Preservation of Seafoods by Hurdle Technology

*Jag Pal, Om Pravesh Kumar Ravi, Sangeeta Kumari and Akhilesh Kumar Singh*

## **Abstract**

Fish and seafoods are a highly perishable product due to the biochemical composition and the high microbial load on the skin and gills of fish. The natural microflora that is more adopted to low temperatures results in lower thermal bacterial shock at the storage temperature. The development of new fish processing techniques is required because the demand for fish or seafood with minimum changes in sensory Biochemical and nutritional quality. This has led to the advent of hurdle technology in the field of seafood technology. Hurdle technology is the combined use of several preservation methods to make a product shelf-stable, to improve quality and to provide additional safety. This technology is used in many countries of the world, including India. The factors used for food preservation is called as hurdles. A combination of hurdle such as high temperature, refrigeration, irradiation, drying and smoking etc. are applied to eliminate the growth of microorganism. The application of several hurdle may reduce the rate of fish spoilage caused by spoilage microbe. The objective of this book chapters is focus on the preservative effect of hurdles technology on the quality and shelf-life fish and fishery products with recent, combined updated information.

**Keywords:** hurdle technology, seafood, quality, spoilage and microorganism

### **1. Introduction**

Since the time immemorial, human society has been dependent on foods for their existence. We derive a variety of foods from plants and animals such as sea-foods, eggs, fishes etc. All these are consumed by man to satisfy their nutritional requirements, proper body growth and development, health and to increase their appetite value. But the food items of animal origin are perishable in nature as a result they get spoiled due to microbial activity. Hence to reduce this toxicity of food 'hurdle technology' was developed several years ago for the production of safe, stable, nutritious, tasty and economical foods. The hurdle technology, also called combined methods or combined processes, is an integrated approach of basic food preservation methods for making the food more safe, stable and nutritious [1]. It can also be defined as a method of achieving control or elimination of pathogens present in the foods for creating safe and shelf - stable food. The concept of hurdle technology is quite old but has been used by many countries across the globe including India for effective preservation of foods. It advocates the wise use of a combination of different preservation factors or techniques termed as hurdles in order to achieve multi-target,

mild but reliable preservation effects in foods. Hurdle technology developed with the concept to address the consumer demand to provide more natural and fresh food. According to Leistner [2] hurdle technology is the process of an intelligent combination of hurdles which safeguards the microbial safety and storage stability along with retains the sensory, nutritional quality and economic viability of food materials. It has come in response to several number of developments viz.,


It offers a framework for merging a number of milder preservation techniques to attain an improved level of product safety with longer stability (dimorianreview.com).

The hurdles technology can be applied in several fish and fishery products such as the salted fish, smoked, marinated products, pickles, canned fish products (high or low temperature), traditional Asian sauces (fermentative microorganisms) and more recently, in vacuum-packed products (redox potential). These preservative factors have been studied for several years ago. Hurdles technology have some prose (by inhibiting microorganisms) along with some cons (on other parameters such as nutritional properties or sensory quality), depending on their intensity. For example, salt content in food must be in such a limit to inhibit pathogens and spoilage microorganisms, but not too high to impair taste and act as pro-oxidants [3].

## **2. Significance of hurdle technology**


## **3. History of hurdle technology**

Food preservation techniques are an inseparable part of production of foodstuffs in order to overcome or counter the pathogen activities. Thus, the food

**145**

**Table 1.**

*Preservation of Seafoods by Hurdle Technology DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95900*

**4. Principle of hurdle technology**

**following ways**

microorganisms.

present in the food items.

*Principle hurdles used for food preservation.*

remain in an inactive stage or even kill them.

**Parameter Symbol Application** High temperature F Heating

Low temperature T Chilling, freezing

Reduced water activity aw Drying, curing, conserving Increased acidity pH Acid addition or formation

Other preservatives — Sorbates, sulphites, nitrites

foods [4].

scientist applied combined use of several preservation methods including physical or chemical which is an age-old practice. This is generally used by the food industry to ensure food safety and stability. Seafood in terms of fresh fish which is a highly perishable product due to its chemical composition and high accumulation of microorganisms on its body surface. In 1976, Leistner introduced the term "Hurdle effect". Leistner and co-workers acknowledged that the hurdle concept illustrates the well - known fact that the complex interactions of temperature, water activity, pH, redox potential, etc. are significant for the microbial stability of

Hurdle is defined as a factor, a condition, or a processing step that limits, or prevents the microbial growth and reduce microbial load. There are many preservation methods used for making foods stable and safe e.g., heating, chilling, freezing, freeze drying, drying, curing, salting, sugar addition, acidification, fermentation, smoking and oxygen removal. Currently, more than 50 hurdles are used in food processing industries throughout the world. Some of the principle hurdles used for seafood products are given in **Table 1**. The hurdle effect is the most fundamental importance for the preservation of foods, since the hurdles in a stable product, control the microbial spoilage, food poisoning and desired fermentation processes [5]. If the intensity of a particular hurdle in a food is too small, it should

be strengthened, and in case, it is detrimental to the food quality.

**4.1 The principle behind this hurdle technology can be summarized in the** 

2.Pathogens should not be allowed to cross or jump over all the hurdle effects

3.Preservative factors should not allow the microorganisms to proliferate and

4.The hurdle effect shows that the complexity of interactions of temperature,

water, pH, humidity are important factors to microbial stability.

Reduced redox potential Eh Removal of oxygen or addition of ascorbate Bio preservatives — Competitive flora such as microbial fermentation

1.The preservative factors or hurdles disturbs the homeostatis of

*Preservation of Seafoods by Hurdle Technology DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95900*

*Meat and Nutrition*

(dimorianreview.com).

mild but reliable preservation effects in foods. Hurdle technology developed with the concept to address the consumer demand to provide more natural and fresh food. According to Leistner [2] hurdle technology is the process of an intelligent combination of hurdles which safeguards the microbial safety and storage stability along with retains the sensory, nutritional quality and economic viability of food materials. It

i.To fulfill consumers' demand for improved foods that retain their unique

ii.This technology shift food products ready-to-eat and makes it convenience

iii.Basically, consumers prefer more 'natural food products' which requires less

has come in response to several number of developments viz.,

foods with lesser processing requirements by consumers.

ganisms, but not too high to impair taste and act as pro-oxidants [3].

1.Improves foodstuffs quality and ensures microbial activity.

2.Food remains safe and stable for a longer duration of time.

3.It is high in sensory and nutritive value due to hurdle effects.

5.Does not change the composition or integrity of food items.

6.It fulfills the current demands of the consumers for fresh, natural and

7.It is economically suitable for the nation as it saves money, time, energy and

Food preservation techniques are an inseparable part of production of foodstuffs in order to overcome or counter the pathogen activities. Thus, the food

4.It is applicable in both small- and large-scale industries.

**2. Significance of hurdle technology**

minimally processed foodstuffs.

**3. History of hurdle technology**

other resources.

processing effort with use of minimum chemical preservatives.

It offers a framework for merging a number of milder preservation techniques to attain an improved level of product safety with longer stability

The hurdles technology can be applied in several fish and fishery products such as the salted fish, smoked, marinated products, pickles, canned fish products (high or low temperature), traditional Asian sauces (fermentative microorganisms) and more recently, in vacuum-packed products (redox potential). These preservative factors have been studied for several years ago. Hurdles technology have some prose (by inhibiting microorganisms) along with some cons (on other parameters such as nutritional properties or sensory quality), depending on their intensity. For example, salt content in food must be in such a limit to inhibit pathogens and spoilage microor-

nutritional properties with freshness.

**144**

scientist applied combined use of several preservation methods including physical or chemical which is an age-old practice. This is generally used by the food industry to ensure food safety and stability. Seafood in terms of fresh fish which is a highly perishable product due to its chemical composition and high accumulation of microorganisms on its body surface. In 1976, Leistner introduced the term "Hurdle effect". Leistner and co-workers acknowledged that the hurdle concept illustrates the well - known fact that the complex interactions of temperature, water activity, pH, redox potential, etc. are significant for the microbial stability of foods [4].

## **4. Principle of hurdle technology**

Hurdle is defined as a factor, a condition, or a processing step that limits, or prevents the microbial growth and reduce microbial load. There are many preservation methods used for making foods stable and safe e.g., heating, chilling, freezing, freeze drying, drying, curing, salting, sugar addition, acidification, fermentation, smoking and oxygen removal. Currently, more than 50 hurdles are used in food processing industries throughout the world. Some of the principle hurdles used for seafood products are given in **Table 1**. The hurdle effect is the most fundamental importance for the preservation of foods, since the hurdles in a stable product, control the microbial spoilage, food poisoning and desired fermentation processes [5]. If the intensity of a particular hurdle in a food is too small, it should be strengthened, and in case, it is detrimental to the food quality.

## **4.1 The principle behind this hurdle technology can be summarized in the following ways**



#### **Table 1.**

*Principle hurdles used for food preservation.*

## **5. Basic aspects of hurdle technology**

The hurdle technology affects the physiology and growth of microorganisms in food. There are mainly 4 major mechanisms by which hurdle technology affects the growth of microorganisms in foods, these are -*Homeostasis, Metabolic exhaustion, stress reaction and Multi target preservation* (**Figure 1**)*.*

## **5.1 Homeostasis**

The literal meaning of "homeostasis" is "same state" and it refers to the process of keeping the internal body environment in a steady state, when the external environment is changed. In case of food preservation techniques, if somehow the homeostasis of the pathogens are disturbed, then they will not be able to proliferate themselves. They will remain in the lag phase or even die until their internal body temperature is maintained or recovered [7]. But microorganisms can acquire myriad routes to reach their homeostatic state. Thus, the most effective way to prevent their growth on food items is to go through combined methods of hurdle effect. Disturbing the homeostasis of the microorganisms by various hurdles eventually results in the death of the spoilage causing microbes thereby protecting the food product from microbial spoilage.

## **5.2 Metabolic exhaustion**

Auto-sterilization of food products can be achieved by metabolic exhaustion, which leads to the death of the germinated spores and thus ensuring the success

**147**

losses [12].

*Preservation of Seafoods by Hurdle Technology DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95900*

damage and inhibits their further growth [9].

**6. Multi target preservation of food**

**7. Objectives hurdle technology**

**5.3 Stress reactions**

long term [2].

preservation.

of hurdle technology. There are a number of different types of bacteria, mold and yeast which overcome and sustain the high temperature. Many bacterial spores which survive the thermal treatment are able to germinate in similar food products under unfavorable conditions than those under which vegetative bacteria are able to multiply [8]. Therefore, the microorganisms in the food products try every possible way to repair mechanisms for their homeostasis. By doing this, they completely use up their energy and die. This leads to auto-sterilization of foods. When multiple hurdles are applied in the food items, the rate of metabolic exhaustion is accelerated. In this due course, high energy is required by the microorganisms to maintain their homeostasis which is not achieved by them. Thus, it leads to microbial cell

Due to generation of shock proteins, some bacteria become more and more virulent under stress conditions. The stress shock proteins are a family of proteins that are produced by the cells in response to exposure to stressful conditions, induced by heat, pH, aw, ethanol, oxidative compounds, cold, UV light and starvation. Then, the simultaneous exposure to different stresses of bacteria will require high energy demand or at least much more protective stress shock proteins, which ultimately causes the death of the microorganisms [10]. Exposure to the multiple stresses simultaneously induces energy utilizing and synthesis of several stress shock proteins, in turn making the microbes metabolically weak. Hence, multitarget preservation of foods could be an efficient approach for minimizing the production of stress shock proteins and in food preservation for

Leistner [11] has been developed the concept of "Multi-target preservation of food" which is a most significant aspect for efficient and effective preservation of targeted food products. Hurdles which are applied in the targeted food products might not just have effects on microbial stability but also it act synergistically [11]. The synergistic effect could be attained in the targeted food products, if the combined effects of different hurdles viz., pH, aw, Eh, enzyme systems targets simultaneously within the microbial cell and thus disturb the homeostasis of the microbes. This phenomenon interpreting and difficult for the microbes to synthesize a number several stress shock proteins and to maintain their homeostasis [4]. Hence the application of multiple hurdles technique simultaneously would lead to an optimal microbial stability and effective food

The main objective of this technology is food preservation, storage of food products and enhancement of their shelf life thereby giving us good quality products. There are several reasons for preserving the foods which are as follow (i) To ensure the safety of food from microbes (ii) To prevent the spoilage of food (iii) To enhance the keeping quality of food (iv) To control food borne infections and intoxications (v)To extend the shelf life of food (vi) To reduce economic

**Figure 1.** *Basic aspects of hurdle technology [6].*

*Preservation of Seafoods by Hurdle Technology DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95900*

of hurdle technology. There are a number of different types of bacteria, mold and yeast which overcome and sustain the high temperature. Many bacterial spores which survive the thermal treatment are able to germinate in similar food products under unfavorable conditions than those under which vegetative bacteria are able to multiply [8]. Therefore, the microorganisms in the food products try every possible way to repair mechanisms for their homeostasis. By doing this, they completely use up their energy and die. This leads to auto-sterilization of foods. When multiple hurdles are applied in the food items, the rate of metabolic exhaustion is accelerated. In this due course, high energy is required by the microorganisms to maintain their homeostasis which is not achieved by them. Thus, it leads to microbial cell damage and inhibits their further growth [9].

#### **5.3 Stress reactions**

*Meat and Nutrition*

**5.1 Homeostasis**

**5. Basic aspects of hurdle technology**

the food product from microbial spoilage.

**5.2 Metabolic exhaustion**

*stress reaction and Multi target preservation* (**Figure 1**)*.*

The hurdle technology affects the physiology and growth of microorganisms in food. There are mainly 4 major mechanisms by which hurdle technology affects the growth of microorganisms in foods, these are -*Homeostasis, Metabolic exhaustion,* 

The literal meaning of "homeostasis" is "same state" and it refers to the process

Auto-sterilization of food products can be achieved by metabolic exhaustion, which leads to the death of the germinated spores and thus ensuring the success

of keeping the internal body environment in a steady state, when the external environment is changed. In case of food preservation techniques, if somehow the homeostasis of the pathogens are disturbed, then they will not be able to proliferate themselves. They will remain in the lag phase or even die until their internal body temperature is maintained or recovered [7]. But microorganisms can acquire myriad routes to reach their homeostatic state. Thus, the most effective way to prevent their growth on food items is to go through combined methods of hurdle effect. Disturbing the homeostasis of the microorganisms by various hurdles eventually results in the death of the spoilage causing microbes thereby protecting

**146**

**Figure 1.**

*Basic aspects of hurdle technology [6].*

Due to generation of shock proteins, some bacteria become more and more virulent under stress conditions. The stress shock proteins are a family of proteins that are produced by the cells in response to exposure to stressful conditions, induced by heat, pH, aw, ethanol, oxidative compounds, cold, UV light and starvation. Then, the simultaneous exposure to different stresses of bacteria will require high energy demand or at least much more protective stress shock proteins, which ultimately causes the death of the microorganisms [10]. Exposure to the multiple stresses simultaneously induces energy utilizing and synthesis of several stress shock proteins, in turn making the microbes metabolically weak. Hence, multitarget preservation of foods could be an efficient approach for minimizing the production of stress shock proteins and in food preservation for long term [2].

## **6. Multi target preservation of food**

Leistner [11] has been developed the concept of "Multi-target preservation of food" which is a most significant aspect for efficient and effective preservation of targeted food products. Hurdles which are applied in the targeted food products might not just have effects on microbial stability but also it act synergistically [11]. The synergistic effect could be attained in the targeted food products, if the combined effects of different hurdles viz., pH, aw, Eh, enzyme systems targets simultaneously within the microbial cell and thus disturb the homeostasis of the microbes. This phenomenon interpreting and difficult for the microbes to synthesize a number several stress shock proteins and to maintain their homeostasis [4]. Hence the application of multiple hurdles technique simultaneously would lead to an optimal microbial stability and effective food preservation.

## **7. Objectives hurdle technology**

The main objective of this technology is food preservation, storage of food products and enhancement of their shelf life thereby giving us good quality products. There are several reasons for preserving the foods which are as follow (i) To ensure the safety of food from microbes (ii) To prevent the spoilage of food (iii) To enhance the keeping quality of food (iv) To control food borne infections and intoxications (v)To extend the shelf life of food (vi) To reduce economic losses [12].

