscopy of strain F2 and F4 isolated from animal gut.*

#### *7.2.1 Weisella species*

The strain similarity was found using NCBI BLAST; *Weisella* MK336780 (NMCC-M14) has similarity with *Weisella* JX1880721 (AB13), and *Weisella* MK336765 (NMCC-M11) has high similarity with *Weisella* JX1880721 (AB13).

#### *7.2.2 Staphylococcus species*

The strain similarity was found using NCBI BLAST; *Staphylococcus* MK355570 (NMCC-path-2) has high similarity with *Staphylococcus aureus* strain DSTNMRM17,

**73**

**Figure 5.**

*Staphylococcus aureus* strain YT-3.

*Probiotic Supplement Improves the Health Status and Lactation Performance in Dairy Animals*

F2 *Weisella* MK336765 *Weisella confusa* strain AB13 97% F4 *Weisella* MK336779 *Weisella confusa* strain AB13 96.5%

**Closely related valid published species**

DSTNMRM17

YT-3

**Similarity % of 16S rRNA gene sequencing**

98%

99%

**Accession number**

F5 *Staphylococcus* MK355570 *Staphylococcus aureus* strain

F6 *Staphylococcus* MK355562 *Staphylococcus aureus* strain

*Phylogenetic tree of the F2 and F4 isolated from dairy animals on 16S rRNA gene sequence.*

and *Staphylococcus* MK355562 (NMCC-path-18) has high similarity with

Selected strains were subjected to further testing to determine the probiotic potential. Different tests like bile tolerance activity, cholesterol assimilation test, antimicrobial activity, and antibiotic susceptibility test. Bile tolerance activity was

**7.3 Experiment no. 2: determination of probiotic potential**

*Phylogenetic tree of Weisella confusa, and S. aureus isolated from animal gut.*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85779*

**genus**

**Strain ID Strain name/**

**Table 3.**

*Probiotic Supplement Improves the Health Status and Lactation Performance in Dairy Animals DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85779*


#### **Table 3.**

*Lactation in Farm Animals - Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements…*

*Colony morphology of strain F2 and F4 isolated from animal gut.*

**72**

*7.2.1 Weisella species*

**Figure 4.**

**Figure 3.**

*7.2.2 Staphylococcus species*

The strain similarity was found using NCBI BLAST; *Weisella* MK336780 (NMCC-M14) has similarity with *Weisella* JX1880721 (AB13), and *Weisella* MK336765 (NMCC-M11) has high similarity with *Weisella* JX1880721 (AB13).

*Gram staining and electron microscopy of strain F2 and F4 isolated from animal gut.*

The strain similarity was found using NCBI BLAST; *Staphylococcus* MK355570 (NMCC-path-2) has high similarity with *Staphylococcus aureus* strain DSTNMRM17, *Phylogenetic tree of the F2 and F4 isolated from dairy animals on 16S rRNA gene sequence.*

#### **Figure 5.**

*Phylogenetic tree of Weisella confusa, and S. aureus isolated from animal gut.*

and *Staphylococcus* MK355562 (NMCC-path-18) has high similarity with *Staphylococcus aureus* strain YT-3.

#### **7.3 Experiment no. 2: determination of probiotic potential**

Selected strains were subjected to further testing to determine the probiotic potential. Different tests like bile tolerance activity, cholesterol assimilation test, antimicrobial activity, and antibiotic susceptibility test. Bile tolerance activity was *Lactation in Farm Animals - Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements…*

#### **Figure 6.**

*Antibiotic susceptibility testing of strain F2isolated from animal gut.*

**75**

*Probiotic Supplement Improves the Health Status and Lactation Performance in Dairy Animals*

performed by inoculating the two selected strains on sterilized TSB (tryptic soy broth) in Erlenmeyer flasks incubated at 37°C in shaking incubator, 150 rpm for 24–48 h. Stock solutions of bile salts and lysozyme were added after incubation. The pH of the solution was adjusted to 3. Control was kept aside. After intervals of 30 min, samples were inoculated on TSA (tryptic soy agar) after serial dilution and incubated for 24–48 h at 37°C. After incubation, CFU was determined, and the

The livestock sector is mostly based on traditional lines which lead to unbalanced nutrition resulting in poor growth and productive performance in dairy animals. Nowadays, increasing the performance of dairy animals through the use of probiotics has become a useful and economical method to overcome the effects of malnutrition. The use of probiotic yeast enhances nutrient utilization, which may lead to improved performance and increased immunity in dairy heifers. Literature reveals that suitability and profitability of the probiotic yeast depend on many factors including animal breed, age, and probiotic strains. From this line of research, we look forward and develop a new probiotic yeast strain for our local breed, which provides a positive effect on milk yield and fat contents in lactating dairy cattle and moreover is cost-effective. At the same time, the dietary supplementation of probiotic yeast could also have an enhancing effect on the microbial balance of the GIT that leads to improved growth, health, and production performance in a dairy

In the situation of a high feed cost, probiotic gives a useful nutritional strategy which allows increasing diet digestibility and consequently enhances the performance parameters of dairy animals in a cost-effective manner. Future research is needed to see the impact of the yeast cells in the GIT of the dairy animals. Future research will also need to address the behaviour of the yeast cells in the digestive environment. We look forward to the development of the new probiotic strains, which will hopefully mean that the rumen microbiologist in Pakistan instead of following the nutritious in an exploratory mood as has been the role for so long, will

• For the preparation of the probiotic the sampling, the source should be

• Internationally validated molecular methods should be used to identify the

• The probiotic, as well as genetic properties of the probiotic strains, should be studied. Good manufacturing practices must be applied with quality assurance, and shelf life conditions must be established, and labelling must be made

clear to include minimum dosage and verifiable health claims.

instead lead advances in ruminant nutrition in a year to come.

The recommendations are outlined as follows:

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85779*

tolerance rate was analyzed (**Figure 6**).

animal (**Figure 7**).

**8. Recommendations**

indigenous/local-based.

microbial strains.

*Probiotic Supplement Improves the Health Status and Lactation Performance in Dairy Animals DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85779*

performed by inoculating the two selected strains on sterilized TSB (tryptic soy broth) in Erlenmeyer flasks incubated at 37°C in shaking incubator, 150 rpm for 24–48 h. Stock solutions of bile salts and lysozyme were added after incubation. The pH of the solution was adjusted to 3. Control was kept aside. After intervals of 30 min, samples were inoculated on TSA (tryptic soy agar) after serial dilution and incubated for 24–48 h at 37°C. After incubation, CFU was determined, and the tolerance rate was analyzed (**Figure 6**).

The livestock sector is mostly based on traditional lines which lead to unbalanced nutrition resulting in poor growth and productive performance in dairy animals. Nowadays, increasing the performance of dairy animals through the use of probiotics has become a useful and economical method to overcome the effects of malnutrition. The use of probiotic yeast enhances nutrient utilization, which may lead to improved performance and increased immunity in dairy heifers. Literature reveals that suitability and profitability of the probiotic yeast depend on many factors including animal breed, age, and probiotic strains. From this line of research, we look forward and develop a new probiotic yeast strain for our local breed, which provides a positive effect on milk yield and fat contents in lactating dairy cattle and moreover is cost-effective. At the same time, the dietary supplementation of probiotic yeast could also have an enhancing effect on the microbial balance of the GIT that leads to improved growth, health, and production performance in a dairy animal (**Figure 7**).

In the situation of a high feed cost, probiotic gives a useful nutritional strategy which allows increasing diet digestibility and consequently enhances the performance parameters of dairy animals in a cost-effective manner. Future research is needed to see the impact of the yeast cells in the GIT of the dairy animals. Future research will also need to address the behaviour of the yeast cells in the digestive environment. We look forward to the development of the new probiotic strains, which will hopefully mean that the rumen microbiologist in Pakistan instead of following the nutritious in an exploratory mood as has been the role for so long, will instead lead advances in ruminant nutrition in a year to come.

#### **8. Recommendations**

*Lactation in Farm Animals - Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements…*

*Antibiotic susceptibility testing of strain F2isolated from animal gut.*

**74**

**Figure 7.**

**Figure 6.**

*Steps involved in the preparation of animal probiotic product development.*

The recommendations are outlined as follows:


*Lactation in Farm Animals - Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements…*

#### **Author details**

Shakira Ghazanfar1 \*, Aayesha Riaz2 , Muhammad Naeem Tahir3 , Saad Maqbool1 , Ghulam Muhammad Ali1 , Fatima Tariq1 and Irum Arif1

1 National Institute of Genomics and Advanced Biotechnology (NIGAB), NARC, Islamabad, Pakistan

2 Department of Parasitology and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, PMAS-Arid Agricultural University, Pakistan

3 University College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Pakistan

\*Address all correspondence to: Shakira\_akmal@yahoo.com

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**77**

*Probiotic Supplement Improves the Health Status and Lactation Performance in Dairy Animals*

pp. 303-333

Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 2014;**94**(2):341-348

[11] Mountzouris K et al. Effects of probiotic inclusion levels in broiler nutrition on growth performance, nutrient digestibility, plasma

composition. Poultry Science.

Probiotics in animal nutrition and health. Beneficial Microbes.

[13] Giang HH et al. Effects of supplementation of probiotics on the performance, nutrient digestibility and faecal microflora in growingfinishing pigs. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences. 2011;

[14] Bajagai YS et al. Probiotics in Animal Nutrition: Production, Impact

[15] Musa HH et al. The potential benefits of probiotics in animal production and health. Journal of Animal and Veterinary Advances.

[16] Krause DO et al. Opportunities to improve fiber degradation in the rumen: Microbiology, ecology, and genomics. FEMS Microbiology Reviews.

