Strategies to Enhance Metacognition

**3**

**Chapter 1**

**Abstract**

ing strategies.

self-efficacy, assessment

**1. Introduction**

Evaluation

Listener Background in L2 Speech

Listeners are integral parts of second language (L2) oral performance assessment. However, evaluation of listeners is susceptible to listener background variables and biases. These variables and preexisting biases distort native speaker (NS) listeners' perceptions of non-native speakers' (NNSs) speech performance and contribute errors into their oral performance assessment. Among listener background variables, listeners' first language status, the amount of exposure to different English varieties, listeners' educational background, prior language teaching experience, NNSs' linguistic stereotyping, and listener attitude have been investigated in the literature and assumed to exert sizable amount of variation in speakers' oral proficiency true scores. To minimize listeners' bias in the assessment context, listeners are provided with intensive training programs in which they are trained how to rate NNSs' speech more objectively utilizing scoring rubrics. To mediate listeners' bias in social contexts, the literature has provided strands of evidence in favor of structured intergroup contact programs, which are inoculations particularly devised to improve NSs' attitude, thereby making them more receptive to NNSs' English varieties. To enhance L2 listeners' self-efficacy and foster their autonomy, L2 instructors are encouraged to emphasize explicit instruction of listen-

**Keywords:** listener background, listener bias, listener training, listening strategies,

Despite recent advances made in the application of automatic speech recognition (ASR) technology in second language (L2) pronunciation, the evaluation of L2 speakers' oral performance is extensively carried out through the judgment of human raters. This is the case whether the evaluation is narrowly focused on pronunciation accuracy and speech intelligibility or more broadly on communication success. The human rater judgments of L2 speakers' oral performance have consequential impacts on L2 speakers due to the fact that they form the bases upon which critical decisions are made regarding L2 speakers' education and employment. However, human raters are vulnerable to be impacted by listeners' bias. Listeners who harbor negative expectations toward a certain group of speakers due to their social group affiliations, nationality, and un-prestigious accent have the proclivity to assess accented speech more negatively [1–3]. The bias formed mainly by listeners' background factors, such as listeners' predispositions, attitudes, expectations, and stereotypes, compromises the validity of oral proficiency assessment and unrightfully contributes to the

*Mohammadreza Dalman and Okim Kang*