## **8. Examples of the hurdle effect**

Every stable and safe food and food products are having several sets of intrinsic hurdles which differs in quality and intensity based on a particular product, however, in any case the hurdles must keep the 'normal' population of microorganisms in this food under control. The microorganisms present at the begging stage of food

**Figure 2.**

*Illustration of the hurdle effect, using eight examples. Symbols have the following meaning: F, heating; t, chilling; aw, water activity; pH, acidification; eh, redox potential; pres., preservatives; K-F, competitive flora; V, vitamins; N, nutrients [7, 11].*

**149**

*Preservation of Seafoods by Hurdle Technology DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95900*

**8.2 Fermented fish products**

the manufacturing process.

**8.3 Refrigerated fish products**

**8.4 Thermally preserved fish products**

Few examples of the hurdle effects depicted in **Figure 2**.

**8.1 Fish and fishery products preserved by hurdle technology**

products, are incapable to jump over the next hurdles present in the food systems.

While applying hurdle technology for particular food product the selected processing method (preservation and packaging) will affect the spoilage mechanism and leads to the major quality deterioration fish and fishery product. For example, the fish preserved by cold smoking process the combination of hurdles includes salt addition, mild thermal treatment and storage at low temperatures, in this case the quality deterioration is mainly attributed to microbial spoilage, resulting in sensory modifications and thus organoleptic rejection. However, when same food products stored at subzero temperatures then the quality deterioration is correlated with physical and chemical reactions, viz., dehydration and lipid oxidation. These are major factors that defining duration of shelf life of the final products [13].

The Southeast Asian countries are well-known for fermented fish products and preservation, similarly in India the northeast region is famous for same [14]. These areas are in rich natural resources and a cauldron of different people and cultures lie deep in the lap of easternmost Himalayan hills [15]. A number of hurdles are used for preparation of the fermented fish products, these hurdles makes the food products more stable, with enhanced sensory quality and are safe at room temperature. According to Erkmen & Bozoglu (2016) [16], the storage stability of fermented fish products could be attained by applying a combination of hurdles at several stages of

The fish and fishery products preserved by freezing and stored under frozen condition, it can provide a storage life of more than one year, if appropriately carried out. It has enabled fishing vessels to remain at sea for long periods, and allowed the storing of fish during periods of good fishing and high catching rates, as well as extended the market for fish products of high quality (http://www.fao.org/3/v3630e/ v3630e03.htm) [17]. However, it has been reported that the temperature conditions in the actual cold chain often deviate from the recommended range. For this reason, the preservation of refrigerated fish products is alone is not sufficient. During the past years, the fish mainly gutted fish and fillets are stored under modified atmospheres or in vacuum. According to Tsironi & Taoukis (2010), it has been found that the combined application of modified atmospheres with the low aw by applying osmotic dehydration along with addition of nisin in the osmotic solution may significantly extend the shelf life of refrigerated gilt-head seabream fillets during storage at 0–15°C.

Preservation by heat is a major method for extending the shelf life of packaged fish because of the advantages of a high safety level, convenience and a healthy product. In thermal processing, food is preserved in hermetically sealed containers in cooked form for storage at ambient temperature, without compromising on the quality. It's mainly depends on hurdle technology and the final products exhibit usually very long storage stability. According to Choulitoudi et al. (2017) [18] the combined application of hot smoking and edible coating based active

*Meat and Nutrition*

**8. Examples of the hurdle effect**

Every stable and safe food and food products are having several sets of intrinsic hurdles which differs in quality and intensity based on a particular product, however, in any case the hurdles must keep the 'normal' population of microorganisms in this food under control. The microorganisms present at the begging stage of food

*Illustration of the hurdle effect, using eight examples. Symbols have the following meaning: F, heating; t, chilling; aw, water activity; pH, acidification; eh, redox potential; pres., preservatives; K-F, competitive flora;* 

**148**

**Figure 2.**

*V, vitamins; N, nutrients [7, 11].*

products, are incapable to jump over the next hurdles present in the food systems. Few examples of the hurdle effects depicted in **Figure 2**.

## **8.1 Fish and fishery products preserved by hurdle technology**

While applying hurdle technology for particular food product the selected processing method (preservation and packaging) will affect the spoilage mechanism and leads to the major quality deterioration fish and fishery product. For example, the fish preserved by cold smoking process the combination of hurdles includes salt addition, mild thermal treatment and storage at low temperatures, in this case the quality deterioration is mainly attributed to microbial spoilage, resulting in sensory modifications and thus organoleptic rejection. However, when same food products stored at subzero temperatures then the quality deterioration is correlated with physical and chemical reactions, viz., dehydration and lipid oxidation. These are major factors that defining duration of shelf life of the final products [13].

## **8.2 Fermented fish products**

The Southeast Asian countries are well-known for fermented fish products and preservation, similarly in India the northeast region is famous for same [14]. These areas are in rich natural resources and a cauldron of different people and cultures lie deep in the lap of easternmost Himalayan hills [15]. A number of hurdles are used for preparation of the fermented fish products, these hurdles makes the food products more stable, with enhanced sensory quality and are safe at room temperature. According to Erkmen & Bozoglu (2016) [16], the storage stability of fermented fish products could be attained by applying a combination of hurdles at several stages of the manufacturing process.

## **8.3 Refrigerated fish products**

The fish and fishery products preserved by freezing and stored under frozen condition, it can provide a storage life of more than one year, if appropriately carried out. It has enabled fishing vessels to remain at sea for long periods, and allowed the storing of fish during periods of good fishing and high catching rates, as well as extended the market for fish products of high quality (http://www.fao.org/3/v3630e/ v3630e03.htm) [17]. However, it has been reported that the temperature conditions in the actual cold chain often deviate from the recommended range. For this reason, the preservation of refrigerated fish products is alone is not sufficient. During the past years, the fish mainly gutted fish and fillets are stored under modified atmospheres or in vacuum. According to Tsironi & Taoukis (2010), it has been found that the combined application of modified atmospheres with the low aw by applying osmotic dehydration along with addition of nisin in the osmotic solution may significantly extend the shelf life of refrigerated gilt-head seabream fillets during storage at 0–15°C.

## **8.4 Thermally preserved fish products**

Preservation by heat is a major method for extending the shelf life of packaged fish because of the advantages of a high safety level, convenience and a healthy product. In thermal processing, food is preserved in hermetically sealed containers in cooked form for storage at ambient temperature, without compromising on the quality. It's mainly depends on hurdle technology and the final products exhibit usually very long storage stability. According to Choulitoudi et al. (2017) [18] the combined application of hot smoking and edible coating based active

packaging enhanced by the incorporation of rosemary essential oil and/or extract at refrigerated storage under vacuum on eel fillets.

## **9. Public health significance**

The quality of fish and fishery products is of major concern to the seafood processors, consumers and public health authorities. The quality of fish degrades, due to a complex process mainly by physical, chemical and microbiological forms of deterioration are implicated. However, some sea foods are processed in a modern fish industry which is technologically advanced and complicated industry in line with any other sea foods industry and with the same risk of products being contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms [19]. However, the greatest risk to human health is due to the consumption of spoiled fish, improper processed, improper preserved fish and fish products. There are several methods of fish preservation and processing one of the among hurdle technology is applied in seafood processing which ensure seafood safety. This technology ultimately improves the public health from food posing, seafood borne pathogen, food borne illness.

## **10. Advantages of hurdle technology over other methods of preservation**


## **11. Limitations of hurdle technology**

Hurdles used in seafood preservation can provide various degree of microbial stress reactions, these stress reactions or cross-tolerance may not work when multiple hurdles are used. Mainly three type of possible results while applying hurdles technology for seafood preservation [20].

**151**

**Author details**

**12. Conclusion**

healthy to eat.

**Acknowledgements**

during writing of this book chapter.

Ranchi, Jharkhand, India

Jag Pal\*, Om Pravesh Kumar Ravi, Sangeeta Kumari and Akhilesh Kumar Singh

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

All Authors are thankful to Dean College of Fisheries Science Gumla Birsa Agricultural University Kanke Ranchi Jharkhand for encouragement and guidance

College of Fisheries Science Gumla, Birsa Agricultural University,

\*Address all correspondence to: jagpalfpt@gmail.com

provided the original work is properly cited.

*Preservation of Seafoods by Hurdle Technology DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95900*

microorganism and hence extended their survivability [20].

Here the term additive effect imply that effects of the individual substances are simply added together. Generally, the combination of hurdles has a higher inhibitory effect than any single one. Synergistic effect means that the inhibitory action of the combination of hurdles at intensity lower than that of the constituent hurdles separately. In an antagonistic effect, the needed hurdle level is stronger than that of the single constituents. Sometimes combination treatments are not much effective in lowering microorganisms than single treatments. These effects of combined hurdles are antagonistic. In some cases, application of the hurdle technology for seafood preservation may inhibit outgrowth but induced tolerance capability of

This hurdle technology is an effective and simple method in food preservation fields but it requires strategic processes. It is an important approach that can be used to improve quality parameters during processing and storage of food. Hurdle technology Smart application of hurdles improve sensory characteristics, chemical and microbiological qualities of food. Hurdles in the food preservatives require varying results on the basis of microbial stress. Undoubtedly, it will help in fulfilling the demand for fresh and natural food products. It will actually slow the emergence of new routes of microorganisms in the food items and thus keeps the foods safe and


*Preservation of Seafoods by Hurdle Technology DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95900*

Here the term additive effect imply that effects of the individual substances are simply added together. Generally, the combination of hurdles has a higher inhibitory effect than any single one. Synergistic effect means that the inhibitory action of the combination of hurdles at intensity lower than that of the constituent hurdles separately. In an antagonistic effect, the needed hurdle level is stronger than that of the single constituents. Sometimes combination treatments are not much effective in lowering microorganisms than single treatments. These effects of combined hurdles are antagonistic. In some cases, application of the hurdle technology for seafood preservation may inhibit outgrowth but induced tolerance capability of microorganism and hence extended their survivability [20].

## **12. Conclusion**

*Meat and Nutrition*

packaging enhanced by the incorporation of rosemary essential oil and/or extract

The quality of fish and fishery products is of major concern to the seafood processors, consumers and public health authorities. The quality of fish degrades, due to a complex process mainly by physical, chemical and microbiological forms of deterioration are implicated. However, some sea foods are processed in a modern fish industry which is technologically advanced and complicated industry in line with any other sea foods industry and with the same risk of products being contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms [19]. However, the greatest risk to human health is due to the consumption of spoiled fish, improper processed, improper preserved fish and fish products. There are several methods of fish preservation and processing one of the among hurdle technology is applied in seafood processing which ensure seafood safety. This technology ultimately improves the public health

**10. Advantages of hurdle technology over other methods of preservation**

• The main advantage of this technique is affinity to overcome the ability of

microorganisms in developing resistance to conventional preservation methods since this technique using combination of different preservation technique which acts synergistically by hitting different targets within the cell of the

• Basically, in this technique, hurdles are use at lower concentrations this prevent the undesirable sensory changes and also provide the lower production cost

• Another advantage of this technique is using natural preservatives in combination with synthetic preservatives, this also lower the risk associated with using

• Possibility of increasing shelf-stable foods; because food preserved by combined methods (hurdles) remains stable and safe even without refrigeration, and is high in sensory and nutritive value due to the gentle process applied.

Hurdles used in seafood preservation can provide various degree of microbial

stress reactions, these stress reactions or cross-tolerance may not work when multiple hurdles are used. Mainly three type of possible results while applying

at refrigerated storage under vacuum on eel fillets.

from food posing, seafood borne pathogen, food borne illness.

synthetic preservatives at high concentration.

**11. Limitations of hurdle technology**

i.Addition or additive effect,

ii.Synergism or synergistic effect,

iii.Antagonism or antagonistic effect.

hurdles technology for seafood preservation [20].

**9. Public health significance**

spoilage microorganism.

and save energy.

**150**

This hurdle technology is an effective and simple method in food preservation fields but it requires strategic processes. It is an important approach that can be used to improve quality parameters during processing and storage of food. Hurdle technology Smart application of hurdles improve sensory characteristics, chemical and microbiological qualities of food. Hurdles in the food preservatives require varying results on the basis of microbial stress. Undoubtedly, it will help in fulfilling the demand for fresh and natural food products. It will actually slow the emergence of new routes of microorganisms in the food items and thus keeps the foods safe and healthy to eat.

## **Acknowledgements**

All Authors are thankful to Dean College of Fisheries Science Gumla Birsa Agricultural University Kanke Ranchi Jharkhand for encouragement and guidance during writing of this book chapter.

## **Author details**

Jag Pal\*, Om Pravesh Kumar Ravi, Sangeeta Kumari and Akhilesh Kumar Singh College of Fisheries Science Gumla, Birsa Agricultural University, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India

\*Address all correspondence to: jagpalfpt@gmail.com

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

## **References**

[1] Robinson, R. K. (2014). Encyclopedia of food microbiology. Academic press.

[2] Leistner, L. (2000). Basic aspects of food preservation by hurdle technology. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 55, 181-186. Doi.10.1016/ s0168-1605(00)00161-6.

[3] Leistner, L. (1985). Hurdle technology applied to meat products of the shelf stable product and intermediate moisture food types." Properties of water in foods. Springer, Dordrecht. 309-329.

[4] Leistner, L. (1995). Principles and applications of hurdle technology. In New methods of food preservation (pp. 1-21). Springer, Boston, MA.

[5] Aditya Pundhir and Nida Murtaza. (2015) Hurdle Technology-An Approach towards Food Preservation. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. App. Sci 4(7):802-809

[6] Leistner, L. (2000). Basic aspects of food preservation by hurdle technology. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 55, 181-186. doi. org/10.1016/S0168-1605(00)00161-6

[7] Leistner, L. (1992). Food preservation by combined methods. Food Research International, 25, 151-158. doi. org/10.1016/0963-9969(92)90158-2

[8] Erkmen, O., & Bozoglu, T. F. (2016). Food microbiology: Principles into practice. Chapter 9: Food preservation by combination of techniques (hurdle technology) (1st ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

[9] Tsironi, Theofania, Dimitra Houhoula, and Petros Taoukis. (2020). "Hurdle technology for fish preservation." Aquaculture and Fisheries doi.org/10.1016/j. aaf.2020.02.001

[10] Leistner, Lothar, and Leon GM Gorris. (1995) "Food preservation by hurdle technology." Trends in Food Science & Technology 6.2: 41-46. doi. org/10.1016/S0924-2244(00)88941-4

[11] Leistner, L. (1978) In Food Quality and Nutrition, ed Downey, W.K. Applied Science Publishers, London, p. 553. doi. org/10.1016/0963-9969(92)90158-2

[12] Tsironi, T., Houhoula, D., &Taoukis, P. (2020). Hurdle technology for fish preservation. Aquaculture and Fisheries. doi.org/10.1016/j. aaf.2020.02.001

[13] Majumdar, R. K., Roy, D., Bejjanki, S., & Bhaskar, N. (2016). An overview of some ethnic fermented fish products of the Eastern Himalayan region of India. Journal of Ethnic Foods, 3(4), 276-283. doi.org/10.1016/j. jef.2016.12.003

[14] Erkmen, O., &Bozoglu, T. F. (2016). Food microbiology: Principles into practice. Chapter 9: Food preservation by combination of techniques (hurdle technology) (1st ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. doi. org/10.1002/9781119237860.ch35

[15] Tsironi, T., Houhoula, D., &Taoukis, P. (2020). Hurdle technology for fish preservation. Aquaculture and Fisheries. doi.org/10.1016/j. aaf.2020.02.001

[16] http://www.dimorianreview. com/2016/11/hurdle-technology combined-method-for. html#ixzz6Rw5mRGXk

[17] Choulitoudi, E., Ganiari, S., Tsironi, T., Ntzimani, A., Tsimogiannis, D., Taoukis, P., &Oreopoulou, V. (2017). Edible coating enriched with rosemary extracts to enhance oxidative and microbial stability of smoked eel fillets.

**153**

*Preservation of Seafoods by Hurdle Technology DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95900*

Food packaging and shelf life, 12, 107- 113. doi.org/10.1016/j.fpsl.2017.04.009

[18] Food and Agricultural Organization Technical Manual (2006). Handling and Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables by Combined Methods for Rural Areas. FOA Agricultural Service Bulletin 149.

[19] Adedeji, O. B., Okerentugba, P. O., Innocent-Adiele, H. C., Okonko, I. O., Ojeniyi, S. O., Adejoro, S. A., & Mohamed, S. A. (2012). Benefits, public health hazards and risks associated with fish consumption. New York Science

[20] Erkmen, O., & Bozoglu, T. F. (2016). Food Microbiology, 2 Volume Set: Principles into Practice. John Wiley & Sons. doi. org/10.1002/9781119237860.ch35

Pp 1,46

Journal, 5(9), 33-61.