[17] Schrezenmeir J, de Vrese M. Probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics—

Approaching a definition. The

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition.

and Regulation. FAO; 2016

2009;**8**(2):313-321

2003;**27**(5):663-693

2001;**73**(2):361s-364s

2010;**89**(1):58-67

2009;**1**(1):3-9

**24**(5):655-661

immunoglobulins, and cecal microflora

[12] Chaucheyras-Durand F, Durand H.

[10] Lodemann U. Effects of probiotics on intestinal transport and epithelial barrier function. In: Bioactive Foods in Promoting Health. Elsevier; 2010.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85779*

Gastrointestinal tract microbiota and probiotics in production animals. Annual Review of Animal Biosciences.

[2] Di Gioia D, Biavati B. Probiotics and prebiotics in animal health and food safety: Conclusive remarks and future perspectives. In: Probiotics and Prebiotics in Animal Health and Food Safety. Springer; 2018. pp. 269-273

[3] Morelli L, Capurso L. FAO/WHO guidelines on probiotics: 10 years later. Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology.

[4] Havenaar R, Huis JH. Probiotics: A general view. In: The Lactic Acid Bacteria. Vol. 1. Springer; 1992.

[5] Pell AN. Manure and microbes:

problem? Journal of Dairy Science.

[7] Doron S, Snydman DR. Risk and safety of probiotics. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2015;**60**(suppl\_2):S129-S134

[9] Mookiah S et al. Effects of dietary prebiotics, probiotic and synbiotics on performance, caecal bacterial populations and caecal fermentation concentrations of broiler chickens.

[8] Böhmer B, Kramer W, Roth-Maier D. Dietary probiotic supplementation and resulting effects on performance, health status, and microbial characteristics of primiparous sows. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition.

2006;**90**(7-8):309-315

Public and animal health

[6] Morrill HJ, LaPlante KL. Overconsumption of antibiotics. The Lancet Infectious Diseases.

1997;**80**(10):2673-2681

2015;**15**(4):377-378

**References**

[1] Yeoman CJ, White BA.

2014;**2**(1):469-486

2012;**46**:S1-S2

pp. 151-170

*Probiotic Supplement Improves the Health Status and Lactation Performance in Dairy Animals DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85779*

#### **References**

*Lactation in Farm Animals - Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements…*

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

, Muhammad Naeem Tahir3

and Irum Arif1

1 National Institute of Genomics and Advanced Biotechnology (NIGAB), NARC,

2 Department of Parasitology and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary and Animal

3 University College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, The Islamia University of

, Saad Maqbool1

,

**76**

**Author details**

Shakira Ghazanfar1

Islamabad, Pakistan

Bahawalpur, Pakistan

Ghulam Muhammad Ali1

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*, Aayesha Riaz2

Sciences, PMAS-Arid Agricultural University, Pakistan

\*Address all correspondence to: Shakira\_akmal@yahoo.com

, Fatima Tariq1

[1] Yeoman CJ, White BA. Gastrointestinal tract microbiota and probiotics in production animals. Annual Review of Animal Biosciences. 2014;**2**(1):469-486

[2] Di Gioia D, Biavati B. Probiotics and prebiotics in animal health and food safety: Conclusive remarks and future perspectives. In: Probiotics and Prebiotics in Animal Health and Food Safety. Springer; 2018. pp. 269-273

[3] Morelli L, Capurso L. FAO/WHO guidelines on probiotics: 10 years later. Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology. 2012;**46**:S1-S2

[4] Havenaar R, Huis JH. Probiotics: A general view. In: The Lactic Acid Bacteria. Vol. 1. Springer; 1992. pp. 151-170

[5] Pell AN. Manure and microbes: Public and animal health problem? Journal of Dairy Science. 1997;**80**(10):2673-2681

[6] Morrill HJ, LaPlante KL. Overconsumption of antibiotics. The Lancet Infectious Diseases. 2015;**15**(4):377-378

[7] Doron S, Snydman DR. Risk and safety of probiotics. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2015;**60**(suppl\_2):S129-S134

[8] Böhmer B, Kramer W, Roth-Maier D. Dietary probiotic supplementation and resulting effects on performance, health status, and microbial characteristics of primiparous sows. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition. 2006;**90**(7-8):309-315

[9] Mookiah S et al. Effects of dietary prebiotics, probiotic and synbiotics on performance, caecal bacterial populations and caecal fermentation concentrations of broiler chickens.

Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 2014;**94**(2):341-348

[10] Lodemann U. Effects of probiotics on intestinal transport and epithelial barrier function. In: Bioactive Foods in Promoting Health. Elsevier; 2010. pp. 303-333

[11] Mountzouris K et al. Effects of probiotic inclusion levels in broiler nutrition on growth performance, nutrient digestibility, plasma immunoglobulins, and cecal microflora composition. Poultry Science. 2010;**89**(1):58-67

[12] Chaucheyras-Durand F, Durand H. Probiotics in animal nutrition and health. Beneficial Microbes. 2009;**1**(1):3-9

[13] Giang HH et al. Effects of supplementation of probiotics on the performance, nutrient digestibility and faecal microflora in growingfinishing pigs. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences. 2011; **24**(5):655-661

[14] Bajagai YS et al. Probiotics in Animal Nutrition: Production, Impact and Regulation. FAO; 2016

[15] Musa HH et al. The potential benefits of probiotics in animal production and health. Journal of Animal and Veterinary Advances. 2009;**8**(2):313-321

[16] Krause DO et al. Opportunities to improve fiber degradation in the rumen: Microbiology, ecology, and genomics. FEMS Microbiology Reviews. 2003;**27**(5):663-693

[17] Schrezenmeir J, de Vrese M. Probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics— Approaching a definition. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2001;**73**(2):361s-364s

[18] Parvez S et al. Probiotics and their fermented food products are beneficial for health. Journal of Applied Microbiology. 2006;**100**(6):1171-1185

[19] Amara A, Shibl A. Role of probiotics in health improvement, infection control and disease treatment and management. Saudi Pharmaceutical Journal. 2015;**23**(2):107-114

[20] Vinderola C, Reinheimer J. Lactic acid starter and probiotic bacteria: A comparative "in vitro" study of probiotic characteristics and biological barrier resistance. Food Research International. 2003;**36**(9-10):895-904

[21] Ljungh A, Wadstrom T. Lactic acid bacteria as probiotics. Current Issues in Intestinal Microbiology. 2006;**7**(2):73-90

[22] Zhang Y-J et al. Impacts of gut bacteria on human health and diseases. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2015;**16**(4):7493-7519

[23] Qumar M et al. Evidence of in vivo absorption of lactate and modulation of short-chain fatty acid absorption from the reticulorumen of non-lactating cattle fed high concentrate diets. PLoS One. 2016;**11**(10):e0164192

[24] Fatehi F et al. A comparison of ruminal or reticular digesta sampling as an alternative to sampling from the omasum of lactating dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science. 2015;**98**(5):3274-3283

[25] Harmon D, Yamka R, Elam N. Factors affecting intestinal starch digestion in ruminants: A review. Canadian Journal of Animal Science. 2004;**84**(3):309-318

[26] Li RW et al. Characterization of the rumen microbiota of preruminant calves using metagenomic tools. Environmental Microbiology. 2012;**14**(1):129-139

[27] Vibhute V et al. Effect of probiotics supplementation on the performance of lactating crossbred cows. Veterinary World. 2011;**4**(12):557

**79**

**1. Introduction**

**Chapter 5**

**Abstract**

Relationship between Body

Parameters in Dairy Cows

metabolic situation of the cow during lactating are discussed.

**Keywords:** dairy cow, body condition score, productivity, reproduction, metabolism

High-yielding dairy cows are typically in a state of negative energy balance (NEB) during early lactation period because the amount of energy required for the maintenance of body tissue functions and milk production exceeds that the cows can consume [1]. Metabolic processes increase if milk productivity increases. It promotes an increase of metabolic stress. Milk productivity and reproduction traits decrease then. Mobilization of body energy reserves during the early lactation enables the cow to close the gap between the alimentary energy intake and its loss through the milk production [2]. Since the alterations in energy reserves have a considerable influence upon the productivity, health, and reproduction of dairy cows [3, 4], the monitorization of optimal management of energy reserves is obviously

*Wissal Souissi and Rachid Bouraoui*

Condition Score, Milk Yield,

Reproduction, and Biochemical

Blood indicators are used as a tool to diagnose metabolic disorders. The present review aims to study the relationships between body condition score, milk yield, and reproduction and biochemical parameters in dairy cows. Live weight and body condition are indicators for dairy cow's health, milk productivity, and reproduction. Therefore, many authors investigated the effect of body condition score at calving and of change in body condition score on productive and reproductive performance, on lactation curve parameters, and on postpartum disease occurrence. Moreover, results showed that the cows calving at the highest body condition score lost more subcutaneous fat; condition score change did not exceed 1.05 units. Change in body condition score was positively associated with peak and total milk production. In addition, the decline in dairy reproductive performance may be due to a hampered process of metabolic adaptation. Adaptation to the negative energy balance is a gradual process. The use of risk factors is more appropriate and discussed. Among them are the body condition score and its derivatives, feed intake, the calculated negative energy balance, and metabolic parameters like the plasma concentration of insulin or the triacylglycerol content in the liver. Moreover, factors that play a role in the link between declined reproductive performance and the

#### **Chapter 5**

*Lactation in Farm Animals - Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements…*

[27] Vibhute V et al. Effect of probiotics supplementation on the performance of lactating crossbred cows. Veterinary

World. 2011;**4**(12):557

[18] Parvez S et al. Probiotics and their fermented food products are beneficial for health. Journal of Applied Microbiology. 2006;**100**(6):1171-1185

Journal. 2015;**23**(2):107-114

[19] Amara A, Shibl A. Role of probiotics in health improvement, infection control and disease treatment and management. Saudi Pharmaceutical

[20] Vinderola C, Reinheimer J. Lactic acid starter and probiotic bacteria: A comparative "in vitro" study of probiotic characteristics and biological barrier resistance. Food Research International. 2003;**36**(9-10):895-904

[21] Ljungh A, Wadstrom T. Lactic acid bacteria as probiotics. Current Issues in Intestinal Microbiology.