*Preservation of Seafoods by Hurdle Technology DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95900*

Food packaging and shelf life, 12, 107- 113. doi.org/10.1016/j.fpsl.2017.04.009

[18] Food and Agricultural Organization Technical Manual (2006). Handling and Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables by Combined Methods for Rural Areas. FOA Agricultural Service Bulletin 149. Pp 1,46

[19] Adedeji, O. B., Okerentugba, P. O., Innocent-Adiele, H. C., Okonko, I. O., Ojeniyi, S. O., Adejoro, S. A., & Mohamed, S. A. (2012). Benefits, public health hazards and risks associated with fish consumption. New York Science Journal, 5(9), 33-61.

[20] Erkmen, O., & Bozoglu, T. F. (2016). Food Microbiology, 2 Volume Set: Principles into Practice. John Wiley & Sons. doi. org/10.1002/9781119237860.ch35

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Sons, Ltd.

aaf.2020.02.001

*Meat and Nutrition*

[1] Robinson, R. K. (2014). Encyclopedia of food microbiology. Academic press.

[10] Leistner, Lothar, and Leon GM Gorris. (1995) "Food preservation by hurdle technology." Trends in Food Science & Technology 6.2: 41-46. doi. org/10.1016/S0924-2244(00)88941-4

[11] Leistner, L. (1978) In Food Quality and Nutrition, ed Downey, W.K. Applied Science Publishers, London, p. 553. doi. org/10.1016/0963-9969(92)90158-2

[12] Tsironi, T., Houhoula, D.,

aaf.2020.02.001

jef.2016.12.003

aaf.2020.02.001

combined-method-for. html#ixzz6Rw5mRGXk

&Taoukis, P. (2020). Hurdle technology for fish preservation. Aquaculture and Fisheries. doi.org/10.1016/j.

[13] Majumdar, R. K., Roy, D., Bejjanki, S., & Bhaskar, N. (2016). An overview of some ethnic fermented fish products of the Eastern Himalayan region of India. Journal of Ethnic Foods, 3(4), 276-283. doi.org/10.1016/j.

[14] Erkmen, O., &Bozoglu, T. F. (2016). Food microbiology: Principles

into practice. Chapter 9: Food preservation by combination of techniques (hurdle technology) (1st ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. doi. org/10.1002/9781119237860.ch35

[15] Tsironi, T., Houhoula, D.,

[16] http://www.dimorianreview. com/2016/11/hurdle-technology

&Taoukis, P. (2020). Hurdle technology for fish preservation. Aquaculture and Fisheries. doi.org/10.1016/j.

[17] Choulitoudi, E., Ganiari, S., Tsironi, T., Ntzimani, A., Tsimogiannis, D., Taoukis, P., &Oreopoulou, V. (2017). Edible coating enriched with rosemary extracts to enhance oxidative and microbial stability of smoked eel fillets.

[2] Leistner, L. (2000). Basic aspects of food preservation by hurdle technology.

Microbiology, 55, 181-186. Doi.10.1016/

[4] Leistner, L. (1995). Principles and applications of hurdle technology. In New methods of food preservation (pp. 1-21). Springer, Boston, MA.

[5] Aditya Pundhir and Nida Murtaza. (2015) Hurdle Technology-An Approach towards Food Preservation. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. App. Sci 4(7):802-809

[6] Leistner, L. (2000). Basic aspects of food preservation by hurdle technology. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 55, 181-186. doi. org/10.1016/S0168-1605(00)00161-6

[8] Erkmen, O., & Bozoglu, T. F. (2016). Food microbiology: Principles into practice. Chapter 9: Food preservation by combination of techniques (hurdle technology) (1st ed.). John Wiley &

[9] Tsironi, Theofania, Dimitra Houhoula, and Petros Taoukis. (2020). "Hurdle technology for fish preservation." Aquaculture and Fisheries doi.org/10.1016/j.

[7] Leistner, L. (1992). Food preservation by combined methods. Food Research International, 25, 151-158. doi. org/10.1016/0963-9969(92)90158-2

International Journal of Food

[3] Leistner, L. (1985). Hurdle technology applied to meat products of the shelf stable product and intermediate moisture food types." Properties of water in foods. Springer,

s0168-1605(00)00161-6.

Dordrecht. 309-329.

**References**

**155**

**Chapter 9**

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

Dementia and Nutrition

**Keywords:** dementia, cognitive impairment, diet

*Krishna Prasad Pathak and Emanuela Mattos*

Global aging population worldwide increasing. As growing age, the aging related

issues like dementia came to be seen not as an inevitable condition at the old age phase, but as a condition that results from the competition between multiple risk factors and protective factors acquired throughout life. There is currently no cure for dementia. Thus, strategies to prevent or delay onset of dementia by changes in lifestyle factors, such as diet, are important as non-pharmacological therapy. A healthy nutrition contributes in delaying the cognitive decline for the elderly people and dementia patients. Cognitive decline is a normal part of the aging process and it is a main clinical identification in between elderly and dementia. The group of B Vitamins (B1, B2, B6, B12) are significantly associated with healthy neuropsychological function. The lack of B12 can show impairment of cognition and neurologic deficit and impacts on educational achievement. The cognitive impairment is a main clinical symptom of dementia which can raise the prevalence rates of cognitive impairment that can be dementia accordingly at the end of life.

The aging of the population worldwide has accentuated the emergence of chronic degenerative diseases, including dementia. This is already recognized as a public health priority, given the social and economic impacts at local and regional levels. The absence of effective pharmacological treatments for the reversal of the conditions, caused many researches to be developed in search of preventive strategies. In the past few decades, researchers have focused on identifying potentially modifiable risk factors. This led to a paradigm shift. Dementia came to be seen not as an inevitable condition at the old age phase, but as a condition that results from the competition between multiple risk factors and protective factors acquired throughout life. Scholars have already pointed out evidence linking dementia to vascular risk factors (e.g., hypertension, diabetes, obesity), psychosocial factors (e.g., depression), lifestyle behaviors (e.g., low intellectual level and physical activity, smoking). Meanwhile, high level of education and work complexity, social networks, involvement in mental stimulating activities and regular physical exercise have shown protective properties against dementia [1–3]. Based on this, interventions focused on lifestyle modification have been conducted to assess the impact and association of eating habits and cognitive performance/dementia [1]. Data from the Alzheimer's International Disease (ADI) points out that the number of elderly citizens in the world comprises almost 900 million people. Most live in low-income countries. Longer life expectancy is one of the main risk factors for the development of chronic diseases, with dementia being the most prevalent in

## **Chapter 9**

## Dementia and Nutrition

*Krishna Prasad Pathak and Emanuela Mattos*

## **Abstract**

Global aging population worldwide increasing. As growing age, the aging related issues like dementia came to be seen not as an inevitable condition at the old age phase, but as a condition that results from the competition between multiple risk factors and protective factors acquired throughout life. There is currently no cure for dementia. Thus, strategies to prevent or delay onset of dementia by changes in lifestyle factors, such as diet, are important as non-pharmacological therapy. A healthy nutrition contributes in delaying the cognitive decline for the elderly people and dementia patients. Cognitive decline is a normal part of the aging process and it is a main clinical identification in between elderly and dementia. The group of B Vitamins (B1, B2, B6, B12) are significantly associated with healthy neuropsychological function. The lack of B12 can show impairment of cognition and neurologic deficit and impacts on educational achievement. The cognitive impairment is a main clinical symptom of dementia which can raise the prevalence rates of cognitive impairment that can be dementia accordingly at the end of life.

**Keywords:** dementia, cognitive impairment, diet

## **1. Introduction**

The aging of the population worldwide has accentuated the emergence of chronic degenerative diseases, including dementia. This is already recognized as a public health priority, given the social and economic impacts at local and regional levels. The absence of effective pharmacological treatments for the reversal of the conditions, caused many researches to be developed in search of preventive strategies. In the past few decades, researchers have focused on identifying potentially modifiable risk factors. This led to a paradigm shift. Dementia came to be seen not as an inevitable condition at the old age phase, but as a condition that results from the competition between multiple risk factors and protective factors acquired throughout life. Scholars have already pointed out evidence linking dementia to vascular risk factors (e.g., hypertension, diabetes, obesity), psychosocial factors (e.g., depression), lifestyle behaviors (e.g., low intellectual level and physical activity, smoking). Meanwhile, high level of education and work complexity, social networks, involvement in mental stimulating activities and regular physical exercise have shown protective properties against dementia [1–3]. Based on this, interventions focused on lifestyle modification have been conducted to assess the impact and association of eating habits and cognitive performance/dementia [1].

Data from the Alzheimer's International Disease (ADI) points out that the number of elderly citizens in the world comprises almost 900 million people. Most live in low-income countries. Longer life expectancy is one of the main risk factors for the development of chronic diseases, with dementia being the most prevalent in this population [4]. The figure bellow shows the high difference between the number of people with dementia in low and middle income compared to high income countries (**Figure 1**).

**Figure 1.**

*Alzheimer's Disease International (2015) [5].*

Aspects related to industrial and economic development and urbanization make traditional societies adapt to rapid changes. These 'social' aspects have been little discussed but their impacts as well as those caused by the demographic and epidemiological transition will make a profound difference in the great number of cases of dementia largely concentrated in middle and low-income countries. In 2015, the country with the highest percentage of elderly citizens was Japan (33.2%), and the lowest was Uganda (3.7%). Analysing the table below, it is possible to predict the distribution of the world's elderly population according to the country's income range in the coming years [4] (**Figure 2**).


#### **Figure 2.**

*Alzheimer's Disease International (2015) [4].*

The biggest concern is that the poorest countries, of course, have less savings and professional human resources for the needs of health care and social assistance for populations that age rapidly and consequently for those who develop chronic

**157**

**2. Diet**

*Dementia and Nutrition*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96233*

diseases such as dementia [4]. Mayeda et al. (2016) pointed out the results of their study on inequalities in the incidence of dementia with six racial and ethnic groups over 14 years. The results showed that the dementia incidence was highest for African-Americans (26.6/1,000 person-years) and American Indian/Alaska Native (AIANs) (22.2/1,000 person-years); intermediate for Latinos (19.6/1,000 person years), Pacific Islanders (19.6/1,000 person-years), and Whites (19.3/1,000 personyears) and lowest among Asian-Americans (15.2/1,000 person-years). Risk was 65% greater for African Americans versus Asian-Americans. These inequalities in dementia incidence were observed among women and men and across all ages and estimated cumulative incidence of dementia over 25 years was high for all groups [6]. Worldwide, a significant portion of the elderly population has nutritional problems such as malnutrition (for example, micronutrient deficiencies, like B vitamins, vitamin C, E, D, Se, Zn, Ca and Fe) and over-nutrition (ie, obesity); often existing together [7]. A growing body of evidence has been focused on the association between dietary habits and cognitive performance/dementia. Numerous studies have pointed out that various dietary patterns and nutritional components such as (Mediterranean diet, unsaturated fatty acids, antioxidants (such as vitamin E, vitamin C and flavonoids, vitamin B) are associated with a significantly reduced risk of dementia [8]. In addition, low concentrations of vitamin D were related to an increased risk of cognitive decline [8]. The understanding that nutritional components can play a protective role and favorably influence the cognitive trajectory from the adoption of specific nutritional habits has been widely investigated. Although substantial progress has been made in identifying predictors of healthy aging the impact of certain interventions have proven to be increasingly challenging. This is due, in partly due to the cost and difficulty of studying the long latency disability and illness, and the subjective nature of some predictors of healthy aging. Marsman et al. appointed: "Identify inequalities and identify social, economic and other policies that can reduce unjust processes within and between countries are essential to improving the lives of all chances of optimizing healthy aging. However, measuring healthy aging and the impact of interventions on life style remains an area of research focus. Metabolomics and transcriptomics led to the emergence of biomarkers that can be used to assess the impact of various interventions in the healthy aging process. Clearly, the role of diet and nutrition is central to maintaining life" [7].

There is currently no cure for dementia. Thus, strategies to prevent or delay onset of dementia by changes in lifestyle factors, such as diet, are important as non-pharmacological therapy. In, 2014, The World Alzheimer Report pointed the evidence from cross-sectional studies has shown that, compared to adults with dementia, healthy elderly people tend to have a healthier life diet, richer in fruits and vegetables, instead of meat, processed carbohydrates and fats [9]. It is not yet known why eating habits can contribute to the development of dementia, but stud-

A healthy nutrition contributes in delaying the cognitive decline for the elderly people and dementia patients [10]. Cognitive decline is a normal part of the aging process [11] and it is a main clinical identification in between elderly and dementia. The group of B Vitamins (B1, B2, B6, B12) are significantly associated with healthy neuropsychological function [12]. The lack of B12 can show impairment of cognition and neurologic deficit and impacts on educational achievements [13]. The cognitive impairment is a main clinical symptom of dementia which can raise the prevalence rates of cognitive impairment that can be dementia accordingly at the end of life.

ies that have been carried out so far have given rise to hypotheses fats [9].

#### *Dementia and Nutrition DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96233*

*Meat and Nutrition*

countries (**Figure 1**).

range in the coming years [4] (**Figure 2**).

*Alzheimer's Disease International (2015) [5].*

*Alzheimer's Disease International (2015) [4].*

this population [4]. The figure bellow shows the high difference between the number of people with dementia in low and middle income compared to high income

Aspects related to industrial and economic development and urbanization make traditional societies adapt to rapid changes. These 'social' aspects have been little discussed but their impacts as well as those caused by the demographic and epidemiological transition will make a profound difference in the great number of cases of dementia largely concentrated in middle and low-income countries. In 2015, the country with the highest percentage of elderly citizens was Japan (33.2%), and the lowest was Uganda (3.7%). Analysing the table below, it is possible to predict the distribution of the world's elderly population according to the country's income

The biggest concern is that the poorest countries, of course, have less savings and professional human resources for the needs of health care and social assistance for populations that age rapidly and consequently for those who develop chronic

**156**

**Figure 2.**

**Figure 1.**

diseases such as dementia [4]. Mayeda et al. (2016) pointed out the results of their study on inequalities in the incidence of dementia with six racial and ethnic groups over 14 years. The results showed that the dementia incidence was highest for African-Americans (26.6/1,000 person-years) and American Indian/Alaska Native (AIANs) (22.2/1,000 person-years); intermediate for Latinos (19.6/1,000 person years), Pacific Islanders (19.6/1,000 person-years), and Whites (19.3/1,000 personyears) and lowest among Asian-Americans (15.2/1,000 person-years). Risk was 65% greater for African Americans versus Asian-Americans. These inequalities in dementia incidence were observed among women and men and across all ages and estimated cumulative incidence of dementia over 25 years was high for all groups [6].

Worldwide, a significant portion of the elderly population has nutritional problems such as malnutrition (for example, micronutrient deficiencies, like B vitamins, vitamin C, E, D, Se, Zn, Ca and Fe) and over-nutrition (ie, obesity); often existing together [7]. A growing body of evidence has been focused on the association between dietary habits and cognitive performance/dementia. Numerous studies have pointed out that various dietary patterns and nutritional components such as (Mediterranean diet, unsaturated fatty acids, antioxidants (such as vitamin E, vitamin C and flavonoids, vitamin B) are associated with a significantly reduced risk of dementia [8]. In addition, low concentrations of vitamin D were related to an increased risk of cognitive decline [8]. The understanding that nutritional components can play a protective role and favorably influence the cognitive trajectory from the adoption of specific nutritional habits has been widely investigated. Although substantial progress has been made in identifying predictors of healthy aging the impact of certain interventions have proven to be increasingly challenging. This is due, in partly due to the cost and difficulty of studying the long latency disability and illness, and the subjective nature of some predictors of healthy aging.

Marsman et al. appointed: "Identify inequalities and identify social, economic and other policies that can reduce unjust processes within and between countries are essential to improving the lives of all chances of optimizing healthy aging. However, measuring healthy aging and the impact of interventions on life style remains an area of research focus. Metabolomics and transcriptomics led to the emergence of biomarkers that can be used to assess the impact of various interventions in the healthy aging process. Clearly, the role of diet and nutrition is central to maintaining life" [7].

## **2. Diet**

There is currently no cure for dementia. Thus, strategies to prevent or delay onset of dementia by changes in lifestyle factors, such as diet, are important as non-pharmacological therapy. In, 2014, The World Alzheimer Report pointed the evidence from cross-sectional studies has shown that, compared to adults with dementia, healthy elderly people tend to have a healthier life diet, richer in fruits and vegetables, instead of meat, processed carbohydrates and fats [9]. It is not yet known why eating habits can contribute to the development of dementia, but studies that have been carried out so far have given rise to hypotheses fats [9].

A healthy nutrition contributes in delaying the cognitive decline for the elderly people and dementia patients [10]. Cognitive decline is a normal part of the aging process [11] and it is a main clinical identification in between elderly and dementia. The group of B Vitamins (B1, B2, B6, B12) are significantly associated with healthy neuropsychological function [12]. The lack of B12 can show impairment of cognition and neurologic deficit and impacts on educational achievements [13]. The cognitive impairment is a main clinical symptom of dementia which can raise the prevalence rates of cognitive impairment that can be dementia accordingly at the end of life.

ADI reinforces that dementia is a multifactorial chronic condition with a long latency period between the beginning of the complex pathophysiological and clinical mechanisms and the surgeries of the first symptoms, difficulty and limitation to the performance of definitive trials that test the effect of the diet on it [9]. Prospective cohort studies with long follow-up intervals can obtain associations in their results biologically plausible with epidemiological evidence that guide dietary recommendations to reduce the risk of dementia in populations [9]. Researchers recognize B vitamins as essential after cellular metabolism and that needs supplementary dietary intake because our bodies cannot synthesize necessary quantities. There are eight different chemically distinct types of vitamin B, with B6, B9 and B12 all being linked to protective roles in cognition [9], as well as exogenous antioxidants, including vitamins A (eg, b-carotene), C and E (tocopherols), and minerals, such as manganese, copper, selenium and zinc [14]. In 2004, Garcia and Zanibbi researched the mechanisms of action of homocysteine and speculated that the effects of elevated homocysteine on the brain may be irreversible, in cases where neuropathological changes were already observed [9, 15]. Studies identified that when folate or vitamin B12 are deficient, homocysteine levels rise, which may contribute to amyloid and tau protein accumulation and neuronal death. Homocysteine stimulates apoptosis and neurotoxicity (leading to nerve cell death), and platelet activation (contributing to white matter lesions, vascular injury and ischaemic strokes [9, 15]. The association between B vitamins and cognition has been the subject of several recent systematic reviews [9, 15]. Antioxidants has been the subject of investigation. Studies try to understand how they can inhibit the production of toxic substances and reduce the damage caused by free radicals and, consequently, neurodegeneration [9]. PUFA (polyunsaturated fatty acids) Omega-3 which are not synthesized by the human body, is an essential food constituent in view of its importance for the brain [9, 15]. Research suggests that Omega-3 may be involved in the vascular and inflammatory system and the amyloid pathways of dementia, and be therefore, potentially important in vascular dementia, Alzheimer's disease and mixed forms [9]. Evidence on the beneficial effects of fish consumption for preventing the incidence of dementia are inconsistent. However, healthy lifestyles and circumstances of life (including socioeconomic and educational level) that are associated with higher fish consumption and lower risk of dementia can explain the positive results found by some studies [9, 16]. The Mediterranean diet, which consists of a high intake of cereals, fruits, fish, legumes and vegetables, was associated with reduced risk for a number results, including cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, some forms of cancer and in general mortality studies [9, 17]. The main biological mechanisms are related to the impact on the vascular system, oxidative stress and attenuation of the inflammatory pathway, proposals to support these associations can reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease, which in itself is a risk factor for dementia [9, 18–20].

The Mediterranean foods including olive Oil, consumption of fish (it is rich in omega-3), are important to maintain the proper brain functions [21] and regulate the oxidative stress [15, 22]. In Indian and Nepali food culture people use the daily cumin, Curcumin (Turmeric) in their kitchen which has been used since long century and is believed to heal various medical conditions like; gastric, ulcer, arthritis, liver disease including and traumatic brain injury and treatments for dementia [23, 24]. The another herbal called Gingo biloba prescribed to preserve the memory as medication for the dementia patients as the primary prevention [25]. It is also, suggest by vitro study that Gingo biloba helps as anti-amyloid aggregation effect and beneficial in dementia prevention [26]. A study finds that a higher intake of red meat in midlife was associated to increase the cognitive impairment at the end of life. However, the poultry/Sell-fish food reduced the risk in the population of Chinese people [27]. Likewise, lacking of iron is associated to be cognition impairment [10]. Animal study

**159**

**Author details**

1 Nepal Open University, Nepal

Krishna Prasad Pathak1,2,3\* and Emanuela Mattos3

3 Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*Address all correspondence to: krishnapathak32@gmail.com

2 Alzheimer and Related Dementia Society Nepal (ARDS-Nepal), Nepal

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

*Dementia and Nutrition*

with reduced risk [29].

**3. Conclusion**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96233*

showed capacity of brain can be strong if the dietary of Iron is in balance. Similarly, a human model study documented that iron treatment helped positively to concentrate [11]. Iron deficiency in child age also risk to have poorer cognitive impairment in four countries study, India, Mexico, Zanzibar and Chile [12]. Besides this protein deficiency is also most important cause of poor attention, motivation, motor control and perception of the children that leads to the ends of life [13]. Thus, overall lacking of nutrients (B12, iron, protein, Zink, energy) can irreversible effects to the developing

Inadequate childhood nutrition is associated with poor short-term academic and cognitive outcomes inadequate childhood nutrition is associated with poor shortterm academic and cognitive impairment in later life, while substitution of red meat intake with poultry or fresh fish/shellfish was associated with reduced risk. While substitution of red meat intake with poultry or fresh fish/shellfish was associated

Despite the association evidenced by the studies described so far between the protective role of nutrition and cognitive decline, no observational or randomized controlled study has been conclusive regarding the effectiveness of a type of nutritional intervention. As dementia is a multifactorial chronic condition, health professionals before the proportion of consumption of a given nutritional diet, should consider the nutritional resources accessible to the elderly according to social, economic, cultural, educational and regional aspects. While observational studies use selfreport questionnaires that assess the individual at a single point in time and may have several variations in nutritional consumption that are not reported or that may have interference from experiences prior to evaluation, longitudinal studies (RCT) can adjust some variables such as the level of education of the subjects in their analysis, but indicators such as social and economic level are less frequently considered.

children and impacts cognitive functions and quality of life [28].

#### *Dementia and Nutrition DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96233*

showed capacity of brain can be strong if the dietary of Iron is in balance. Similarly, a human model study documented that iron treatment helped positively to concentrate [11]. Iron deficiency in child age also risk to have poorer cognitive impairment in four countries study, India, Mexico, Zanzibar and Chile [12]. Besides this protein deficiency is also most important cause of poor attention, motivation, motor control and perception of the children that leads to the ends of life [13]. Thus, overall lacking of nutrients (B12, iron, protein, Zink, energy) can irreversible effects to the developing children and impacts cognitive functions and quality of life [28].

Inadequate childhood nutrition is associated with poor short-term academic and cognitive outcomes inadequate childhood nutrition is associated with poor shortterm academic and cognitive impairment in later life, while substitution of red meat intake with poultry or fresh fish/shellfish was associated with reduced risk. While substitution of red meat intake with poultry or fresh fish/shellfish was associated with reduced risk [29].

## **3. Conclusion**

*Meat and Nutrition*

ADI reinforces that dementia is a multifactorial chronic condition with a long latency period between the beginning of the complex pathophysiological and clinical mechanisms and the surgeries of the first symptoms, difficulty and limitation to the performance of definitive trials that test the effect of the diet on it [9]. Prospective cohort studies with long follow-up intervals can obtain associations in their results biologically plausible with epidemiological evidence that guide dietary recommendations to reduce the risk of dementia in populations [9]. Researchers recognize B vitamins as essential after cellular metabolism and that needs supplementary dietary intake because our bodies cannot synthesize necessary quantities. There are eight different chemically distinct types of vitamin B, with B6, B9 and B12 all being linked to protective roles in cognition [9], as well as exogenous antioxidants, including vitamins A (eg, b-carotene), C and E (tocopherols), and minerals, such as manganese, copper, selenium and zinc [14]. In 2004, Garcia and Zanibbi researched the mechanisms of action of homocysteine and speculated that the effects of elevated homocysteine on the brain may be irreversible, in cases where neuropathological changes were already observed [9, 15]. Studies identified that when folate or vitamin B12 are deficient, homocysteine levels rise, which may contribute to amyloid and tau protein accumulation and neuronal death. Homocysteine stimulates apoptosis and neurotoxicity (leading to nerve cell death), and platelet activation (contributing to white matter lesions, vascular injury and ischaemic strokes [9, 15]. The association between B vitamins and cognition has been the subject of several recent systematic reviews [9, 15]. Antioxidants has been the subject of investigation. Studies try to understand how they can inhibit the production of toxic substances and reduce the damage caused by free radicals and, consequently, neurodegeneration [9]. PUFA (polyunsaturated fatty acids) Omega-3 which are not synthesized by the human body, is an essential food constituent in view of its importance for the brain [9, 15]. Research suggests that Omega-3 may be involved in the vascular and inflammatory system and the amyloid pathways of dementia, and be therefore, potentially important in vascular dementia, Alzheimer's disease and mixed forms [9]. Evidence on the beneficial effects of fish consumption for preventing the incidence of dementia are inconsistent. However, healthy lifestyles and circumstances of life (including socioeconomic and educational level) that are associated with higher fish consumption and lower risk of dementia can explain the positive results found by some studies [9, 16]. The Mediterranean diet, which consists of a high intake of cereals, fruits, fish, legumes and vegetables, was associated with reduced risk for a number results, including cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, some forms of cancer and in general mortality studies [9, 17]. The main biological mechanisms are related to the impact on the vascular system, oxidative stress and attenuation of the inflammatory pathway, proposals to support these associations can reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease, which in itself is a risk factor for dementia [9, 18–20]. The Mediterranean foods including olive Oil, consumption of fish (it is rich in omega-3), are important to maintain the proper brain functions [21] and regulate the oxidative stress [15, 22]. In Indian and Nepali food culture people use the daily cumin, Curcumin (Turmeric) in their kitchen which has been used since long century and is believed to heal various medical conditions like; gastric, ulcer, arthritis, liver disease including and traumatic brain injury and treatments for dementia [23, 24]. The another herbal called Gingo biloba prescribed to preserve the memory as medication for the dementia patients as the primary prevention [25]. It is also, suggest by vitro study that Gingo biloba helps as anti-amyloid aggregation effect and beneficial in dementia prevention [26]. A study finds that a higher intake of red meat in midlife was associated to increase the cognitive impairment at the end of life. However, the poultry/Sell-fish food reduced the risk in the population of Chinese people [27]. Likewise, lacking of iron is associated to be cognition impairment [10]. Animal study

**158**

Despite the association evidenced by the studies described so far between the protective role of nutrition and cognitive decline, no observational or randomized controlled study has been conclusive regarding the effectiveness of a type of nutritional intervention. As dementia is a multifactorial chronic condition, health professionals before the proportion of consumption of a given nutritional diet, should consider the nutritional resources accessible to the elderly according to social, economic, cultural, educational and regional aspects. While observational studies use selfreport questionnaires that assess the individual at a single point in time and may have several variations in nutritional consumption that are not reported or that may have interference from experiences prior to evaluation, longitudinal studies (RCT) can adjust some variables such as the level of education of the subjects in their analysis, but indicators such as social and economic level are less frequently considered.

## **Author details**

Krishna Prasad Pathak1,2,3\* and Emanuela Mattos3


\*Address all correspondence to: krishnapathak32@gmail.com

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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[7] Marsman, D.; Belsky, DW.; Gregori, D.; Johnson, MA.; Dog, TL.; ·Meydani, S., Pigat, S.; Sadana, R.; Shao, A.; Griffiths, JC. Healthy ageing: the natural consequences of good nutrition—a conference report. European Journal of Nutrition (2018) 57 (Suppl 2): S15–S34. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s00394-018-1723-0.

[8] Cao, L.; Tan, L.; Wang, H.-F.; Jiang, T.; Zhu, X.-C.; Lu, H.; Tan, M.S.; Tu, J.T. Dietary patterns and risk of dementia: A systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. Mol. Neurobiol. 2015.

[9] Alzheimer's Disease International (ADI). World Alzheimer Report. Dementia and Risk Redution: an analysis of protective and modifiable factors. Lifestyle, chapter 4, p.42- 65, 2014.

[10] Jiang YW, Sheng LT, Pan XF, Feng L, Yuan JM, Pan A, Koh WP. Meat consumption in midlife and risk of cognitive impairment in old age: the Singapore Chinese Health Study. European journal of nutrition. 2020 Jun;59(4):1729-1738.

[11] Bailey R.L., West K.P., Black R.E. The epidemiology of global micronutrient deficiencies. Ann. Nutr. Metab. 2015; 66:22-33. doi: 10.1159/000371618.

[12] Seshadri S., Gopaldas T. Impact of iron supplementation on cognitive functions in preschool and school-aged children-the indian experience. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1989;50:675-686. doi:10.1093/ajcn/50.3.675

[13] Piñero DJ, Li NQ, Connor JR, Beard JL. Variations in dietary iron alter brain iron metabolism in developing rats. J Nutr. 2000 Feb; 130(2):254-263.

[14] Garcia A, Zanibbi K. Homocysteine and cognitive function in elderly people. CMAJ 2004; 171(8): 897-904

[15] Coley, N.; Vaurs, C.; Andrieu, S. Nutrition and Cognition in Aging Adults. Clin Geriatr Med, 2015

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103(3): 405-413.

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[29] Sharifi-Rad J, Rayess YE, Rizk AA, Sadaka C, Zgheib R, Zam W, Sestito S, Rapposelli S, Neffe-Skocińska K, Zielińska D, Salehi B. Turmeric and its major compound curcumin on health: bioactive effects and safety profiles for food, pharmaceutical, biotechnological and medicinal applications. Front Pharmacol. 2020; 11: 01021. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2020.01021.

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Jan;11(1):13.

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[19] Vitali C, Wellington CL, Calabresi L. HDL and cholesterol handling in the brain. Cardiovascular research 2014;

[20] Swanson D, Block R, Mousa SA. Omega-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA: health benefits throughout life.

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10.3233/JAD-2009-1114

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Advances in nutrition. 2012 Jan;3(1):1-7.

Mangialasche, F., Mariani, E., Aust, O., Anlasik, T., et al. (2009). High fruit and vegetable intake is positively correlated with antioxidant status and cognitive performance in healthy subjects. J. Alzheimers Dis. 17, 921-927. doi:

[22] Otaegui-Arrazola, A., Amiano, P.,

cognition, and Alzheimer's disease: food for thought. Eur. J. Nutr. 53, 1-23. doi:

[23] Healton EB, Savage DG, Brust JC, Garrett TJ, Lindenbaum J. Neurologic aspects of cobalamin deficiency. Medicine. 1991 Jul 1;70(4):229-245.

[24] Heys M, Jiang C, Schooling CM, Zhang W, Cheng KK, Lam TH, Leung GM. Is childhood meat eating associated with better later adulthood cognition in a developing population?. European journal of epidemiology. 2010

Elbusto, A., Urdaneta, E., and Martinez-Lage, P. (2014). Diet,

10.1007/s00394-013-0561-3

cohort. J Nutr Health Aging 2004;

[17] Sofi F, Cesari F, Abbate R, Gensini GF, Casini A. Adherence to Mediterranean diet and health status: meta-analysis. Bmj 2008; 337: a1344

*Dementia and Nutrition DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96233*

cohort. J Nutr Health Aging 2004; 8(3): 150-154

[17] Sofi F, Cesari F, Abbate R, Gensini GF, Casini A. Adherence to Mediterranean diet and health status: meta-analysis. Bmj 2008; 337: a1344

[18] Stampfer MJ. Cardiovascular disease and Alzheimer's disease: common links. Journal of internal medicine 2006; 260(3): 211-23. 62.

[19] Vitali C, Wellington CL, Calabresi L. HDL and cholesterol handling in the brain. Cardiovascular research 2014; 103(3): 405-413.

[20] Swanson D, Block R, Mousa SA. Omega-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA: health benefits throughout life. Advances in nutrition. 2012 Jan;3(1):1-7. doi: 10.3945/an.111.000893

[21] Polidori, M. C., Pratico, D., Mangialasche, F., Mariani, E., Aust, O., Anlasik, T., et al. (2009). High fruit and vegetable intake is positively correlated with antioxidant status and cognitive performance in healthy subjects. J. Alzheimers Dis. 17, 921-927. doi: 10.3233/JAD-2009-1114

[22] Otaegui-Arrazola, A., Amiano, P., Elbusto, A., Urdaneta, E., and Martinez-Lage, P. (2014). Diet, cognition, and Alzheimer's disease: food for thought. Eur. J. Nutr. 53, 1-23. doi: 10.1007/s00394-013-0561-3

[23] Healton EB, Savage DG, Brust JC, Garrett TJ, Lindenbaum J. Neurologic aspects of cobalamin deficiency. Medicine. 1991 Jul 1;70(4):229-245.