[22] Zhang Y-J et al. Impacts of gut bacteria on human health and diseases. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2015;**16**(4):7493-7519

[23] Qumar M et al. Evidence of in vivo absorption of lactate and modulation of short-chain fatty acid absorption from the reticulorumen of non-lactating cattle fed high concentrate diets. PLoS

One. 2016;**11**(10):e0164192

[24] Fatehi F et al. A comparison of ruminal or reticular digesta sampling as an alternative to sampling from the omasum of lactating dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science. 2015;**98**(5):3274-3283

[25] Harmon D, Yamka R, Elam N. Factors affecting intestinal starch digestion in ruminants: A review. Canadian Journal of Animal Science.

[26] Li RW et al. Characterization of the rumen microbiota of preruminant calves using metagenomic tools. Environmental Microbiology.

2004;**84**(3):309-318

2012;**14**(1):129-139

2006;**7**(2):73-90

**78**

## Relationship between Body Condition Score, Milk Yield, Reproduction, and Biochemical Parameters in Dairy Cows

*Wissal Souissi and Rachid Bouraoui*

#### **Abstract**

Blood indicators are used as a tool to diagnose metabolic disorders. The present review aims to study the relationships between body condition score, milk yield, and reproduction and biochemical parameters in dairy cows. Live weight and body condition are indicators for dairy cow's health, milk productivity, and reproduction. Therefore, many authors investigated the effect of body condition score at calving and of change in body condition score on productive and reproductive performance, on lactation curve parameters, and on postpartum disease occurrence. Moreover, results showed that the cows calving at the highest body condition score lost more subcutaneous fat; condition score change did not exceed 1.05 units. Change in body condition score was positively associated with peak and total milk production. In addition, the decline in dairy reproductive performance may be due to a hampered process of metabolic adaptation. Adaptation to the negative energy balance is a gradual process. The use of risk factors is more appropriate and discussed. Among them are the body condition score and its derivatives, feed intake, the calculated negative energy balance, and metabolic parameters like the plasma concentration of insulin or the triacylglycerol content in the liver. Moreover, factors that play a role in the link between declined reproductive performance and the metabolic situation of the cow during lactating are discussed.

**Keywords:** dairy cow, body condition score, productivity, reproduction, metabolism

#### **1. Introduction**

High-yielding dairy cows are typically in a state of negative energy balance (NEB) during early lactation period because the amount of energy required for the maintenance of body tissue functions and milk production exceeds that the cows can consume [1]. Metabolic processes increase if milk productivity increases. It promotes an increase of metabolic stress. Milk productivity and reproduction traits decrease then. Mobilization of body energy reserves during the early lactation enables the cow to close the gap between the alimentary energy intake and its loss through the milk production [2]. Since the alterations in energy reserves have a considerable influence upon the productivity, health, and reproduction of dairy cows [3, 4], the monitorization of optimal management of energy reserves is obviously

needed. Indicators, which characterize dairy cows metabolic processes, are body condition score (BCS) and live weight (LW). It is very important to evaluate the changes of these indicators. Body condition scoring has been widely recommended as a method of evaluating nutritional management of the dairy cows [5]. It is a management tool used to prove if rations meet the animal's need or not. Feeding a cow according to its needs leads to optimal performance. Over conditioned animals (especially at the end of lactation) or under conditioned animals (especially at the beginning of lactation) would have health problems. Klopčič et al*.* [6] have defined BCS as an indicator of how well the animal maintains energy reserves, reflective of the relationship between nutrition and milk production in a herd. However, there is also more interest in BCS from the breeding side. Generally, BCS shows the decreasing trend during early lactation due to homeorhetic response caused by negative energy balance and partitioning of energy reserves to support milk production. Excessive loss of energy during this period, generally in cows with higher/lower BCS at calving, results in productive, reproductive, and metabolic disorders in dairy cows. Once the cow recovers from negative energy balance, it starts gaining BCS during mid- and late lactation [7].

#### **2. Body condition score**

Body condition score (BCS) is a subjective assessment of energy reserves in adipose tissue of a dairy cow and is an important means for managing dairy cows [7]. According to Waltner et al. [8] and Bosio [9], it is an accepted, noninvasive, subjective, quick, and inexpensive method to estimate the degree of fatness in dairy cows. The purpose of condition scoring is to obtain a balance between diet, production, and animal welfare. This technique is mainly used to control dairy cow and pre-calving management; besides, it aims to ensure that cows calve down safely, avoid post-calving diseases (milk fever, hypocalcemia, hypomagnesemia, and ketosis) and metabolic disorders in early lactation (ketosis, fatty cow syndrome), and maximize milk production [6]. In order to determine the BCS, cows were scored on appearance and palpation of back and hindquarters [10]. A variety of scales and scoring criteria are proposed depending on the country or author, making it difficult to share data, comparisons of values, or results [11]. In the United States and Ireland, a 5-point BCS system is used for dairy cows, whereas Australia and New Zealand use 8- and 10-point scales, respectively [11]. In France, the Technical Institute of Cattle Breeding (TICB) has published a 6-point scale established by Bazin [12], where dairy cows are rated from 0 (very lean) to 5 (very fat) [13].

#### **3. Body condition score and milk yield**

The milk production of cows correlates with their body condition which is a wide and effective method to evaluate the nutritional management of dairy cows [14]. So, optimal body condition of dairy cow is essential to obtain elite herd and quantity milk production because thin or fat cows may have a greater risk of lower milk yield and higher milk somatic cell count (SCC) [15]. Agenas et al*.* [16] reported that, at the peak of lactation, the energy needs exceed the energy supply, which generates a negative energy balance (NEB). Then, to correct this deficit, the cow resorts to the mobilization of its body reserve and loses weight. Furthermore, Domecq et al*.* [17] showed that insufficient energy and protein reserves reduce milk yield. BCS has important effects through critical moment during lactation.

**81**

*Relationship between Body Condition Score, Milk Yield, Reproduction, and Biochemical…*

In order to support early lactation, dairy cows have to require enough body reserves. It is evident that over and under reserves have negative results on the animal's performances. Accordingly, over body reserve decreases dry matter intake and prolongs negative energy balance that causes poor production performance (lower peak yield, poor persistency) and reproductive diseases (retention of placenta, calving problems, and metabolic disorder). However, the cow with lower BCS, at calving, mobilizes less body fat, which decreases milk fat without affecting on milk

During dry period, the optimal body score condition is 3.0–3.25. Cows with BCS are more close to peak milk yield. The passage from BCS = 2 to 3 has a significant progress in milk productivity, but score above 3.5 at calving is deleterious for milk production [7]. According to Roche et al*.* [18], calving BCS is probably the most influential moment in the cow's lactation calendar, since it affects early-lactation DMI, post-calving BCS loss, milk yield, and cow immunity, and does not directly influence the pregnancy rate (it affects reproduction through nadir BCS and BCS loss). A loss in body condition score during dry period has negative impacts on the animal health, calving, and the amount of fat in ensuing lactation. However, increasing BCS in dry period may improve milk yield especially in the first 120 days [17]. Moreover, amelioration of BCS during parturition increases the milk fat percentage and reduces the anestrous interval after parturition [7]. Roche et al*.* [19] reported an optimum calving BCS for milk production of 3.5, whereas Berry et al*.* [20] reported that a total of 305 day milk yield was greatest in cows calving at a BCS of 4.25 units, and cows with 3.25

or 3 BCS units produce a further 50 and 114 kg of less milk, respectively.

To optimize milk production, it is necessary to maximize milk production in early lactation but not necessarily during late lactation. Cows in early lactation utilize tissue reserves to support milk yield [7]. The high-producing cows cannot have their energy needs through feed intake at early lactation. There is negative energy balance with mobilization of body reserves and a loss of the BCS. Dairy cattle should not lose more than one point in their BCS during early lactation period. BCS at calving would better be around 3.5–3.75 [21]. Besides , Jilek et al*.* [14] showed that cows with BCS lower than 3.5 in the first month of lactation have the highest milk yield during the first 5 months of lactation. This can be explained by high mobilization of body reserves in high-yielding cows. The body condition level in the last month of drying period influenced its subsequent decrease in the first phase of lactation. Cows with the highest BCS level before parturition retained a high BCS level in the first 5 months of lactation. However, cows with the lowest BCS in the first month of lactation had the lowest BCS in the next 4 months. It is necessary that cows do not lose more than one point of body condition in early lactation: cows with excessive body condition losses will have irregular heats, have longer time to the first ovulation, and may fail to conceive. These cows will also be less persistent in milk production. Cows with a BCS over 6.5 (3.5 in a 5-point scale) at 2 weeks before calving are subject to having depressed intakes, weight loss, fatty liver, ketosis, high nonesterified fatty acid (NEFA) levels, calving, and reproductive problems [6].

Scanes [21] perceived that cows need to realize a positive energy balance, so they have to recognize their BCS through undergoing a proper nutritional program.

**3.1 Body condition score during dry period and at calving**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85343*

yield, SNF, DMI, or nutrient utilization [7].

**3.2 BCS in early lactation**

**3.3 BCS in mid-lactation**

*Relationship between Body Condition Score, Milk Yield, Reproduction, and Biochemical… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85343*

#### **3.1 Body condition score during dry period and at calving**

In order to support early lactation, dairy cows have to require enough body reserves. It is evident that over and under reserves have negative results on the animal's performances. Accordingly, over body reserve decreases dry matter intake and prolongs negative energy balance that causes poor production performance (lower peak yield, poor persistency) and reproductive diseases (retention of placenta, calving problems, and metabolic disorder). However, the cow with lower BCS, at calving, mobilizes less body fat, which decreases milk fat without affecting on milk yield, SNF, DMI, or nutrient utilization [7].