[24] Heys M, Jiang C, Schooling CM, Zhang W, Cheng KK, Lam TH, Leung GM. Is childhood meat eating associated with better later adulthood cognition in a developing population?. European journal of epidemiology. 2010 Jul 1;25(7):507-516.

[25] Mishra S, Palanivelu K. The effect of curcumin (turmeric) on Alzheimer's disease: An overview.Annals of Indian Academy of Neurology. 2008 Jan;11(1):13.

[26] DeKosky ST, Williamson JD, Fitzpatrick AL, Kronmal RA, Ives DG, Saxton JA, Lopez OL, Burke G, Carlson MC, Fried LP, Kuller LH. Ginkgo biloba for prevention of dementia: a randomized controlled trial. Jama. 2008 Nov 19;300(19):2253-2262.

[27] Luo Y, Smith JV, Paramasivam V, et al. Inhibition of amyloid-beta aggregation and caspase-3 activation by the Ginkgo biloba extract EGb761. Proc Natl Acad Sci U SA. 2002;99(19): 12197-12202.

[28] Kar BR, Rao SL, Chandramouli BA. Cognitive development in children with chronic protein energy malnutrition. Behav Brain Funct. 2008 Jul 24; 4():31.

[29] Sharifi-Rad J, Rayess YE, Rizk AA, Sadaka C, Zgheib R, Zam W, Sestito S, Rapposelli S, Neffe-Skocińska K, Zielińska D, Salehi B. Turmeric and its major compound curcumin on health: bioactive effects and safety profiles for food, pharmaceutical, biotechnological and medicinal applications. Front Pharmacol. 2020; 11: 01021. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2020.01021.

**160**

s00394-018-1723-0.

*Meat and Nutrition*

doi:10.3390/nu8030144

Health. 2014, 14, 643.

p.6-9, 2015.

[1] Canevelli, M.; Lucchini, F.; Quarata, F.; Bruno, G.; Cesari, M. Nutrition and dementia: evidence for preventive approaches? Nutrients 2016, 8, 144;

[8] Cao, L.; Tan, L.; Wang, H.-F.; Jiang, T.; Zhu, X.-C.; Lu, H.; Tan, M.S.; Tu, J.T. Dietary patterns and risk of dementia: A systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. Mol. Neurobiol.

[9] Alzheimer's Disease International (ADI). World Alzheimer Report. Dementia and Risk Redution: an analysis of protective and modifiable factors. Lifestyle, chapter 4, p.42-

[10] Jiang YW, Sheng LT, Pan XF, Feng L, Yuan JM, Pan A, Koh WP. Meat consumption in midlife and risk of cognitive impairment in old age: the Singapore Chinese Health Study. European journal of nutrition. 2020

[11] Bailey R.L., West K.P., Black R.E. The epidemiology of global micronutrient deficiencies. Ann. Nutr. Metab. 2015; 66:22-33. doi: 10.1159/000371618.

[12] Seshadri S., Gopaldas T. Impact of iron supplementation on cognitive functions in preschool and school-aged children-the indian experience. Am. J.

Clin. Nutr. 1989;50:675-686. doi:10.1093/ajcn/50.3.675

CMAJ 2004; 171(8): 897-904

[13] Piñero DJ, Li NQ, Connor JR, Beard JL. Variations in dietary iron alter brain iron metabolism in developing rats. J Nutr. 2000 Feb; 130(2):254-263.

[14] Garcia A, Zanibbi K. Homocysteine and cognitive function in elderly people.

[15] Coley, N.; Vaurs, C.; Andrieu, S. Nutrition and Cognition in Aging Adults. Clin Geriatr Med, 2015

[16] Larrieu S, Letenneur L, Helmer C, Dartigues JF, Barberger-Gateau P. Nutritional factors and risk of incident dementia in the PAQUID longitudinal

Jun;59(4):1729-1738.

2015.

65, 2014.

[2] Beydoun, M.A.; Beydoun, H.A.; Gamaldo, A.A.; Teel, A.; Zonderman, A.B.;Wang, Y. Epidemiologic studies of modifiable factors associated with cognition and dementia: Systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Public

[3] Norton, S.; Matthews, F.E.; Barnes, D.E.; Yaffe, K.; Brayne, C. Potential for primary prevention of Alzheimer's disease: An analysis of population-based data. Lancet Neurol. 2014, 13, 788-794

[4] Alzheimer's Disease International (ADI). World Alzheimer Report. The global impact of dementia: na analysis of prevalence, incidence, cost and trends. Introduction, chapter 1,

[5] Alzheimer's Disease International (ADI). World Alzheimer Report. The global impact of dementia: na analysis of prevalence, incidence, cost and trends. The global prevalence of dementia, chapter 2, p.10-29, 2015.

[6] Mayeda, ER.; Glymour, MM.; Quesenberry, CP.; Whitmer, RA. Inequalities in dementia incidence between six racial and ethnic groups over 14 years. Alzheimers Dement. 12(3):216-224, March.,2016.

[7] Marsman, D.; Belsky, DW.; Gregori, D.; Johnson, MA.; Dog, TL.; ·Meydani, S., Pigat, S.; Sadana, R.; Shao, A.; Griffiths, JC. Healthy ageing: the natural consequences of good nutrition—a conference report. European Journal of Nutrition (2018) 57 (Suppl 2): S15–S34. https://doi.org/10.1007/

**References**

**163**

**Chapter 10**

**Abstract**

Meat Borne Diseases

Red and white meat is a perfect, high-quality protein that comprises all of the nine essential amino acids (EAAs) that cannot be synthesized endogenously. Meat is the normal source of this vitamin, as well as other types of vitamins. Meat affords a range of significant vitamins and minerals that the human body needs, many of which are more bioavailable and easily absorbed than the nutrients found in plant sources. The nutrients in meat support the immune system, participate in the formation of muscle tissue, red blood cells (RBCs), and hormones, and warranty accurate functioning of the nervous system. These nutrients also affect the human senses of smell and taste, benefit our thyroids, and support antioxidant production. The main sources of pathogens in meat and meat products are; the animal itself; human handlers; equipment's in contact, environmental sources, and water used in the preparation. Meat Borne Diseases, since ancient times, played a central role in public health. This chapter is divided into nine parts, part one to part eight deals with the most important pathogens that have been associated with meat borne diseases (MBDs), these include, Meat Borne Prionic Diseases; Viral Diseases; Bacterial Diseases; Protozoal Diseases; Parasitic Diseases; Fungal Diseases; Mycotoxins; Rickettsial Diseases; while

the nine-part deal with the methods of meat preservation and storage.

Meat is the flesh of certain animal species that are used as food by humans. The main tissue is the skeletal muscle and its associated tissues, also the edible offal which includes organs and non-skeletal muscle tissues are considered meat. It is derived from avian, mammalian, reptilian, amphibian, and aquatic species

Meat can be generally categorized as red or white depending on the concentration of myoglobin in muscle fiber. Meat is mainly composed of water, protein, and fats, followed by minerals, vitamins, carbohydrates, and other bioactive components [3]. From the nutritional point of view, meat's significance is derived from its high-quality protein, containing all essential amino acids, and its highly bioavailable minerals and vitamins. Meat is affluent in Vitamin B12 and iron which are not easily available in botanical foods [4]. Meat has played a vital role in human development and is a vital constituent of a well-balanced diet. It ranks among one of the most important, nourishing, and preferred food items available to the masses, which aids in fulfilling most of their body necessities. Meat fat and its fatty acid profile is a point to worry, concerning its consumption, but its moderate custom is always advised by physicians and nutritionists, to lead a healthy life. The fat content of animal carcasses ranges between 8 and 20%. The average proportion

*Dhary Alewy Almashhadany*

**Keywords:** meat, diseases, preservation

commonly harvested for human consumption [1, 2].

**1. Introduction**

## **Chapter 10** Meat Borne Diseases

*Dhary Alewy Almashhadany*

## **Abstract**

Red and white meat is a perfect, high-quality protein that comprises all of the nine essential amino acids (EAAs) that cannot be synthesized endogenously. Meat is the normal source of this vitamin, as well as other types of vitamins. Meat affords a range of significant vitamins and minerals that the human body needs, many of which are more bioavailable and easily absorbed than the nutrients found in plant sources. The nutrients in meat support the immune system, participate in the formation of muscle tissue, red blood cells (RBCs), and hormones, and warranty accurate functioning of the nervous system. These nutrients also affect the human senses of smell and taste, benefit our thyroids, and support antioxidant production. The main sources of pathogens in meat and meat products are; the animal itself; human handlers; equipment's in contact, environmental sources, and water used in the preparation. Meat Borne Diseases, since ancient times, played a central role in public health. This chapter is divided into nine parts, part one to part eight deals with the most important pathogens that have been associated with meat borne diseases (MBDs), these include, Meat Borne Prionic Diseases; Viral Diseases; Bacterial Diseases; Protozoal Diseases; Parasitic Diseases; Fungal Diseases; Mycotoxins; Rickettsial Diseases; while the nine-part deal with the methods of meat preservation and storage.

**Keywords:** meat, diseases, preservation

## **1. Introduction**

Meat is the flesh of certain animal species that are used as food by humans. The main tissue is the skeletal muscle and its associated tissues, also the edible offal which includes organs and non-skeletal muscle tissues are considered meat. It is derived from avian, mammalian, reptilian, amphibian, and aquatic species commonly harvested for human consumption [1, 2].

Meat can be generally categorized as red or white depending on the concentration of myoglobin in muscle fiber. Meat is mainly composed of water, protein, and fats, followed by minerals, vitamins, carbohydrates, and other bioactive components [3]. From the nutritional point of view, meat's significance is derived from its high-quality protein, containing all essential amino acids, and its highly bioavailable minerals and vitamins. Meat is affluent in Vitamin B12 and iron which are not easily available in botanical foods [4]. Meat has played a vital role in human development and is a vital constituent of a well-balanced diet. It ranks among one of the most important, nourishing, and preferred food items available to the masses, which aids in fulfilling most of their body necessities. Meat fat and its fatty acid profile is a point to worry, concerning its consumption, but its moderate custom is always advised by physicians and nutritionists, to lead a healthy life. The fat content of animal carcasses ranges between 8 and 20%. The average proportion

of meat protein is about 23% that fluctuates from a lower to a higher value according to the type of meat source [5]. Generally Meat is a perfect, high-quality protein comprise all of the nine essential amino acids (EAAs) that cannot be synthesized endogenously (lysine, isoleucine, methionine, leucine, valine, tryptophan, threonine, phenylalanine, and histidine) cannot be synthesized endogenously, the human body needs to consume to build and rebuild every cell in the body, as well as for optimal health [6]. Meats Vitamin B12 plays a key role in normal metabolism, preserving brain and nervous system function, and high energy levels. Meat is the normal source of this vitamin, as well as other types of vitamins.. Meat affords a range of significant vitamins and minerals that the human body needs, many of which are more bioavailable and easily absorbed than the nutrients found in plant sources. The nutrients in meat support the immune system, participate in the formation of muscle tissue, red blood cells (RBCs), and hormones, and warranty accurate functioning of the nervous system. These nutrients also affect the human senses of smell and taste, benefit our thyroids, and support antioxidant production [7, 8]. Muscular tissue in live healthy animals is virtually free any contaminant microorganisms. However, following animal slaughtering and carcass preparation, muscular tissue is being subjected to various microorganisms [9, 10].

Depending on different sanitary conditions prevailed upon meat preparation meat might be subjected to different pathogens which might be transmitted to humans (Meat Borne Diseases) [11]. These include disease causative agent like; Prion, Viral, Bacterial, Mycotic, and Parasitic Diseases [12]. The main sources of pathogens in meat and meat products are; the animal itself; human handlers; equipment's in contact, environmental sources or water used in preparation [13]. Therefore, strict hygienic precautions must me prevailed during meat handling and preparations. Meat and its products have been engaged in many diseases or outbreaks in human consumers which necessity awareness and educational knowledge about causative agents and control hygienic measures. This chapter will cover the most important pathogens that have been associated with meat borne diseases (MBDs).

## **2. Meat borne prionic diseases**

These are a group of diseases caused by Prion, which are very significant in the field of public health, whether human public health or veterinary public health, that is commonly known as group of diseases Spongiform Encephalopathy [14]. The most important prionic disease transmitted from cattle to human through cattle meat is the Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) (Mad - Cow Disease) [15]. The diseases that was discovered for the first time in Britain in November of 1986, and it had infected cows, sheep, cats, and monkeys [16].

#### **2.1 The causative agent**

The incubation period is usually very long, ranging between (2–8) years [17]. Prion in infected cattle were found in brain tissues, and in the spinal cord, bone marrow, spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, in addition to the intestine. Prion is infectious proteins that were previously called slow viruses (Slow Viruses), but they are similar to a virus in that they contain a protein and live and multiply inside the cell, taking into account that prions differ from viruses in that they do not have DNA in their composition or it may exist, but in small quantities. Prion, which causes mad cow disease, is characterized by It's a superior ability to resist heat, disinfectants, and UV rays and high ability to resist freezing, drying, and cooking temperatures [18].

**165**

*Meat Borne Diseases*

*2.1.1 Occurrence of diseases*

**3. Meat borne viral diseases**

**3.1 Hepatitis**

getting hepatitis B [22].

*3.1.1 Noroviruses*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97391*

It occurs as a result of cows eating diets containing animal protein remains, including meat and bone meal, which carry the pathogens. The occurrence of the disease started since 1970, where expansion began in Britain by using the carcasses of sick and dead animals to produce feed additives such as meat and bone meal. The preventive measures that have to be taken to facing the transmission of the disease to humans is to excluding and burning all animals that are proven to have the disease beside forbidding the use of mammalian meat and bones in feeding farm animals. At the same time all necessary health measures should be taken in red meat slaughterhouses, and emphasize the removal of animal waste and other wastes

Several viruses can cause foodborne illness, including meat and meat products. The most significant viruses transmitted to humans via foods comprise noroviruses,

Hepatitis A is caused by an infection with the hepatitis A virus (HAV). This type

Hepatitis C is caused by an infection with the hepatitis C virus (HCV). This type is transmitted through direct contact with infected body fluids, typically through injection drug use and sexual contact [23]. HCV is among the most common blood-

Hepatitis D (delta hepatitis) It is an infection with the hepatitis D virus (HDV). HDV is contracted through direct contact with infected blood [24]. The hepatitis D virus cannot multiply without the presence of hepatitis B. It is a rare form of

Hepatitis E caused by infection through the hepatitis E virus (HEV). Hepatitis E is mainly found in areas with poor sanitation and typically results from ingesting fecal matter that contaminates the water supply [25]. Cases of hepatitis E have been

The infection occurs through oral ingestion from contaminated food including meat and meat products, as well as water. The transmission also occurs through aerosols creating during vomiting and fomites. However, the primary route of transmission is person-to-person transmission through the fecal−oral and vomitoral routes, and indirectly through food (ready to eat including leafy vegetables and herbs, berries, and foods handled after cooking), water, and the environment. The European Union summary report on trends and sources of zoonoses, zoonotic agents, and food-borne outbreaks in 2016, mentioned that food is implicated

is most commonly transmitted by consuming water or food including meat and meat products contaminated by feces from a person infected with hepatitis A [21]. Hepatitis B caused by an infection with the hepatitis B virus (HBV). This type is transmitted through contact with infectious body fluids, such as blood, semen, and vaginal secretions, containing the (HBV). Injection drug use, having sex with an infected partner or sharing razors with an infected person increase the risk of

immediately after completion of the slaughtering and processing [19].

rotaviruses, adenoviruses, sap viruses, and astroviruses [20].

borne viral infections in some countries, like USA.

hepatitis that only occurs in conjunction with hepatitis B infection.

indicated in the Middle East, Asia, Africa, and Central America.

## *2.1.1 Occurrence of diseases*

*Meat and Nutrition*

diseases (MBDs).