During dry period, the optimal body score condition is 3.0–3.25. Cows with BCS are more close to peak milk yield. The passage from BCS = 2 to 3 has a significant progress in milk productivity, but score above 3.5 at calving is deleterious for milk production [7]. According to Roche et al*.* [18], calving BCS is probably the most influential moment in the cow's lactation calendar, since it affects early-lactation DMI, post-calving BCS loss, milk yield, and cow immunity, and does not directly influence the pregnancy rate (it affects reproduction through nadir BCS and BCS loss). A loss in body condition score during dry period has negative impacts on the animal health, calving, and the amount of fat in ensuing lactation. However, increasing BCS in dry period may improve milk yield especially in the first 120 days [17]. Moreover, amelioration of BCS during parturition increases the milk fat percentage and reduces the anestrous interval after parturition [7]. Roche et al*.* [19] reported an optimum calving BCS for milk production of 3.5, whereas Berry et al*.* [20] reported that a total of 305 day milk yield was greatest in cows calving at a BCS of 4.25 units, and cows with 3.25 or 3 BCS units produce a further 50 and 114 kg of less milk, respectively.

#### **3.2 BCS in early lactation**

*Lactation in Farm Animals - Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements…*

during mid- and late lactation [7].

**3. Body condition score and milk yield**

**2. Body condition score**

needed. Indicators, which characterize dairy cows metabolic processes, are body condition score (BCS) and live weight (LW). It is very important to evaluate the changes of these indicators. Body condition scoring has been widely recommended as a method of evaluating nutritional management of the dairy cows [5]. It is a management tool used to prove if rations meet the animal's need or not. Feeding a cow according to its needs leads to optimal performance. Over conditioned animals (especially at the end of lactation) or under conditioned animals (especially at the beginning of lactation) would have health problems. Klopčič et al*.* [6] have defined BCS as an indicator of how well the animal maintains energy reserves, reflective of the relationship between nutrition and milk production in a herd. However, there is also more interest in BCS from the breeding side. Generally, BCS shows the decreasing trend during early lactation due to homeorhetic response caused by negative energy balance and partitioning of energy reserves to support milk production. Excessive loss of energy during this period, generally in cows with higher/lower BCS at calving, results in productive, reproductive, and metabolic disorders in dairy cows. Once the cow recovers from negative energy balance, it starts gaining BCS

Body condition score (BCS) is a subjective assessment of energy reserves in adipose tissue of a dairy cow and is an important means for managing dairy cows [7]. According to Waltner et al. [8] and Bosio [9], it is an accepted, noninvasive, subjective, quick, and inexpensive method to estimate the degree of fatness in dairy cows. The purpose of condition scoring is to obtain a balance between diet, production, and animal welfare. This technique is mainly used to control dairy cow and pre-calving management; besides, it aims to ensure that cows calve down safely, avoid post-calving diseases (milk fever, hypocalcemia, hypomagnesemia, and ketosis) and metabolic disorders in early lactation (ketosis, fatty cow syndrome), and maximize milk production [6]. In order to determine the BCS, cows were scored on appearance and palpation of back and hindquarters [10]. A variety of scales and scoring criteria are proposed depending on the country or author, making it difficult to share data, comparisons of values, or results [11]. In the United States and Ireland, a 5-point BCS system is used for dairy cows, whereas Australia and New Zealand use 8- and 10-point scales, respectively [11]. In France, the Technical Institute of Cattle Breeding (TICB) has published a 6-point scale established by Bazin [12], where dairy cows are rated from 0 (very lean) to 5 (very fat) [13].

The milk production of cows correlates with their body condition which is a wide and effective method to evaluate the nutritional management of dairy cows [14]. So, optimal body condition of dairy cow is essential to obtain elite herd and quantity milk production because thin or fat cows may have a greater risk of lower milk yield and higher milk somatic cell count (SCC) [15]. Agenas et al*.* [16] reported that, at the peak of lactation, the energy needs exceed the energy supply, which generates a negative energy balance (NEB). Then, to correct this deficit, the cow resorts to the mobilization of its body reserve and loses weight. Furthermore, Domecq et al*.* [17] showed that insufficient energy and protein reserves reduce milk yield. BCS has important effects through critical

**80**

moment during lactation.

To optimize milk production, it is necessary to maximize milk production in early lactation but not necessarily during late lactation. Cows in early lactation utilize tissue reserves to support milk yield [7]. The high-producing cows cannot have their energy needs through feed intake at early lactation. There is negative energy balance with mobilization of body reserves and a loss of the BCS. Dairy cattle should not lose more than one point in their BCS during early lactation period. BCS at calving would better be around 3.5–3.75 [21]. Besides , Jilek et al*.* [14] showed that cows with BCS lower than 3.5 in the first month of lactation have the highest milk yield during the first 5 months of lactation. This can be explained by high mobilization of body reserves in high-yielding cows. The body condition level in the last month of drying period influenced its subsequent decrease in the first phase of lactation. Cows with the highest BCS level before parturition retained a high BCS level in the first 5 months of lactation. However, cows with the lowest BCS in the first month of lactation had the lowest BCS in the next 4 months. It is necessary that cows do not lose more than one point of body condition in early lactation: cows with excessive body condition losses will have irregular heats, have longer time to the first ovulation, and may fail to conceive. These cows will also be less persistent in milk production. Cows with a BCS over 6.5 (3.5 in a 5-point scale) at 2 weeks before calving are subject to having depressed intakes, weight loss, fatty liver, ketosis, high nonesterified fatty acid (NEFA) levels, calving, and reproductive problems [6].

#### **3.3 BCS in mid-lactation**

Scanes [21] perceived that cows need to realize a positive energy balance, so they have to recognize their BCS through undergoing a proper nutritional program. *Lactation in Farm Animals - Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements…*


**Table 1.**

*Recommended body condition score for Holstein Friesian and Jersey cows [22].*


**Table 2.**

*Suggested body condition score for cows by stage of lactation [23].*

BCS between 200 days of lactation and the date of dry-off should be between 2.75 and 3.50. However, the cows should be dried off when they have a BCS of 3.25–3.5. Therefore, the increase in BCS must occur during late lactation. In this period, the nutritional goals are to completely fulfill body fat reserves, without reaching an over-conditioning [7].

#### **3.4 BCS in late lactation**

Cows receive a nutritional program to maintain persistency of lactation without gaining excessive weight. Cows are dried off at a BCS of 3.5 [21]. Besides, Scanes [21] noted that nutrition is very important in late lactation and during the dry period. Both at drying-off and at calving, the BCS should be about 3.5.

As a result, Ohnstad and Jones et al*.* [22, 23] suggested BCS values for different stages of lactation as shown, respectively, in **Tables 1** and **2**.

#### **4. Body condition score and reproduction**

As it affects milk production, BCS affects also reproductive performance and fertility, which is negatively associated with milk production [24]. After calving, energy needs exceed energy intake of dry matter intake (DMI), which creates a negative energy balance (NEB). The NEB with some blood metabolites leads to the decline of some reproductive performance [24]. According to Froment [13], the consequences of a loss of BCS on reproduction are more obvious than those of the absolute value of BCS. Froment [13] showed a general tendency toward a deterioration of the reproduction results when this loss after calving increases. As long as this loss remains below 1 point, the influence of weight loss on reproduction remains modest. Conversely, when the loss of state exceeds 1.5 points, the degradation concerns all the reproduction parameters.

**83**

luteal phase.

**Figure 1.**

first 3 weeks of lactation.

*Relationship between Body Condition Score, Milk Yield, Reproduction, and Biochemical…*

Negative energy balance (NEB) delays the first ovulation by limiting dominant follicle growth and estradiol production, through decreases in circulating insulin, IGF-1, and LH pulses [25, 26]. The persistence of a negative energy balance (NEB), corroborated by persistent loss of status, has a negative impact on the major sign of estrus: acceptance of overlap [13]. Butler [27] showed that greater NEB/BCS loss during the first 30 days postpartum delays first ovulation (**Figure 1**). The conception rate decreases with increased BCS loss. Cows remaining non-ovulatory after 50 days of lactation will have a higher risk of not becoming pregnant during

Delayed recovery of ovarian activity is associated with poor body condition at calving. This situation appears when feed intakes in the last third of gestation are insufficient. For multiparous, practically there is no real effect of BCS at calving on the cyclicity, but a significant effect of the postpartum state loss was determined [13]. According to Freret et al*.* [28], cows that lost more than 1.5 points of their BCS between 0 and 60 days postpartum are characterized by no cyclicity or prolonged

*Early NEB and BCS loss delays the first ovulation and relates to poor fertility/increased risk of culling [27].*

Females with a high loss of BCS during the first month of lactation have less expression of estrus. Similarly, a loss of body condition greater than 1 point between 0 and 30 days, as well as insufficient BCS at calving, or a postpartum affection increased the average time to onset of the first estrus after calving [13]. Extreme body condition loss in the early lactation can cause irregular heats and longer time to the first ovulation and fail to conceive [29]. Butler [25] related the failure of ovulation of the first wave dominant follicle to high rates of NEFA and ketones in plasma and greater accumulation of triglycerides in the liver during the

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85343*

**5. Negative energy balance and fertility**

lactation and, therefore, are more likely to be culled.

**6. Body condition score and cyclicity**

*Relationship between Body Condition Score, Milk Yield, Reproduction, and Biochemical… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85343*

#### **5. Negative energy balance and fertility**

*Lactation in Farm Animals - Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements…*

**Stage Target body condition score**

At calving 3.0 During service period 2.0–2.5 Mid-lactation 2.5–3.0 Drying-off 3.0

*Recommended body condition score for Holstein Friesian and Jersey cows [22].*

BCS between 200 days of lactation and the date of dry-off should be between 2.75 and 3.50. However, the cows should be dried off when they have a BCS of 3.25–3.5. Therefore, the increase in BCS must occur during late lactation. In this period, the nutritional goals are to completely fulfill body fat reserves, without reaching an

**Lactation stage DMI BCS goal BCS min BCS max** Calving 0 3.5 3.25 3.75 Early lactation 1–30 3.0 2.75 3.25 Peak milk 31–100 2.75 2.5 3 Mid-lactation 101–200 3.00 2.75 3.25 Late lactation 201–300 3.25 3 3.75 Dry-off >300 3.5 3.25 3.75 Dry −60 to −1 3.5 3.25 3.75

Cows receive a nutritional program to maintain persistency of lactation without gaining excessive weight. Cows are dried off at a BCS of 3.5 [21]. Besides, Scanes [21] noted that nutrition is very important in late lactation and during the dry

As a result, Ohnstad and Jones et al*.* [22, 23] suggested BCS values for different

As it affects milk production, BCS affects also reproductive performance and fertility, which is negatively associated with milk production [24]. After calving, energy needs exceed energy intake of dry matter intake (DMI), which creates a negative energy balance (NEB). The NEB with some blood metabolites leads to the decline of some reproductive performance [24]. According to Froment [13], the consequences of a loss of BCS on reproduction are more obvious than those of the absolute value of BCS. Froment [13] showed a general tendency toward a deterioration of the reproduction results when this loss after calving increases. As long as this loss remains below 1 point, the influence of weight loss on reproduction remains modest. Conversely, when the loss of state exceeds 1.5 points, the degradation concerns all the

period. Both at drying-off and at calving, the BCS should be about 3.5.

stages of lactation as shown, respectively, in **Tables 1** and **2**.

**4. Body condition score and reproduction**

*Suggested body condition score for cows by stage of lactation [23].*

**82**

over-conditioning [7].

**Table 2.**

**Table 1.**

**3.4 BCS in late lactation**

reproduction parameters.

Negative energy balance (NEB) delays the first ovulation by limiting dominant follicle growth and estradiol production, through decreases in circulating insulin, IGF-1, and LH pulses [25, 26]. The persistence of a negative energy balance (NEB), corroborated by persistent loss of status, has a negative impact on the major sign of estrus: acceptance of overlap [13]. Butler [27] showed that greater NEB/BCS loss during the first 30 days postpartum delays first ovulation (**Figure 1**). The conception rate decreases with increased BCS loss. Cows remaining non-ovulatory after 50 days of lactation will have a higher risk of not becoming pregnant during lactation and, therefore, are more likely to be culled.

**Figure 1.** *Early NEB and BCS loss delays the first ovulation and relates to poor fertility/increased risk of culling [27].*

#### **6. Body condition score and cyclicity**

Delayed recovery of ovarian activity is associated with poor body condition at calving. This situation appears when feed intakes in the last third of gestation are insufficient. For multiparous, practically there is no real effect of BCS at calving on the cyclicity, but a significant effect of the postpartum state loss was determined [13]. According to Freret et al*.* [28], cows that lost more than 1.5 points of their BCS between 0 and 60 days postpartum are characterized by no cyclicity or prolonged luteal phase.

Females with a high loss of BCS during the first month of lactation have less expression of estrus. Similarly, a loss of body condition greater than 1 point between 0 and 30 days, as well as insufficient BCS at calving, or a postpartum affection increased the average time to onset of the first estrus after calving [13]. Extreme body condition loss in the early lactation can cause irregular heats and longer time to the first ovulation and fail to conceive [29]. Butler [25] related the failure of ovulation of the first wave dominant follicle to high rates of NEFA and ketones in plasma and greater accumulation of triglycerides in the liver during the first 3 weeks of lactation.

#### **7. Effects of BCS on pregnancy rate**

López-Gatius et al. [30] reported that low BCS at parturition affects clearly pregnancy rate at the first AI. In their homogenous study, pregnancy rate at the first AI showed a significant neglect of about 10% in cows delivering in low BCS. This decrease of fertility is related to prolonged non-ovulatory intervals especially in thin cows that has a negative impact on the first service conception. In the study of López-Gatius et al. [30], the link between this loss and the success rate at the first AI is low for the category of cows losing little. The relationship becomes more obvious when the loss exceeds one point. In this same study, the loss of body condition has an impact especially on the number of days open (time interval between parturition and conception) especially for cows with a severe loss greater than 1 point. The number of days open of these animals increases by 10.6 days.

According to Hess et al*.* [31], cows with prolonged negative energy balance prepartum associated with reduced BCS at parturition have extended periods of anestrus [31]. López-Gatius et al. [30] suggested that BCS at parturition and at the first AI might be used as indicators of relationship between the nutritional status of the cow and the number of days open. Animals with good body condition at parturition have the reduced number of days open in comparison with cows having moderate or low body condition. Butler [25] showed that fat mobilization and loss of BCS causing a NEB are strongly associated with the length of the postpartum non-ovulatory period.

#### **8. Body condition score, non-fertilization, early embryonic mortality, dystocia, and metabolism**

In the study of Freret et al*.* [28], the BCS loss between 0 and 60 days postpartum had an effect on the NF-EEM rate: this rate is 41.7% for a loss greater than 1 point, against 29.8% when the loss is less than 1 point. Note that no relationship was observed between calving status score and reproductive performance after artificial insemination. According to Lopez-Gatius et al. [32], the risk of late embryonic mortality is multiplied by 2.4 for each unit of body condition lost during the first month of lactation.

The body condition score is again of interest, the animals in excessive fattening state (status score > 4 on a scale of 0–5) are more at risk of excess fat in the pelvic sector and hence a lower pelvic diameter and a higher risk of dystocia, especially for primiparous.

#### **9. Body conditions score and metabolites**

BCS change may have an effect on the biochemical level by changes in concentration of blood metabolites [33]. Malnutrition in dairy cows can influence many biochemical and physiological processes. Therefore, it perturbs the relation between the metabolic capacities of animals and causes metabolic disorders [34]. According to Bernabucci et al*.* [35] and Samanc et al*.* [36], dairy cows are exposed to several physiological challenges during the transition period, which might result in greater oxidative stress and metabolic disorders. Joźwik et al*.* [37] considered this period as the most critical period for dairy cows, with the highest incidence of metabolic diseases and infections caused by NEB. Consequently, during the early lactation, the liver of high-yielding dairy cows aims to correct the negative effect of NEB through undergoing extensive physiological and biochemical changes.

**85**

**Figure 2.**

*calving [38].*

*Relationship between Body Condition Score, Milk Yield, Reproduction, and Biochemical…*

Duchacek et al*.* [38] showed the changes in milk fat and protein contents as well as the development of the BCS in the post-parturition period (**Figure 2**). The content of milk fat decreased from 4.89% at the beginning of lactation to 3.27% in week 7, and then it increased to 4.06% in weeks 14 and 16 of lactation. The protein content tended to decrease slightly until week 7, and then it increased until the end

Indeed, Duchacek et al*.* [38] demonstrated (**Figure 3**) the development of the fat to protein ratio used as an indicator of NEB. Cows with a more extensive loss of BCS produced more milk with a higher fat to protein ratio [20]. The maximum value of this ratio (1.62) was observed in the first week of lactation. Later, it decreased to 1.08 in week 7, and then it slightly increased and became stabilized around the value of 1.2. Fat and labile protein reserves are mobilized during early lactation, but the ability to use body protein is limited in quantity and duration. For instance, estimates have ranged from 10 to 90 kg of fat and up to 24 kg of protein [39]. No further protein mobilization occurred after 5 weeks of lactation, whereas utilization of

Cincovic et al*.* [41] showed that NEB in early lactation is associated with typical changes such as lower concentrations of glucose, insulin, and IGF-I but with higher concentrations of nonesterified-fatty acid (NEFA) and β-hydroxybutyrate (BHBA)

Furthermore, Van Dorland et al*.* [42] reported that typical changes during early

lactation, associated with negative energy balance, are lower concentrations of glucose, insulin, IGF-I, and higher NEFA and BHBA concentrations. In this period, dairy cows experience several metabolic challenges characterized by the decrease in responsiveness of tissues to insulin [43] and increase in liver gluconeogenesis [44]. Locher et al*.* [45] recorded that cows with BCS > 3.5 in transition period are exposed to important fat mobilization which leads to elevated plasma NEFA in order to support the energy need. Circulating NEFA can be oxidized in the hepatocytes or exported as constituents of very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL). Nevertheless, generally postpartum discharge of NEFA exceeds energy requirements and oxidation capabilities of the liver and leads to production of ketone

bodies including BHBA and reesterification to triglycerides (TG) [45].

Akbar et al*.* [46] indicated that these triglycerides are stored in hepatocytes and involve fatty liver development, reduced metabolic function, health status, production and reproductive performance, as well as the incidence and severity

*Development of fat (B) and protein (T) content in milk and the BCS of cows during the first 17 weeks after* 

body fat continued until at least 12 weeks postpartum [40].

resulted mainly from adipose tissue mobilization.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85343*

of the period observed.

#### *Relationship between Body Condition Score, Milk Yield, Reproduction, and Biochemical… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85343*

Duchacek et al*.* [38] showed the changes in milk fat and protein contents as well as the development of the BCS in the post-parturition period (**Figure 2**). The content of milk fat decreased from 4.89% at the beginning of lactation to 3.27% in week 7, and then it increased to 4.06% in weeks 14 and 16 of lactation. The protein content tended to decrease slightly until week 7, and then it increased until the end of the period observed.