**2.1 The causative agent**

**2. Meat borne prionic diseases**

and it had infected cows, sheep, cats, and monkeys [16].

of meat protein is about 23% that fluctuates from a lower to a higher value according to the type of meat source [5]. Generally Meat is a perfect, high-quality protein comprise all of the nine essential amino acids (EAAs) that cannot be synthesized endogenously (lysine, isoleucine, methionine, leucine, valine, tryptophan, threonine, phenylalanine, and histidine) cannot be synthesized endogenously, the human body needs to consume to build and rebuild every cell in the body, as well as for optimal health [6]. Meats Vitamin B12 plays a key role in normal metabolism, preserving brain and nervous system function, and high energy levels. Meat is the normal source of this vitamin, as well as other types of vitamins.. Meat affords a range of significant vitamins and minerals that the human body needs, many of which are more bioavailable and easily absorbed than the nutrients found in plant sources. The nutrients in meat support the immune system, participate in the formation of muscle tissue, red blood cells (RBCs), and hormones, and warranty accurate functioning of the nervous system. These nutrients also affect the human senses of smell and taste, benefit our thyroids, and support antioxidant production [7, 8]. Muscular tissue in live healthy animals is virtually free any contaminant microorganisms. However, following animal slaughtering and carcass preparation,

muscular tissue is being subjected to various microorganisms [9, 10].

Depending on different sanitary conditions prevailed upon meat preparation meat might be subjected to different pathogens which might be transmitted to humans (Meat Borne Diseases) [11]. These include disease causative agent like; Prion, Viral, Bacterial, Mycotic, and Parasitic Diseases [12]. The main sources of pathogens in meat and meat products are; the animal itself; human handlers; equipment's in contact, environmental sources or water used in preparation [13]. Therefore, strict hygienic precautions must me prevailed during meat handling and preparations. Meat and its products have been engaged in many diseases or outbreaks in human consumers which necessity awareness and educational knowledge about causative agents and control hygienic measures. This chapter will cover the most important pathogens that have been associated with meat borne

These are a group of diseases caused by Prion, which are very significant in the field of public health, whether human public health or veterinary public health, that is commonly known as group of diseases Spongiform Encephalopathy [14]. The most important prionic disease transmitted from cattle to human through cattle meat is the Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) (Mad - Cow Disease) [15]. The diseases that was discovered for the first time in Britain in November of 1986,

The incubation period is usually very long, ranging between (2–8) years [17]. Prion in infected cattle were found in brain tissues, and in the spinal cord, bone marrow, spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, in addition to the intestine. Prion is infectious proteins that were previously called slow viruses (Slow Viruses), but they are similar to a virus in that they contain a protein and live and multiply inside the cell, taking into account that prions differ from viruses in that they do not have DNA in their composition or it may exist, but in small quantities. Prion, which causes mad cow disease, is characterized by It's a superior ability to resist heat, disinfectants, and UV rays and high ability to resist freezing, drying, and cooking temperatures [18].

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It occurs as a result of cows eating diets containing animal protein remains, including meat and bone meal, which carry the pathogens. The occurrence of the disease started since 1970, where expansion began in Britain by using the carcasses of sick and dead animals to produce feed additives such as meat and bone meal. The preventive measures that have to be taken to facing the transmission of the disease to humans is to excluding and burning all animals that are proven to have the disease beside forbidding the use of mammalian meat and bones in feeding farm animals. At the same time all necessary health measures should be taken in red meat slaughterhouses, and emphasize the removal of animal waste and other wastes immediately after completion of the slaughtering and processing [19].

## **3. Meat borne viral diseases**

Several viruses can cause foodborne illness, including meat and meat products. The most significant viruses transmitted to humans via foods comprise noroviruses, rotaviruses, adenoviruses, sap viruses, and astroviruses [20].

## **3.1 Hepatitis**

Hepatitis A is caused by an infection with the hepatitis A virus (HAV). This type is most commonly transmitted by consuming water or food including meat and meat products contaminated by feces from a person infected with hepatitis A [21].

Hepatitis B caused by an infection with the hepatitis B virus (HBV). This type is transmitted through contact with infectious body fluids, such as blood, semen, and vaginal secretions, containing the (HBV). Injection drug use, having sex with an infected partner or sharing razors with an infected person increase the risk of getting hepatitis B [22].

Hepatitis C is caused by an infection with the hepatitis C virus (HCV). This type is transmitted through direct contact with infected body fluids, typically through injection drug use and sexual contact [23]. HCV is among the most common bloodborne viral infections in some countries, like USA.

Hepatitis D (delta hepatitis) It is an infection with the hepatitis D virus (HDV). HDV is contracted through direct contact with infected blood [24]. The hepatitis D virus cannot multiply without the presence of hepatitis B. It is a rare form of hepatitis that only occurs in conjunction with hepatitis B infection.

Hepatitis E caused by infection through the hepatitis E virus (HEV). Hepatitis E is mainly found in areas with poor sanitation and typically results from ingesting fecal matter that contaminates the water supply [25]. Cases of hepatitis E have been indicated in the Middle East, Asia, Africa, and Central America.

#### *3.1.1 Noroviruses*

The infection occurs through oral ingestion from contaminated food including meat and meat products, as well as water. The transmission also occurs through aerosols creating during vomiting and fomites. However, the primary route of transmission is person-to-person transmission through the fecal−oral and vomitoral routes, and indirectly through food (ready to eat including leafy vegetables and herbs, berries, and foods handled after cooking), water, and the environment.

The European Union summary report on trends and sources of zoonoses, zoonotic agents, and food-borne outbreaks in 2016, mentioned that food is implicated in up to 24% of global outbreaks. Crustaceans, shellfish, mollusks, and their products beside vegetables and juices are the foods most often implicated in European norovirus outbreaks in 2016 [26].

### *3.1.2 Rotaviruses*

The virus affects mainly infants and young children. Rotaviruses cause enteric disease with symptoms characterized by fever, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal discomfort [27].

### *3.1.3 Group a rotaviruses*

Group A rotaviruses are the most important agents of severe diarrhea in infants and young children and are prevalent worldwide. It is the major pathogens in humans and animals. Ten serotypes of human group A rotaviruses are defined by neutralization of one (VP7) of the two outer capsid proteins [28].

#### *3.1.4 The non-group a virus*

The non-group A viruses are divided into groups B, C, D, E, F, and G based on distinct group antigens. Of the non-group A rotavirus, only groups B and C have been detected in humans; they are not an important cause of disease in infants and young children [29].

## **4. Meat borne bacterial diseases**

Because of the great health risks Red meats and white meat come from warmblooded animals and, as such, their microbial flora is heterogeneous, consisting of mesophilic and psychrotrophic bacteria. These bacteria include pathogenic species from the animal and birds themselves, as well as from the environment, together with bacterial species introduced during slaughter and processing of raw products [9]. Most of these diseases are zoonotic diseases, which are transmitted to human beings, either directly or indirectly, and hence the meat and its products play an important role in transmitting these pathogens. Meat borne diseases are classified into meat borne infection and meat borne intoxication [30].

### **4.1 Meat borne infections**

Meat borne infections are caused by the entrance of pathogenic bacteria contaminating meat and meat products into the body, and the reaction of the body tissues to their presence [12]. Meat borne infections tend to have long incubation periods and are usually characterized by fever. Bacterial meat borne infections include the following important pathogens.

## *4.1.1 Campylobacteriosis*

The incubation period ranges between 2 and 11 days with an average of 3–5 days. *C. jejuni and C. coli* causes illness characterized by fever; abdominal pain (abdominal pain is associated with backache and possible mortality); foul-smelling and watery diarrhea, which runs for 3–4 days, (diarrhea may sometimes contain blood and mucus in feces); vomiting; nausea; and abdominal complaints [31].

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*4.1.2* Escherichia coli *foodborne infection*

pathotypes of *E. coli* are now recognized.

*4.1.2.1 Enterohemorrhagic* E coli *(EHEC)*

*4.1.2.3 Enteropathogenic* E coli *(EPEC)*

contaminated food consumption [36].

*4.1.2.4 Enterotoxigenic* E coli *(ETEC)*

*4.1.2.5 Enteroaggregative* E coli *(EAgg EC)*

*4.1.2.6 Enteroadherent* E coli *(EAEC)*

diarrhea in Mexico and North Africa.

breaks of diarrhea [38].

*4.1.3 Listeria monocytogenes*

and animals [39, 40].

*4.1.4 Salmonella species*

heat-labile (LT) and heat-stable (ST) enterotoxins [37].

uremic syndrome (HUS) [33].

*E. coli* is a common member of the normal flora of the large intestine [32]. Six

Enterohemorrhagic *E coli* (EHEC) causes haemorrhagic colitis or haemolytic-

EIEC strains cause illness that is characterized by watery diarrhea in most

Health Organization (WHO) estimated that every year 600 million (almost 1 in 10 people) fall in sick and nearly 420,000 deaths occurs worldwide as a result of

Enterotoxigenic *E coli* (ETEC) is a cause of traveler's diarrhea. ETEC are a pathogenic variant or pathovar of *E. coli* defined by production of diarrheagenic

Enteroaggregative *E coli* (EAgg EC) is primarily associated with persistent diarrhea in children in developing countries. Polluted food appears to be the main source of EAEC infection and has been associated in numerous foodborne out-

Enteroadherent *E coli* (EAEC) is a cause of childhood diarrhea and traveler's

*Listeria monocytogenes* is the only known species in the *Listeria* genus that concern for human health. It is G+ ive bacteria, that is pathogenic to both humans

Some of the important salmonella species involved in food poisoning include; *S. typhimurium, S. infantis, S. dublin, S. enteritidis, S. softenburg, S. montevideo, S. virchow, and S. Newport* [41]. Factors associated with Salmonella meat poisoning outbreaks include; consumption of inadequately cooked or thawed meat or poultry, cross-contamination of meat and meat products from infected food handlers

Enteropathogenic *E coli* (EPEC) is a cause of childhood diarrhea [35]. The World

*4.1.2.2 Enteroinvasive* E coli *(EIEC) causes a Shigella-like dysentery*

patients. Besides, there is a fever, nausea, and abdominal cramps [34].

*Meat and Nutrition*

*3.1.2 Rotaviruses*

discomfort [27].

*3.1.3 Group a rotaviruses*

*3.1.4 The non-group a virus*

**4.1 Meat borne infections**

following important pathogens.

*4.1.1 Campylobacteriosis*

complaints [31].

**4. Meat borne bacterial diseases**

young children [29].

norovirus outbreaks in 2016 [26].

in up to 24% of global outbreaks. Crustaceans, shellfish, mollusks, and their products beside vegetables and juices are the foods most often implicated in European

The virus affects mainly infants and young children. Rotaviruses cause enteric disease with symptoms characterized by fever, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal

Group A rotaviruses are the most important agents of severe diarrhea in infants

The non-group A viruses are divided into groups B, C, D, E, F, and G based on distinct group antigens. Of the non-group A rotavirus, only groups B and C have been detected in humans; they are not an important cause of disease in infants and

Because of the great health risks Red meats and white meat come from warmblooded animals and, as such, their microbial flora is heterogeneous, consisting of mesophilic and psychrotrophic bacteria. These bacteria include pathogenic species from the animal and birds themselves, as well as from the environment, together with bacterial species introduced during slaughter and processing of raw products [9]. Most of these diseases are zoonotic diseases, which are transmitted to human beings, either directly or indirectly, and hence the meat and its products play an important role in transmitting these pathogens. Meat borne diseases are classified

Meat borne infections are caused by the entrance of pathogenic bacteria contaminating meat and meat products into the body, and the reaction of the body tissues to their presence [12]. Meat borne infections tend to have long incubation periods and are usually characterized by fever. Bacterial meat borne infections include the

The incubation period ranges between 2 and 11 days with an average of 3–5 days. *C. jejuni and C. coli* causes illness characterized by fever; abdominal pain (abdominal pain is associated with backache and possible mortality); foul-smelling and watery diarrhea, which runs for 3–4 days, (diarrhea may sometimes contain blood and mucus in feces); vomiting; nausea; and abdominal

and young children and are prevalent worldwide. It is the major pathogens in humans and animals. Ten serotypes of human group A rotaviruses are defined by

neutralization of one (VP7) of the two outer capsid proteins [28].

into meat borne infection and meat borne intoxication [30].

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## *4.1.2* Escherichia coli *foodborne infection*

*E. coli* is a common member of the normal flora of the large intestine [32]. Six pathotypes of *E. coli* are now recognized.

## *4.1.2.1 Enterohemorrhagic* E coli *(EHEC)*

Enterohemorrhagic *E coli* (EHEC) causes haemorrhagic colitis or haemolyticuremic syndrome (HUS) [33].

## *4.1.2.2 Enteroinvasive* E coli *(EIEC) causes a Shigella-like dysentery*

EIEC strains cause illness that is characterized by watery diarrhea in most patients. Besides, there is a fever, nausea, and abdominal cramps [34].

## *4.1.2.3 Enteropathogenic* E coli *(EPEC)*

Enteropathogenic *E coli* (EPEC) is a cause of childhood diarrhea [35]. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that every year 600 million (almost 1 in 10 people) fall in sick and nearly 420,000 deaths occurs worldwide as a result of contaminated food consumption [36].

## *4.1.2.4 Enterotoxigenic* E coli *(ETEC)*

Enterotoxigenic *E coli* (ETEC) is a cause of traveler's diarrhea. ETEC are a pathogenic variant or pathovar of *E. coli* defined by production of diarrheagenic heat-labile (LT) and heat-stable (ST) enterotoxins [37].

## *4.1.2.5 Enteroaggregative* E coli *(EAgg EC)*

Enteroaggregative *E coli* (EAgg EC) is primarily associated with persistent diarrhea in children in developing countries. Polluted food appears to be the main source of EAEC infection and has been associated in numerous foodborne outbreaks of diarrhea [38].

## *4.1.2.6 Enteroadherent* E coli *(EAEC)*

Enteroadherent *E coli* (EAEC) is a cause of childhood diarrhea and traveler's diarrhea in Mexico and North Africa.

## *4.1.3 Listeria monocytogenes*

*Listeria monocytogenes* is the only known species in the *Listeria* genus that concern for human health. It is G+ ive bacteria, that is pathogenic to both humans and animals [39, 40].

## *4.1.4 Salmonella species*

Some of the important salmonella species involved in food poisoning include; *S. typhimurium, S. infantis, S. dublin, S. enteritidis, S. softenburg, S. montevideo, S. virchow, and S. Newport* [41]. Factors associated with Salmonella meat poisoning outbreaks include; consumption of inadequately cooked or thawed meat or poultry, cross-contamination of meat and meat products from infected food handlers besides the possible presence of rats, cockroaches, flies, in the food environment that acts as vectors of the disease [42, 43].

## *4.1.5 Shigellosis (bacillary dysentery)*

All strains of shigella possess potent exotoxins which are carbohydrate-lipid protein complexes [44]. Any type of food including meat and meat products can transmit the shigella pathogens to cause disease in humans. Flies can spread Shigella germs when they get into contact with infected stool and then contaminate different types of food and drinking water. The illness begins 1 to 4 days after ingestion of bacteria and may last 4 to 7 days [45].

## *4.1.6 Vibriosis*

## *4.1.6.1 Vibrio parahemolyticus*

*V. parahemolyticus* is a pathogenic bacterium, whose natural habitat is the sea. Human infections occur solely from seafood creatures such as oysters, shrimps, crabs, lobsters, clams, and related shellfish.

## *4.1.6.2 Vibrio vulnificus*

*V. vulnificus* causes severe foodborne infection. *V. vulnificus* infections can cause fever, nausea, myalgia, and abdominal cramps, 24–48 hours after eating contaminated food.

## *4.1.6.3 Vibrio cholera*

Cholera is an infection of crowded poor class communities and it tends to persist in such areas. Human is the only natural host of the cholera [46]. The spread of infection is from person-to-person, through contaminated water or foods. Shrimps and vegetables are the most frequent carriers. Cholera is typically categorized by the sudden onset of uncomplicated vomiting, which is seen frequently, but very rapid dehydration and hypovolemic shock, as well as copious watery diarrhea. The frequent watery stools may be accompanied by small parts of the mucosa being liberated from the intestines [47].

## *4.1.7 Yersinia enterocolitica*

*Y. enterocolitica* has been isolated from different types of food, such as beef, lamb, seafood, pork, milk, vegetables, and vacuum-packed meat [48]. Symptoms develop some days following ingestion of contaminated foods. It includes headache, fever, abdominal pain, diarrhea, and pharyngitis. Children appear to be more susceptible than adults [49].

## *4.1.8 Brucellosis*

Brucellosis is a foodborne and professional zoonotic disease, caused by the bacterial genus Brucella. This infection has an extremely emerging and significant reemerging potentials in several countries [50].