Indeed, Duchacek et al*.* [38] demonstrated (**Figure 3**) the development of the fat to protein ratio used as an indicator of NEB. Cows with a more extensive loss of BCS produced more milk with a higher fat to protein ratio [20]. The maximum value of this ratio (1.62) was observed in the first week of lactation. Later, it decreased to 1.08 in week 7, and then it slightly increased and became stabilized around the value of 1.2.

Fat and labile protein reserves are mobilized during early lactation, but the ability to use body protein is limited in quantity and duration. For instance, estimates have ranged from 10 to 90 kg of fat and up to 24 kg of protein [39]. No further protein mobilization occurred after 5 weeks of lactation, whereas utilization of body fat continued until at least 12 weeks postpartum [40].

Cincovic et al*.* [41] showed that NEB in early lactation is associated with typical changes such as lower concentrations of glucose, insulin, and IGF-I but with higher concentrations of nonesterified-fatty acid (NEFA) and β-hydroxybutyrate (BHBA) resulted mainly from adipose tissue mobilization.

Furthermore, Van Dorland et al*.* [42] reported that typical changes during early lactation, associated with negative energy balance, are lower concentrations of glucose, insulin, IGF-I, and higher NEFA and BHBA concentrations. In this period, dairy cows experience several metabolic challenges characterized by the decrease in responsiveness of tissues to insulin [43] and increase in liver gluconeogenesis [44].

Locher et al*.* [45] recorded that cows with BCS > 3.5 in transition period are exposed to important fat mobilization which leads to elevated plasma NEFA in order to support the energy need. Circulating NEFA can be oxidized in the hepatocytes or exported as constituents of very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL). Nevertheless, generally postpartum discharge of NEFA exceeds energy requirements and oxidation capabilities of the liver and leads to production of ketone bodies including BHBA and reesterification to triglycerides (TG) [45].

Akbar et al*.* [46] indicated that these triglycerides are stored in hepatocytes and involve fatty liver development, reduced metabolic function, health status, production and reproductive performance, as well as the incidence and severity

#### **Figure 2.**

*Development of fat (B) and protein (T) content in milk and the BCS of cows during the first 17 weeks after calving [38].*

*Lactation in Farm Animals - Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements…*

point. The number of days open of these animals increases by 10.6 days.

According to Hess et al*.* [31], cows with prolonged negative energy balance prepartum associated with reduced BCS at parturition have extended periods of anestrus [31]. López-Gatius et al. [30] suggested that BCS at parturition and at the first AI might be used as indicators of relationship between the nutritional status of the cow and the number of days open. Animals with good body condition at parturition have the reduced number of days open in comparison with cows having moderate or low body condition. Butler [25] showed that fat mobilization and loss of BCS causing a NEB are strongly associated with the length of the postpartum

**8. Body condition score, non-fertilization, early embryonic mortality,** 

In the study of Freret et al*.* [28], the BCS loss between 0 and 60 days postpartum had an effect on the NF-EEM rate: this rate is 41.7% for a loss greater than 1 point, against 29.8% when the loss is less than 1 point. Note that no relationship was observed between calving status score and reproductive performance after artificial insemination. According to Lopez-Gatius et al. [32], the risk of late embryonic mortality is multiplied by 2.4 for each unit of body condition lost during the first

The body condition score is again of interest, the animals in excessive fattening state (status score > 4 on a scale of 0–5) are more at risk of excess fat in the pelvic sector and hence a lower pelvic diameter and a higher risk of dystocia, especially for

BCS change may have an effect on the biochemical level by changes in concentration of blood metabolites [33]. Malnutrition in dairy cows can influence many biochemical and physiological processes. Therefore, it perturbs the relation between the metabolic capacities of animals and causes metabolic disorders [34]. According to Bernabucci et al*.* [35] and Samanc et al*.* [36], dairy cows are exposed to several physiological challenges during the transition period, which might result in greater oxidative stress and metabolic disorders. Joźwik et al*.* [37] considered this period as the most critical period for dairy cows, with the highest incidence of metabolic diseases and infections caused by NEB. Consequently, during the early lactation, the liver of high-yielding dairy cows aims to correct the negative effect of

NEB through undergoing extensive physiological and biochemical changes.

López-Gatius et al. [30] reported that low BCS at parturition affects clearly pregnancy rate at the first AI. In their homogenous study, pregnancy rate at the first AI showed a significant neglect of about 10% in cows delivering in low BCS. This decrease of fertility is related to prolonged non-ovulatory intervals especially in thin cows that has a negative impact on the first service conception. In the study of López-Gatius et al. [30], the link between this loss and the success rate at the first AI is low for the category of cows losing little. The relationship becomes more obvious when the loss exceeds one point. In this same study, the loss of body condition has an impact especially on the number of days open (time interval between parturition and conception) especially for cows with a severe loss greater than 1

**7. Effects of BCS on pregnancy rate**

non-ovulatory period.

month of lactation.

primiparous.

**dystocia, and metabolism**

**9. Body conditions score and metabolites**

**84**

**Figure 3.** *Development of fat to protein ratio and BCS after calving [38].*

of metabolic and infectious disorders. Gillund et al*.* [5] disclosed that high BCS at calving usually leads to an increased risk of ketosis. Both BCS at calving and BCS in early lactation could be generators of metabolic disorders [18].

#### **10. Conclusions**

The body condition scoring (BCS) is a practical and effective tool of management in dairy herds; it affects the productivity, reproduction, and health of the animal. Each stage of lactation has its recommended BCS; thereby, over and under conditioned cows may undergo a verity of risks. BCS has clear effects around calving and early lactation where energy intake exceeds energy needs which leads to NEB. Thus, most of researchers agree about a BCS around 3–3.5 at calving to limit undesirable results on lactation; cows with BCS out of this range are exposed to a decrease in milk production, changes in milk components such as milk fat and proteins, and even a decrease in persistence of lactation.

According to previous studies of BCS, certain complications such as reduced milk yield, increase in metabolic diseases, and delay in the postpartum estrus cycle of thin cows may occur due to a lack of usable body reserves in the early period of lactation. In addition, the risk of dystocia, early embryonic mortality, no cyclicity or prolonged luteal phase, increase in the number of days open, increase in metabolic diseases, and decrease in milk yield of fat cows could occur due to a loss of BCS more than 1 point.

Other studies investigated the effect of changes in BCS and BCS loss on metabolism and showed that NEB in early lactation is associated with typical changes such as lower plasma glucose due to the high demand for this substrate to synthesis lactose and decrease in concentrations of insulin and IGF-I. However, higher concentration of NEFA and BHBA is determined, which are related to body reserve mobilization in order to support early lactation demands.

#### **Acknowledgements**

The authors want to thank Dr. Naceur M'Hamdi, for the papers and all documents provided in the preliminary selection of the sections to be used in the chapter.

**87**

provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

1 Laboratory of Animal and Food Resources, National Agronomic Institute of

2 Higher School of Agriculture of Mateur, University of Carthage, Tunisia

*Relationship between Body Condition Score, Milk Yield, Reproduction, and Biochemical…*

None of the authors of this chapter has a financial or personal relationship with other people or organizations that could inappropriately influence or bias the

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85343*

**Conflict of interest**

content of the chapter.

**Acronyms and abbreviations**

LW live weight SCC somatic cell count SNF solids-not-fat DMI dry matter intake IGF-1 insulin growth factor-1 LH luteinizing hormone AI artificial insemination NF non-fertilization

NEB negative energy balance BCS body condition score

EEM early embryonic mortality

VLDL very-low-density lipoproteins

\* and Rachid Bouraoui2

\*Address all correspondence to: wissal26suissi@yahoo.com

BHBA β-hydroxybutyrate

TG triglycerides

**Author details**

Wissal Souissi1

Tunisia, Tunisia

TICB Technical Institute of Cattle Breeding

*Relationship between Body Condition Score, Milk Yield, Reproduction, and Biochemical… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85343*

#### **Conflict of interest**

*Lactation in Farm Animals - Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements…*

of metabolic and infectious disorders. Gillund et al*.* [5] disclosed that high BCS at calving usually leads to an increased risk of ketosis. Both BCS at calving and BCS in

The body condition scoring (BCS) is a practical and effective tool of management in dairy herds; it affects the productivity, reproduction, and health of the animal. Each stage of lactation has its recommended BCS; thereby, over and under conditioned cows may undergo a verity of risks. BCS has clear effects around calving and early lactation where energy intake exceeds energy needs which leads to NEB. Thus, most of researchers agree about a BCS around 3–3.5 at calving to limit undesirable results on lactation; cows with BCS out of this range are exposed to a decrease in milk production, changes in milk components such as milk fat and

According to previous studies of BCS, certain complications such as reduced milk yield, increase in metabolic diseases, and delay in the postpartum estrus cycle of thin cows may occur due to a lack of usable body reserves in the early period of lactation. In addition, the risk of dystocia, early embryonic mortality, no cyclicity or prolonged luteal phase, increase in the number of days open, increase in metabolic diseases, and decrease in milk yield of fat cows could occur due to a loss of BCS more than 1 point. Other studies investigated the effect of changes in BCS and BCS loss on metabo-

lism and showed that NEB in early lactation is associated with typical changes such as lower plasma glucose due to the high demand for this substrate to synthesis lactose and decrease in concentrations of insulin and IGF-I. However, higher concentration of NEFA and BHBA is determined, which are related to body reserve

The authors want to thank Dr. Naceur M'Hamdi, for the papers and all documents provided in the preliminary selection of the sections to be used in the chapter.

early lactation could be generators of metabolic disorders [18].

*Development of fat to protein ratio and BCS after calving [38].*

proteins, and even a decrease in persistence of lactation.

mobilization in order to support early lactation demands.

**10. Conclusions**

**Figure 3.**

**86**

**Acknowledgements**

None of the authors of this chapter has a financial or personal relationship with other people or organizations that could inappropriately influence or bias the content of the chapter.

### **Acronyms and abbreviations**


### **Author details**

Wissal Souissi1 \* and Rachid Bouraoui2

1 Laboratory of Animal and Food Resources, National Agronomic Institute of Tunisia, Tunisia

2 Higher School of Agriculture of Mateur, University of Carthage, Tunisia

\*Address all correspondence to: wissal26suissi@yahoo.com

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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[18] Roche JR, Friggens NC, Kay JK, Fisher MW, Stafford KJ, P D. Invited review: Body condition score and its association with dairy cow productivity, health, and welfare. Journal of Dairy Science. 2009;**92**:5769-5801. DOI:

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[20] Berry DP, Buckley F, Dillon P. Body

condition score and live-weight effects on milk production in Irish Holstein-Friesian dairy cows. Animal. 2007;**1**(9):1351-1359. DOI: 10.1017/

[21] Scanes C. Fundamentals of Animal Science, Section 2: Livestock

S0022-0302(97)75917-4

10.3168/jds.2009-2431

jds.2006-740

S1751731107000419

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10.17221/335-CJAS

*Relationship between Body Condition Score, Milk Yield, Reproduction, and Biochemical… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85343*

Czech Fleckvieh cows. Czech Journal of Animal Science. 2008;(9):357-367. DOI: 10.17221/335-CJAS

[15] Berry DP, Lee JM, Macdonald KA, Stafford K, Matthews L, Roche JR. Association among body condition score, body weight, somatic cell count, and clinical mastitis in seasonally calving dairy cattle. Journal of Dairy Science. 2007;**90**(2):637-648. DOI: 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(07)71546-1

[16] Agenas S, Burstedt E, Holtenius K. Effects of feeding intensity during the dry period. 1. Feed intake, body weight, and milk production. Journal of Dairy Science. 2003;**86**:870-882. DOI: 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(03)73670-4

[17] Domecq JJ, Skidmore AL, Lloyd JW, Kaneene JB. Relationship between body condition scores and milk yield in a large dairy herd of high yielding Holstein cows. Journal of Dairy Science. 1997;**80**:101-112. DOI: 10.3168/jds. S0022-0302(97)75917-4

[18] Roche JR, Friggens NC, Kay JK, Fisher MW, Stafford KJ, P D. Invited review: Body condition score and its association with dairy cow productivity, health, and welfare. Journal of Dairy Science. 2009;**92**:5769-5801. DOI: 10.3168/jds.2009-2431

[19] Roche JR, Lee JM, Macdonald KA, Berry DP. Relationships among body condition score, body weight, and milk production variables in pasture-based dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science. 2007;**90**:3802-3815. DOI: 10.3168/ jds.2006-740

[20] Berry DP, Buckley F, Dillon P. Body condition score and live-weight effects on milk production in Irish Holstein-Friesian dairy cows. Animal. 2007;**1**(9):1351-1359. DOI: 10.1017/ S1751731107000419

[21] Scanes C. Fundamentals of Animal Science, Section 2: Livestock Production. Delmar Cengage Learning; 2010;**139**:140. ISBN-13: 978-1-4283-6127-0

[22] Ohnstad I. Body condition scoring in dairy cattle: Monitoring health to improve milk yield and fertility. Livestock. 2013;**18**(3). DOI: 10.12968/ live.2013.18.3.70

[23] Jones CM, Heinrichs J, Ishler VA. Body Condition Scoring as a Tool for Dairy Herd Management. Penn State Extension. 2017. Available from: https://extension. psu.edu/body-condition-scoring-as-atool-for-dairy-herd-management

[24] Butler WR. Nutritional interactions with reproductive performance in dairy cattle. Animal Reproduction Science. 2000;**60-61**:449-457. DOI: 10.1016/ S0378-4320(00)00076-2

[25] Butler WR. Inhibition of ovulation in the postpartum cow and the lactating sow. Livestock Production Science. 2005;**98**:5-12. DOI: 10.1016/j. livprodsci.2005.10.007

[26] Chagas LM, Bass JJ, Blache D, Burke CR, Kay JK, Lindsay DR, et al. New perspectives on the roles of nutrition and metabolic priorities in the subfertility of high-producing dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science. 2007;**90**:4022-4032. DOI: 10.3168/jds.2006-852

[27] Butler WR. Relationships of negative energy balance with fertility. Advances in Dairy Technology. 2005;**17**:35. DOI: 54b68e0e0cf24eb34f6d2da4.pdf

[28] Freret S, Charbonnier G, Congnard V, Jeanguyot N, Dubois P, Levert J, et al. Relationship between oestrus expression and detection, resumption of cyclicity and body condition losses in postpartum dairy cows. Rencontres autour des Recherches sur les Ruminants. 2005;**12**:149-152. Available from: http://journees3r.fr/IMG/pdf/2005\_ reproduction\_05\_freret.pdf

**88**

*Lactation in Farm Animals - Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements…*

review, research and reviews. Journal of Veterinary Sciences. 2016;**2**(1). Available from: http://www.rroij.com/ open-access/body-condition-scoring-of-

[8] Waltner SS, McNamara JP, Hillers JK. Relationships of body condition score to production variables in high producing Holstein dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science. 1993;**76**:3410-3419. DOI: 10.3168/jds.

[9] Bosio L. Relation entre fertilité et évolution de l'état corporel chez la vache laitière: Le point sur la bibliographie [thesis]. Lyon I : Université Claude-

[10] Wildman EE, Jones IGM, Wagner PE, Boman RL, Troutt HF Jr, Lesch TN. A dairy cow body condition scoring system and its relationship to selected production characteristics.

1982;**65**:495-501. DOI: 10.3168/jds.

[12] Bazin S. Grille de notation de l'état d'engraissement des vaches pies-noires. ITEBRNED; 1984. Paris (France). 31 p

[13] Froment P. Note d'état corporel et reproduction chez la vache laitière [thesis]. École nationale veterinaire d'Alfort: La Faculte De Medecine De

[14] Jilek F, Pytloun P, Kubešova M, Štipkova M, Bouška J, Volek J, et al. Relationships among body condition score, milk yield and reproduction in

dairy-cattle-a-review-.pdf

S0022-0302(93)77679-1

Journal of Dairy Science.

S0022-0302(82)82223-6

[11] Roche JR, Dillon PG, Stockdale CR, Baumgard LH, Vanbaale MJ. Relationships among international body condition scoring systems. Journal of Dairy Science. 2004;**87**:3076-3079. DOI: 10.3168/jds.

S0022-0302(04)73441-4

Creteil. 2007

Bernard; 2006

[1] Reist M, Erdin D, Von Euw D, Tschuemperlin K, Leuenberger H, Chilliard Y, et al. Estimation of energy balance at the individual and herd level using blood and milk traits in high-yielding dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science. 2002;**85**:3314-3327. DOI: 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(02)74420-2

**References**

[2] Schroder UJ, Staufenbiel R. Invited review: Methods to determine body fat reserves in the dairy cow with special regard to ultrasonographic measurement of back fat thickness. Journal of Dairy Science. 2006;**89**:1-14. DOI: 10.3168/jds.

S0022-0302(06)72064-1

[3] Ucar O, Ozkanlar S, Kaya M, Ozkanlar Y, Senocak MG, Polat H. Ovsynch synchronisation programme combined with vitamins and minerals in underfed cows: Biochemical, hormonal and reproductive traits. Kafkas Üniversitesi Veteriner Fakültesi Dergisi. 2011;**17**: 963-970. DOI: 10.9775/kvfd.2011.4863

[4] Whay HR, Main DCJ, Green LE, Webster AJF. Assessment of the welfare of dairy cattle using animal-based measurements: Direct observations and investigation of farm records. The Veterinary Record. 2003;**153**:197-202.

[5] Gillund P, Reksen O, Grohn YT, Karlberg K. Body condition related to ketosis and reproductive performance in Norwegian dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science. 2001;**84**:1390-1396. DOI: 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(01)70170-1

[6] Klopčič M, Hamoen A, Bewley J. Body Condition Scoring of Dairy Cows. Domžale: Biotechnical Faculty, Department of Animal Science; 2011.

[7] Mishra S, Kumari K, Dubey A. Body condition scoring of dairy cattle: A

DOI: 978-961-6204-54-5

DOI: 10.1136/vr.153.7.197

[29] Graff M, Süli A, Szilágyi S, Mikó E. Relationship between body condition and some reproductive parameters of Holstein cattle. Advanced Research in Life Sciences. 2017;**1**(1):59-63. DOI: 10.1515/arls-2017-0010

[30] López-Gatius F, Yániz J, Madriles-Helm D. Effects of body condition score and score change on the reproductive performance of dairy cows: A meta-analysis. Theriogenology. 2003;**59**:801-812. DOI: 10.1016/ S0093-691X(02)01156-1

[31] Hess BW, Lake SL, Schollejegerdes EJ, Weston TR, Nayigihugu V, Molle JDC, et al. Nutritional controls of beef cow reproduction. Journal of Animal Science. 2005;**83**(E. Suppl):E90-E106. DOI: 10.2527/2005.8313\_supplE90x

[32] Lopez-Gatius F, Santolaria P, Yaniz J, Rutland J, Lopez-Bejar M. Factors affecting pregnancy loss from gestation day 38 to 90 in lactating dairy cows from a single herd. Theriogenology. 2002;**57**:1251-1261. DOI: 10.1016/ S0093-691X(01)00715-4

[33] Mouffok CE, Madani T, Semara L, Ayache N, Rahal A. Correlation between body condition score, blood biochemical metabolites, milk yield and quality in Algerian Montbeliarde cattle. Pakistan Veterinary Journal. 2013;**33**(2):191-194. Available from: www.pvj.com.pk/pdffiles/33\_2/191-194.pdf