Brucellosis is a cosmopolitan bacterial zoonotic disease (caused by Brucella spp.) that affects humans and various species of the wild and domestic animals,

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airborne agents in an atmosphere [54].

**4.2 Meat borne intoxications**

*4.2.1 Bio toxicants*

*4.2.1.1 Toxic fishes*

plants [55].

parrotfish.

*4.2.1.2 Mollusca*

or in food [58].

*4.2.3 Poisonous substances*

*4.2.1.3 Poisonous mammals*

*4.2.2 Metabolic products (toxins)*

cardiovascular complications, and prostatitis [53].

types of foods containing the following toxicants.

and planktons containing alkaloids making them toxic.

involves secondarily transfected toxins [57].

goats, pigs, and reindeer [51, 52].

principally food-producing animals, including cattle, buffaloes, camels, sheep,

Human brucellosis is a severely debilitating and disabling life-threatening disease. It is recognized by the clinical problems such as, the contribution of the interior organs, peripheral arthritis, bronchopneumonia, epididymitis, orchitis, hepatic abscesses, sacroiliitis, osteomyelitis, spondylitis, meningitis, encephalitis,

The transmission occurs through ingestion of polluted milk or meat and from mothers to breastfed babies. The transmission of Brucella also happens through mucous membranes or skin wounds, following direct contact with urine, vaginal discharges, blood, tissues, placenta, aborted fetuses, and through inhalation of

These are diseases caused by the consumption of meat, meat products, and other

Poisonous animals and Plants, which are found in tissues of certain animals and

Types of intoxications associated with fish include ciguatera poisoning, tetraodon poisoning, and scombroid toxicity [56]. They include puffers, triggerfish, and

Mollusca involved are oysters, mussels, and clams, which feed on dinoflagellates

Mammals are not commonly inherently poisonous, but secondary toxicity may affect many of them. The toxin may be of various types e.g. heavy metals, pesticides, toxic plants, therapeutics, fungal or bacterial toxins. Most human poisoning

Metabolic products (toxins), which formed and excreted by microbes (Bacteria, Fungi, and Algae), while they multiply in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) of human

Poisonous substances, which may be purposely or accidentally added to food during processing, production, transportation, or storage [59]. In general, the foodborne intoxications have short incubation Periods, from minutes to hours, and

#### *Meat Borne Diseases DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97391*

*Meat and Nutrition*

*4.1.6 Vibriosis*

nated food.

that acts as vectors of the disease [42, 43].

*4.1.5 Shigellosis (bacillary dysentery)*

bacteria and may last 4 to 7 days [45].

crabs, lobsters, clams, and related shellfish.

*4.1.6.1 Vibrio parahemolyticus*

*4.1.6.2 Vibrio vulnificus*

*4.1.6.3 Vibrio cholera*

liberated from the intestines [47].

*4.1.7 Yersinia enterocolitica*

susceptible than adults [49].

reemerging potentials in several countries [50].

*4.1.8 Brucellosis*

besides the possible presence of rats, cockroaches, flies, in the food environment

All strains of shigella possess potent exotoxins which are carbohydrate-lipid protein complexes [44]. Any type of food including meat and meat products can transmit the shigella pathogens to cause disease in humans. Flies can spread Shigella germs when they get into contact with infected stool and then contaminate different types of food and drinking water. The illness begins 1 to 4 days after ingestion of

*V. parahemolyticus* is a pathogenic bacterium, whose natural habitat is the sea. Human infections occur solely from seafood creatures such as oysters, shrimps,

*V. vulnificus* causes severe foodborne infection. *V. vulnificus* infections can cause fever, nausea, myalgia, and abdominal cramps, 24–48 hours after eating contami-

Cholera is an infection of crowded poor class communities and it tends to persist

in such areas. Human is the only natural host of the cholera [46]. The spread of infection is from person-to-person, through contaminated water or foods. Shrimps and vegetables are the most frequent carriers. Cholera is typically categorized by the sudden onset of uncomplicated vomiting, which is seen frequently, but very rapid dehydration and hypovolemic shock, as well as copious watery diarrhea. The frequent watery stools may be accompanied by small parts of the mucosa being

*Y. enterocolitica* has been isolated from different types of food, such as beef, lamb, seafood, pork, milk, vegetables, and vacuum-packed meat [48]. Symptoms develop some days following ingestion of contaminated foods. It includes headache, fever, abdominal pain, diarrhea, and pharyngitis. Children appear to be more

Brucellosis is a foodborne and professional zoonotic disease, caused by the bacterial genus Brucella. This infection has an extremely emerging and significant

Brucellosis is a cosmopolitan bacterial zoonotic disease (caused by Brucella spp.) that affects humans and various species of the wild and domestic animals,

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principally food-producing animals, including cattle, buffaloes, camels, sheep, goats, pigs, and reindeer [51, 52].

Human brucellosis is a severely debilitating and disabling life-threatening disease. It is recognized by the clinical problems such as, the contribution of the interior organs, peripheral arthritis, bronchopneumonia, epididymitis, orchitis, hepatic abscesses, sacroiliitis, osteomyelitis, spondylitis, meningitis, encephalitis, cardiovascular complications, and prostatitis [53].

The transmission occurs through ingestion of polluted milk or meat and from mothers to breastfed babies. The transmission of Brucella also happens through mucous membranes or skin wounds, following direct contact with urine, vaginal discharges, blood, tissues, placenta, aborted fetuses, and through inhalation of airborne agents in an atmosphere [54].

## **4.2 Meat borne intoxications**

These are diseases caused by the consumption of meat, meat products, and other types of foods containing the following toxicants.

## *4.2.1 Bio toxicants*

Poisonous animals and Plants, which are found in tissues of certain animals and plants [55].

## *4.2.1.1 Toxic fishes*

Types of intoxications associated with fish include ciguatera poisoning, tetraodon poisoning, and scombroid toxicity [56]. They include puffers, triggerfish, and parrotfish.

## *4.2.1.2 Mollusca*

Mollusca involved are oysters, mussels, and clams, which feed on dinoflagellates and planktons containing alkaloids making them toxic.

## *4.2.1.3 Poisonous mammals*

Mammals are not commonly inherently poisonous, but secondary toxicity may affect many of them. The toxin may be of various types e.g. heavy metals, pesticides, toxic plants, therapeutics, fungal or bacterial toxins. Most human poisoning involves secondarily transfected toxins [57].

## *4.2.2 Metabolic products (toxins)*

Metabolic products (toxins), which formed and excreted by microbes (Bacteria, Fungi, and Algae), while they multiply in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) of human or in food [58].

### *4.2.3 Poisonous substances*

Poisonous substances, which may be purposely or accidentally added to food during processing, production, transportation, or storage [59]. In general, the foodborne intoxications have short incubation Periods, from minutes to hours, and are characterized by a lack of fever. Food-borne intoxications can be classified into the following categories; Bacterial, Fungal and Chemical intoxications.

This is a type of meat-borne intoxication arising from ingestion of meat, meat products, and other types of food containing poisonous chemicals, such as heavy metals; Pesticides; insecticides; Herbicides; Fungicides. Chemicals also include Preservatives (Nitrites; antibiotics - penicillin, tetracycline, and chloramphenicol or Radionuclides (cesium, strontium, radium, barium, lanthanum) [60–62].

## **4.3 Bacterial meat borne intoxications**

## *4.3.1 Bacillus cereus meat borne intoxication*

Food poisoning caused by *B. cereus* is an acute intoxication that occurs when this bacterium produces toxins [63]. *B. cereus* is considered a comparatively common cause of gastroenteritis globally. There are two types of gastrointestinal disorders caused by this bacterium [64].

## *4.3.1.1 Emetic toxin (ETE)*

The emetic syndrome, due to ETE, is an intoxication that is caused by a single highly heat-, proteolysis-, acid- and alkali-resistant toxin, that is pre-formed when ingested, leading to a rapid onset of the syndrome [65].

## *4.3.1.2 Hemolysin BL (Hbl)*

*Bacillus cereus* produces emetic toxin and several enterotoxins including nonhemolytic enterotoxin (Nhe), hemolysin BL (Hbl), cytolysin K (CytK), hemolysin II (HlyII), enterotoxin FM (EntFM), and enterotoxin T (bc-D-ENT) .

## *4.3.1.3 Non-haemolytic enterotoxin (Nhe)*

Is a pore forming toxin consisting of two lytic elements NheA and NheB, and a protein NheC with unknown function encoded by nheA, nheB, and nheC, respectively [66].

## *4.3.1.4 Cytotoxin K (CytK)*

## *4.3.1.4.1 Emetic disorder*

Characterized by vomiting, abdominal cramps, nausea, and occasionally diarrhea that occur 1–6 hrs after consumption of contaminated meat or other types of food.

## *4.3.1.4.2 Diarrhea disorder*

Characterized by abdominal cramps, watery stool (copious diarrhea), tenesmus rarely vomiting. These symptoms beginning 8 to 16 hrs after ingestion of contaminated food.

### *4.3.2 Clostridium perfringens meat borne intoxication*

Clostridium meat borne intoxication is caused by the ingestion of food containing large numbers of vegetative cells of enterotoxigenic *C. perfringens* type A and some type C and D strains. *C. perfringens* multiply in the intestine and sporulate releasing *C. perfringens* enterotoxin (CPE).

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**6.1 Taeniasis**

temperatures [77].

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*4.3.3* Clostridium botulinum *meat borne intoxication*

processing techniques, especially canned meat [67].

*4.3.4 Staphylococcus aureus meat borne intoxication*

(pepsin, renin, trypsin, and chymotrypsin) [69].

nated meat or shellfish is other possible way too [71].

and the disease are generally known as "Crypto." [73].

significance of disease confirmed by some researchers [74–76].

**5. Meat borne protozoal diseases**

**5.1** *Toxoplasma gondii*

**5.2 Sarcocystosis**

from the host in feces [72].

**6. Meat borne parasitic diseases**

**5.3 Cryptosporidiosis**

The danger of botulism has been the deciding factor in the formulation of food

Caused by the consumption of food including meat and meat products polluted with staphylococcal enterotoxins produced by confident strains of *Staph. aureus* while growing in different types of food [68]. These enterotoxins are pH stable (insensitive to pH changes); as well as resistant to most proteolysis enzymes

Human toxoplasmosis occurs from eating inadequately cooked meat, particularly mutton (lamb meat), pork, and venison (deer meat), or from drinking unpasteurized milk contaminated with *Toxoplasma gondii*. However, cooking meat (internal temperature about 70°C or 160°F) or freezing to around (−18°C or 0°F) should be able to destroy the protozoa [70]. Eating food that was contaminated by knives, utensils, cutting boards, or other foods that had contact with raw, contami-

Humans become infected when they eat undercooked meat comprising these Sarcocystis. Bradyzoites are released from ruptured cysts in the small intestine and enter the lamina propria of the intestinal epithelium. There, they distinguish into macro- and microgametocytes. The Union of male and female gametes results in the creation of oocysts. Oocysts sporulate in the intestinal epithelium and are shed

This protozoal diarrheal disease caused by *Cryptosporidium.* Both the protozoa

The probable hazards from meat borne cryptosporidiosis come from ingesting raw and uncooked foods, particularly meat and meat products. The foodborne transmission has been stated following the consumption of certain foods, such as uncooked meat products, raw sausage, offal, chicken salad, and milk. as well as the

Eating raw or undercooked contaminated beef or pork is the primary risk factor

for acquiring taeniasis. So, one way to prevent taeniasis is to cook meat at safe

*Meat and Nutrition*

**4.3 Bacterial meat borne intoxications**

*4.3.1 Bacillus cereus meat borne intoxication*

ingested, leading to a rapid onset of the syndrome [65].

caused by this bacterium [64].

*4.3.1.1 Emetic toxin (ETE)*

*4.3.1.2 Hemolysin BL (Hbl)*

respectively [66].

*4.3.1.4 Cytotoxin K (CytK)*

*4.3.1.4.2 Diarrhea disorder*

*4.3.2 Clostridium perfringens meat borne intoxication*

releasing *C. perfringens* enterotoxin (CPE).

*4.3.1.4.1 Emetic disorder*

*4.3.1.3 Non-haemolytic enterotoxin (Nhe)*

are characterized by a lack of fever. Food-borne intoxications can be classified into

This is a type of meat-borne intoxication arising from ingestion of meat, meat products, and other types of food containing poisonous chemicals, such as heavy metals; Pesticides; insecticides; Herbicides; Fungicides. Chemicals also include Preservatives (Nitrites; antibiotics - penicillin, tetracycline, and chloramphenicol or Radionuclides (cesium, strontium, radium, barium, lanthanum) [60–62].

Food poisoning caused by *B. cereus* is an acute intoxication that occurs when this bacterium produces toxins [63]. *B. cereus* is considered a comparatively common cause of gastroenteritis globally. There are two types of gastrointestinal disorders

The emetic syndrome, due to ETE, is an intoxication that is caused by a single highly heat-, proteolysis-, acid- and alkali-resistant toxin, that is pre-formed when

*Bacillus cereus* produces emetic toxin and several enterotoxins including nonhemolytic enterotoxin (Nhe), hemolysin BL (Hbl), cytolysin K (CytK), hemolysin

Is a pore forming toxin consisting of two lytic elements NheA and NheB, and a

Characterized by vomiting, abdominal cramps, nausea, and occasionally diarrhea that occur 1–6 hrs after consumption of contaminated meat or other types of food.

Characterized by abdominal cramps, watery stool (copious diarrhea), tenesmus rarely vomiting. These symptoms beginning 8 to 16 hrs after ingestion of contami-

Clostridium meat borne intoxication is caused by the ingestion of food containing large numbers of vegetative cells of enterotoxigenic *C. perfringens* type A and some type C and D strains. *C. perfringens* multiply in the intestine and sporulate

II (HlyII), enterotoxin FM (EntFM), and enterotoxin T (bc-D-ENT) .

protein NheC with unknown function encoded by nheA, nheB, and nheC,

the following categories; Bacterial, Fungal and Chemical intoxications.

**170**

nated food.

## *4.3.3* Clostridium botulinum *meat borne intoxication*

The danger of botulism has been the deciding factor in the formulation of food processing techniques, especially canned meat [67].

## *4.3.4 Staphylococcus aureus meat borne intoxication*

Caused by the consumption of food including meat and meat products polluted with staphylococcal enterotoxins produced by confident strains of *Staph. aureus* while growing in different types of food [68]. These enterotoxins are pH stable (insensitive to pH changes); as well as resistant to most proteolysis enzymes (pepsin, renin, trypsin, and chymotrypsin) [69].

## **5. Meat borne protozoal diseases**

## **5.1** *Toxoplasma gondii*

Human toxoplasmosis occurs from eating inadequately cooked meat, particularly mutton (lamb meat), pork, and venison (deer meat), or from drinking unpasteurized milk contaminated with *Toxoplasma gondii*. However, cooking meat (internal temperature about 70°C or 160°F) or freezing to around (−18°C or 0°F) should be able to destroy the protozoa [70]. Eating food that was contaminated by knives, utensils, cutting boards, or other foods that had contact with raw, contaminated meat or shellfish is other possible way too [71].

#### **5.2 Sarcocystosis**

Humans become infected when they eat undercooked meat comprising these Sarcocystis. Bradyzoites are released from ruptured cysts in the small intestine and enter the lamina propria of the intestinal epithelium. There, they distinguish into macro- and microgametocytes. The Union of male and female gametes results in the creation of oocysts. Oocysts sporulate in the intestinal epithelium and are shed from the host in feces [72].

## **5.3 Cryptosporidiosis**

This protozoal diarrheal disease caused by *Cryptosporidium.* Both the protozoa and the disease are generally known as "Crypto." [73].

The probable hazards from meat borne cryptosporidiosis come from ingesting raw and uncooked foods, particularly meat and meat products. The foodborne transmission has been stated following the consumption of certain foods, such as uncooked meat products, raw sausage, offal, chicken salad, and milk. as well as the significance of disease confirmed by some researchers [74–76].

## **6. Meat borne parasitic diseases**

## **6.1 Taeniasis**

Eating raw or undercooked contaminated beef or pork is the primary risk factor for acquiring taeniasis. So, one way to prevent taeniasis is to cook meat at safe temperatures [77].

## **6.2 Trichinellosis/trichinosis**

It occurs when a human eating raw or undercooked meat from animals infected with the protozoa Trichinella. Meat that comprises infective *Trichinella* larvae; the acid in the stomach dissolves the hard covering of the cyst around the larvae and releases the worms [78].