[34] Chacha F, Bouzebda Z, Bouzebda-Afri F, Gherissi DE, Lamraoui R, Mouffok CH. Body condition score and biochemical indices change in montbeliard dairy cattle: Influence of parity and lactation stage. Global Veterinaria. 2018;**20**(1):36-47. DOI: 10.5829/idosi.gv.2018.36.47

[35] Bernabucci U, Ronchi B, Lacetera N, Nardone A. Influence of body condition score on the relationship between metabolic status and oxidative stress in periparturient dairy cows. Journal of

Dairy Science. 2005;**88**:2017-2026. DOI: 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(05)72878-2

[36] Samanc H, Gvozdic D, Fratric N, Kirovski D, Djokovic R, Sladojevic Z, et al. Body condition score loss, hepatic lipidosis and selected blood metabolites in Holstein cows during transition period. Animal Science Papers and Reports. 2015;**33**(1):35-47

[37] Joźwik A, Strzałkowska N, Bagnicka E, Grzybek W, Krzyżewski J, Poławska E, et al. Relationship between milk yield, stage of lactation, and some blood serum metabolic parameters of dairy cows. Czech Journal of Animal Science. 2012;**57**(8):353-360. DOI: 10.17221/6270-CJAS

[38] Duchacek J, Vacek M, Stadnik L, Beran J, Okrouhla M. Changes in milk fatty acid composition in relation to indicators of energy balance in Holstein cows. Acta Universitatis Agriculturae et Silviculturae Mendelianae Brunensis. 2012;**LX**(1):29-38. DOI: 10.11118/ actaun201260010029

[39] Chibisa GE, Gozho GN, Van Kessel AG, Olkowski AA, Mutsvangwa T. Effects of peripartum propylene glycol supplementation on nitrogen metabolism, body composition, and gene expression for the major protein degradation pathways in skeletal muscle in dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science. 2008;**91**:3512-3527. DOI: 10.3168/ jds.2007-0920

[40] Komaragiri MVS, Erdman RA. Factors affecting body tissue mobilization in early lactation dairy cows. 1. Effect of dietary protein on mobilization of body fat and protein. Journal of Dairy Science. 1997;**80**:929-937. DOI: 10.3168/jds. S0022-0302(97)76016-8

[41] Cincovic RM, Belic B, Radojicic B, Hristov S, Dokovic R. Influence of lipolysis and ketogenesis to metabolic and hematological parameters in dairy

**91**

*Relationship between Body Condition Score, Milk Yield, Reproduction, and Biochemical…*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85343*

cows during periparturient period. Acta Veterinaria (Beograd). 2012;**62**(4): 429-444. DOI: 10.2298/AVB1204429C

[42] Van Dorland HA, Richter S, Morel I, Doherr MG, Castro N, Bruckmaier RM. Variation in hepatic regulation of metabolism during the dry period and in early lactation in dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science. 2009;**92**:1924-1940.

[44] Reynolds CK, Aikman PC, Lupoli B, Humphries DJ, Beever DE. Splanchnic metabolism of dairy cows during the transition from late gestation through early lactation. Journal of Dairy Science. 2003;**86**:1201-1217. DOI: 10.3168/jds.

[45] Locher L, Häussler S, Laubenthal L, Singh SP, Winkler J, Kinoshita A, et al. Effect of increasing body condition on key regulators of fat metabolism in subcutaneous adipose tissue depot and circulation of nonlactating dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science. 2015;**98**: 1057-1068. DOI: 10.3168/jds.2014-8710

[46] Akbar H, Grala TM, VailatiRiboni M, Cardoso FC, Verkerk G, Mc Gowan J, et al. Body condition score at calving affects systemic and hepatic transcriptome indicators of inflammation and nutrient metabolism in grazing dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science. 2015;**98**:1019-1032. DOI:

DOI: 10.3168/jds.2008-1454

[43] Ingvartsen KL, Andersen JB. Integration of metabolism and intake regulation: A review focusing on periparturient animals. Journal of Dairy Science. 2000;**83**:1573-1597. DOI: 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(00)75029-6

S0022-0302(03)73704-7

10.3168/jds.2014-8584

*Relationship between Body Condition Score, Milk Yield, Reproduction, and Biochemical… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85343*

cows during periparturient period. Acta Veterinaria (Beograd). 2012;**62**(4): 429-444. DOI: 10.2298/AVB1204429C

*Lactation in Farm Animals - Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements…*

Dairy Science. 2005;**88**:2017-2026. DOI: 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(05)72878-2

[36] Samanc H, Gvozdic D, Fratric N, Kirovski D, Djokovic R, Sladojevic Z, et al. Body condition score loss, hepatic lipidosis and selected blood metabolites in Holstein cows during transition period. Animal Science Papers and

[37] Joźwik A, Strzałkowska N, Bagnicka E, Grzybek W, Krzyżewski J, Poławska E, et al. Relationship between milk yield, stage of lactation, and some blood serum metabolic parameters of dairy cows. Czech Journal of Animal Science. 2012;**57**(8):353-360. DOI:

[38] Duchacek J, Vacek M, Stadnik L, Beran J, Okrouhla M. Changes in milk fatty acid composition in relation to indicators of energy balance in Holstein cows. Acta Universitatis Agriculturae et Silviculturae Mendelianae Brunensis. 2012;**LX**(1):29-38. DOI: 10.11118/

Reports. 2015;**33**(1):35-47

10.17221/6270-CJAS

actaun201260010029

jds.2007-0920

[39] Chibisa GE, Gozho GN, Van Kessel AG, Olkowski AA, Mutsvangwa T. Effects of peripartum propylene glycol supplementation on nitrogen metabolism, body composition, and gene expression for the major protein degradation pathways in skeletal muscle in dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science. 2008;**91**:3512-3527. DOI: 10.3168/

[40] Komaragiri MVS, Erdman RA. Factors affecting body tissue mobilization in early lactation dairy cows. 1. Effect of dietary protein on mobilization of body fat and protein. Journal of Dairy Science. 1997;**80**:929-937. DOI: 10.3168/jds.

S0022-0302(97)76016-8

[41] Cincovic RM, Belic B, Radojicic B, Hristov S, Dokovic R. Influence of lipolysis and ketogenesis to metabolic and hematological parameters in dairy

[29] Graff M, Süli A, Szilágyi S, Mikó E. Relationship between body condition and some reproductive parameters of Holstein cattle. Advanced Research in Life Sciences. 2017;**1**(1):59-63. DOI:

[30] López-Gatius F, Yániz J, Madriles-Helm D. Effects of body condition score and score change on the reproductive performance of dairy cows: A meta-analysis. Theriogenology.

[31] Hess BW, Lake SL, Schollejegerdes EJ, Weston TR, Nayigihugu V, Molle JDC, et al. Nutritional controls of beef cow reproduction. Journal of Animal Science. 2005;**83**(E. Suppl):E90-E106. DOI: 10.2527/2005.8313\_supplE90x

[32] Lopez-Gatius F, Santolaria P, Yaniz J, Rutland J, Lopez-Bejar M. Factors affecting pregnancy loss from gestation day 38 to 90 in lactating dairy cows from a single herd. Theriogenology. 2002;**57**:1251-1261. DOI: 10.1016/

[33] Mouffok CE, Madani T, Semara L, Ayache N, Rahal A. Correlation between body condition score, blood biochemical metabolites, milk yield and quality in Algerian Montbeliarde cattle. Pakistan Veterinary Journal. 2013;**33**(2):191-194. Available from: www.pvj.com.pk/pdf-

[34] Chacha F, Bouzebda Z, Bouzebda-Afri F, Gherissi DE, Lamraoui R, Mouffok CH. Body condition score and biochemical indices change in montbeliard dairy cattle: Influence of parity and lactation stage. Global Veterinaria. 2018;**20**(1):36-47. DOI:

[35] Bernabucci U, Ronchi B, Lacetera N, Nardone A. Influence of body condition score on the relationship between metabolic status and oxidative stress in periparturient dairy cows. Journal of

S0093-691X(01)00715-4

files/33\_2/191-194.pdf

10.5829/idosi.gv.2018.36.47

2003;**59**:801-812. DOI: 10.1016/ S0093-691X(02)01156-1

10.1515/arls-2017-0010

**90**

[42] Van Dorland HA, Richter S, Morel I, Doherr MG, Castro N, Bruckmaier RM. Variation in hepatic regulation of metabolism during the dry period and in early lactation in dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science. 2009;**92**:1924-1940. DOI: 10.3168/jds.2008-1454

[43] Ingvartsen KL, Andersen JB. Integration of metabolism and intake regulation: A review focusing on periparturient animals. Journal of Dairy Science. 2000;**83**:1573-1597. DOI: 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(00)75029-6

[44] Reynolds CK, Aikman PC, Lupoli B, Humphries DJ, Beever DE. Splanchnic metabolism of dairy cows during the transition from late gestation through early lactation. Journal of Dairy Science. 2003;**86**:1201-1217. DOI: 10.3168/jds. S0022-0302(03)73704-7

[45] Locher L, Häussler S, Laubenthal L, Singh SP, Winkler J, Kinoshita A, et al. Effect of increasing body condition on key regulators of fat metabolism in subcutaneous adipose tissue depot and circulation of nonlactating dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science. 2015;**98**: 1057-1068. DOI: 10.3168/jds.2014-8710

[46] Akbar H, Grala TM, VailatiRiboni M, Cardoso FC, Verkerk G, Mc Gowan J, et al. Body condition score at calving affects systemic and hepatic transcriptome indicators of inflammation and nutrient metabolism in grazing dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science. 2015;**98**:1019-1032. DOI: 10.3168/jds.2014-8584

Section 2

Modeling Lactation

and Optimizing Milking

93

Section 2