### **6.3 Diphyllobothriasis**

Humans got infections by eating raw or undercooked fish. Examples of fish include salmon, trout, perch, walleyed pike, and other species of freshwater fish. Some fish such as salmon live in both fresh and saltwater and can harbor *Diphyllobothrium* larvae. Lightly salted, smoked, or pickled fish also may contain infectious organisms [79]. However, Cooking fish sufficiently, to an internal temperature of at least 145° F [~63° C]; or freezing at −4°F (−20°C) or below for 7 days (total time); or at −31°F (−35°C) or below until solid, and storing at −31°F (−35°C) or below for 15 hours; or at −31°F (−35°C) or below until solid and storing at −4°F (−20°C) or below for 24 hours [13].

#### **6.4 Anisakiasis**

Anisakiasis, or herring worm disease, is a parasitic disease caused by nematodes (worms) that attach to the wall of the esophagus, stomach, or intestine. Humans are accidentally infected when hosts are consumed either as raw or inadequately cooked or treated fish/shellfish meals. Therefore, the infection has been directly linked to eating habits [80].

#### **6.5 Capillariasis**

When humans ingest raw or undercooked infected fish, larvae may migrate to the intestine and mature into adult worms [13, 81].

#### **6.6 Opisthorchiasis**

Liver flukes infect the liver, gallbladder, and bile duct in humans. While most infected persons do not show any symptoms, infections that last a long time can result in acute symptoms and critical disease. Chronic infection may lead to cholangiocarcinoma, a cancer of the bile ducts [13, 82].

#### **6.7 Heterophyiasis**

Heterophyiasis is caused by trematode parasites happening in regions where brackish water fish is ingested raw or under inadequately cooked circumstances [83].

#### **6.8 Clinostomiasis (yellow grub disease)**

This parasite has a complex life cycle, usually taking mollusks and fishes as intermediate (middle) hosts and birds as final (definitive) hosts. Humans may become the definitive host by ingesting raw or undercooked fish meat infected with the metacercarial stage of this type of parasite [84, 85].

**173**

storing [91].

*Meat Borne Diseases*

the following.

**7.1 Aspergilli**

**7.2 Fusarium**

**7.3 Mucor**

**8. Mycotoxins**

**8.2 Fumonisins**

**8.1 Aflatoxins (AFs)**

none, and trichothecenes [88].

from certain Mucor species [89].

AFG2 in addition to AFB1 and AFB2 [90].

or other processed products [88].

**8.3 Ochratoxin a (OTA)**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97391*

Fungi are very common in food because it being ubiquitous. It can spoil large

Aspergillus contains some species with strains that are the most dangeHP, with

Well-known Fusarium mycotoxins are fumonisins, deoxynivalenol, zearale-

Mucor contaminated food constitutes a limited potential health hazard concerning healthy consumers. No specific mycotoxin has been isolated and characterized in Mucor. The results of bioassays did indicate that toxins are present in extracts

The name AFs has been subsequent from the combination of "A" for the *Aspergillus* genus and "f" for the species *flavus*. AFs are greatly toxic, teratogenic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic compounds, produced as secondary metabolites by fungi belonging to numerous *Aspergillus* species, chiefly *A. flavus* and *A. parasiticus.* Presently, 20 diverse categories of AFs have been recognized, wherein the main ones comprise AFB1, B2, G1, G2, and M1. Fungal species belonging to *A. flavus* naturally produce AFB1 and AFB2, while *A. parasiticus* can produce AFG1 and

It is the secondary metabolites of the *Fusarium* fungi mostly from *Fusarium verticillioides* and *Fusarium proliferatum* on pollute maize and milled maize portions

It is produced by *Penicillium verrucosum* in moderate environments and *Aspergillus ochraceus* and the rare *Aspergillus carbonarius* in warm and tropical countries that can pollute crops previous to yield and or more normally through

amounts of food and produce hazardous toxins that threaten human health. However, yeasts and mold can grow in a large diversity of food including meat and meat products, which provide a favorable place for their growth [86]. The most significant pathogenic fungi have been isolated from a wide range of foods include

Aspergillus fumigatus causing the most serious diseases [87].

**7. Meat borne fungal diseases**

## **7. Meat borne fungal diseases**

Fungi are very common in food because it being ubiquitous. It can spoil large amounts of food and produce hazardous toxins that threaten human health. However, yeasts and mold can grow in a large diversity of food including meat and meat products, which provide a favorable place for their growth [86]. The most significant pathogenic fungi have been isolated from a wide range of foods include the following.

## **7.1 Aspergilli**

*Meat and Nutrition*

**6.2 Trichinellosis/trichinosis**

releases the worms [78].

**6.3 Diphyllobothriasis**

**6.4 Anisakiasis**

eating habits [80].

**6.5 Capillariasis**

**6.6 Opisthorchiasis**

**6.7 Heterophyiasis**

circumstances [83].

(−20°C) or below for 24 hours [13].

the intestine and mature into adult worms [13, 81].

cholangiocarcinoma, a cancer of the bile ducts [13, 82].

the metacercarial stage of this type of parasite [84, 85].

**6.8 Clinostomiasis (yellow grub disease)**

It occurs when a human eating raw or undercooked meat from animals infected with the protozoa Trichinella. Meat that comprises infective *Trichinella* larvae; the acid in the stomach dissolves the hard covering of the cyst around the larvae and

Humans got infections by eating raw or undercooked fish. Examples of fish include salmon, trout, perch, walleyed pike, and other species of freshwater fish. Some fish such as salmon live in both fresh and saltwater and can harbor *Diphyllobothrium* larvae. Lightly salted, smoked, or pickled fish also may contain infectious organisms [79]. However, Cooking fish sufficiently, to an internal temperature of at least 145° F [~63° C]; or freezing at −4°F (−20°C) or below for 7 days (total time); or at −31°F (−35°C) or below until solid, and storing at −31°F (−35°C) or below for 15 hours; or at −31°F (−35°C) or below until solid and storing at −4°F

Anisakiasis, or herring worm disease, is a parasitic disease caused by nematodes (worms) that attach to the wall of the esophagus, stomach, or intestine. Humans are accidentally infected when hosts are consumed either as raw or inadequately cooked or treated fish/shellfish meals. Therefore, the infection has been directly linked to

When humans ingest raw or undercooked infected fish, larvae may migrate to

Liver flukes infect the liver, gallbladder, and bile duct in humans. While most

infected persons do not show any symptoms, infections that last a long time can result in acute symptoms and critical disease. Chronic infection may lead to

Heterophyiasis is caused by trematode parasites happening in regions where brackish water fish is ingested raw or under inadequately cooked

This parasite has a complex life cycle, usually taking mollusks and fishes as intermediate (middle) hosts and birds as final (definitive) hosts. Humans may become the definitive host by ingesting raw or undercooked fish meat infected with

**172**

Aspergillus contains some species with strains that are the most dangeHP, with Aspergillus fumigatus causing the most serious diseases [87].

## **7.2 Fusarium**

Well-known Fusarium mycotoxins are fumonisins, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, and trichothecenes [88].

## **7.3 Mucor**

Mucor contaminated food constitutes a limited potential health hazard concerning healthy consumers. No specific mycotoxin has been isolated and characterized in Mucor. The results of bioassays did indicate that toxins are present in extracts from certain Mucor species [89].

## **8. Mycotoxins**

## **8.1 Aflatoxins (AFs)**

The name AFs has been subsequent from the combination of "A" for the *Aspergillus* genus and "f" for the species *flavus*. AFs are greatly toxic, teratogenic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic compounds, produced as secondary metabolites by fungi belonging to numerous *Aspergillus* species, chiefly *A. flavus* and *A. parasiticus.*

Presently, 20 diverse categories of AFs have been recognized, wherein the main ones comprise AFB1, B2, G1, G2, and M1. Fungal species belonging to *A. flavus* naturally produce AFB1 and AFB2, while *A. parasiticus* can produce AFG1 and AFG2 in addition to AFB1 and AFB2 [90].

## **8.2 Fumonisins**

It is the secondary metabolites of the *Fusarium* fungi mostly from *Fusarium verticillioides* and *Fusarium proliferatum* on pollute maize and milled maize portions or other processed products [88].

## **8.3 Ochratoxin a (OTA)**

It is produced by *Penicillium verrucosum* in moderate environments and *Aspergillus ochraceus* and the rare *Aspergillus carbonarius* in warm and tropical countries that can pollute crops previous to yield and or more normally through storing [91].

### **8.4 Patulin (PAT)**

Created by fungal species of the genera, *Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Byssochlamys, and the* most significant Patulin (PAT) producer is *Penicillium* [92].

#### **8.5 Zearalenone (ZEA)**

Non-steroidal estrogenic mycotoxin formed by a diversity of *Fusarium* fungi in comfortable and warm countries. ZEA presents a similar structure to estrogen and therefore competes with 17-estradiol in binding to the estrogen receptor. So, it can cause important differences in generative structures and fertility loss in humans and animals [93].

### **9. Meat borne rickettsial diseases**

#### **9.1 Query fever (Q-fever)**

Persons get sick by inhalation dust that has been polluted by infected animal milk, urine, feces, and birth products that contain *Coxiella burnetii*. Individuals may get ill with Q fever by consuming contaminated, unpasteurized milk, and dairy products. Infrequently, Q fever has been spread through blood transfusion, from a pregnant woman to her foetus, or through sex [43, 94].

#### **10. Meat preservation and storage**

Meat preservation helps to control spoilage by hindering the growth of microbes, it delays spoilage; also reducing enzymatic activity, and avoiding the oxidation of fatty acids that stimulate rancidity, resulting in extends the life of the product; improves product quality. Several factors are affecting the period of meat storage. The physical state of meat acting a role in the number of microbes that can grow on meat, for example, grinding meat increases the surface capacity, releases moisture and nutrients from the muscle fibers, and distributes exterior germs throughout the meat. Chemical properties of meat, such as pH and moisture content, affect the capability of microbes to grow on meat. Usual protecting tissues, such as skin or fat, can prevent microbial pollution, dryness, or other disadvantageous fluctuations. Wrapping meats with paper or protecting plastic films avoids unnecessary moisture loss and microbial pollution. There are several methods for meat preservations [95].

#### **10.1 Chilling/refrigeration**

Temperature is the most significant factor in manipulating bacterial growth. Pathogenic bacteria do not grow well in temperatures under 3°C (38°F). So, meat should be stored at temperatures that are as cold as possible. Chilled packing is the most public method of meat preservation. The typical chilled packing life for fresh meats is 5 to 7 days.

#### **10.2 Freezing**

Freezer storage is an excellent technique of meat preservation. It is significant to covering frozen meats carefully in wrapping that limits air contact with the meat to avoid moisture loss during packing.

**175**

*Meat Borne Diseases*

**10.3 Meat curing**

**10.4 Meat smoking**

**10.5 Canning**

fied period.

**10.6 Drying**

**10.7 Irradiation**

**10.8 Fermentation**

**10.9 Vacuum packaging**

**11. Conclusion**

lengthy.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97391*

chloride), sodium nitrate, sodium nitrite, and sugar.

The commonly used technique of preserving meat before the days of chilling. It is done for communicating specific color and flavor development, as well as the preservative outcome. The main constituents comprise common salt (sodium

Smoking and curing of meat are consistent. Smoke generation is accompanied by the creation of several organic compounds (aldehydes, ketones, organic acids, phenols, etc.) and their concentration products. Phenols act as bacteriostatic; formaldehyde as a bactericidal compound, also informing typical smoky flavor.

Canning includes sealing meat in a container and then heating it to destroy all microbes capable of meat and meat products spoilage. Under normal circumstances, canned products can safely be stored at room temperature for an unspeci-

Oldest known technique of meat preservation. Drying removes moisture from meat products, lowers the water activity (*aw*) significantly so that microbes cannot grow. Freeze-dried meats, dry sausages, and jerky products are all examples of dried

Irradiation, or radiation, is a pasteurization technique achieved by exposing the meat to amounts of radiation. Irradiated fresh meat products still need cooling and wrapper to prevent spoilage, but the chilled storage life of these products is highly

One early form of food preservation used in meat production is fermentation. Fermentation comprises the addition of confirmed safe bacteria to meat. These fermenting bacteria produce acid as they grow, lowering the pH of the meat and

Oxygen is essential for various bacteria to grow. For this purpose, most meats are vacuum-packaged, which extends the storage life undercooled circumstances to about 100 days. Besides, vacuum packaging reduces the oxidation of unsaturated

In summary, the main sources of pathogens in meat and meat products are; the animal itself; human handlers; equipment's in contact, environmental sources or

preventing the growth of several pathogenic microbes.

fatty acids and slows the development of rancid meat.

meats capable of being stored at room temperature without fast spoilage.

## **10.3 Meat curing**

*Meat and Nutrition*

**8.4 Patulin (PAT)**

**8.5 Zearalenone (ZEA)**

and animals [93].

**9. Meat borne rickettsial diseases**

**10. Meat preservation and storage**

pregnant woman to her foetus, or through sex [43, 94].

**9.1 Query fever (Q-fever)**

meat preservations [95].

meats is 5 to 7 days.

**10.2 Freezing**

**10.1 Chilling/refrigeration**

avoid moisture loss during packing.

Created by fungal species of the genera, *Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Byssochlamys, and the* most significant Patulin (PAT) producer is *Penicillium* [92].

Non-steroidal estrogenic mycotoxin formed by a diversity of *Fusarium* fungi in comfortable and warm countries. ZEA presents a similar structure to estrogen and therefore competes with 17-estradiol in binding to the estrogen receptor. So, it can cause important differences in generative structures and fertility loss in humans

Persons get sick by inhalation dust that has been polluted by infected animal milk, urine, feces, and birth products that contain *Coxiella burnetii*. Individuals may get ill with Q fever by consuming contaminated, unpasteurized milk, and dairy products. Infrequently, Q fever has been spread through blood transfusion, from a

Meat preservation helps to control spoilage by hindering the growth of microbes, it delays spoilage; also reducing enzymatic activity, and avoiding the oxidation of fatty acids that stimulate rancidity, resulting in extends the life of the product; improves product quality. Several factors are affecting the period of meat storage. The physical state of meat acting a role in the number of microbes that can grow on meat, for example, grinding meat increases the surface capacity, releases moisture and nutrients from the muscle fibers, and distributes exterior germs throughout the meat. Chemical properties of meat, such as pH and moisture content, affect the capability of microbes to grow on meat. Usual protecting tissues, such as skin or fat, can prevent microbial pollution, dryness, or other disadvantageous fluctuations. Wrapping meats with paper or protecting plastic films avoids unnecessary moisture loss and microbial pollution. There are several methods for

Temperature is the most significant factor in manipulating bacterial growth. Pathogenic bacteria do not grow well in temperatures under 3°C (38°F). So, meat should be stored at temperatures that are as cold as possible. Chilled packing is the most public method of meat preservation. The typical chilled packing life for fresh

Freezer storage is an excellent technique of meat preservation. It is significant to covering frozen meats carefully in wrapping that limits air contact with the meat to

**174**

The commonly used technique of preserving meat before the days of chilling. It is done for communicating specific color and flavor development, as well as the preservative outcome. The main constituents comprise common salt (sodium chloride), sodium nitrate, sodium nitrite, and sugar.

## **10.4 Meat smoking**

Smoking and curing of meat are consistent. Smoke generation is accompanied by the creation of several organic compounds (aldehydes, ketones, organic acids, phenols, etc.) and their concentration products. Phenols act as bacteriostatic; formaldehyde as a bactericidal compound, also informing typical smoky flavor.

## **10.5 Canning**

Canning includes sealing meat in a container and then heating it to destroy all microbes capable of meat and meat products spoilage. Under normal circumstances, canned products can safely be stored at room temperature for an unspecified period.

## **10.6 Drying**

Oldest known technique of meat preservation. Drying removes moisture from meat products, lowers the water activity (*aw*) significantly so that microbes cannot grow. Freeze-dried meats, dry sausages, and jerky products are all examples of dried meats capable of being stored at room temperature without fast spoilage.

### **10.7 Irradiation**

Irradiation, or radiation, is a pasteurization technique achieved by exposing the meat to amounts of radiation. Irradiated fresh meat products still need cooling and wrapper to prevent spoilage, but the chilled storage life of these products is highly lengthy.

## **10.8 Fermentation**

One early form of food preservation used in meat production is fermentation. Fermentation comprises the addition of confirmed safe bacteria to meat. These fermenting bacteria produce acid as they grow, lowering the pH of the meat and preventing the growth of several pathogenic microbes.

## **10.9 Vacuum packaging**

Oxygen is essential for various bacteria to grow. For this purpose, most meats are vacuum-packaged, which extends the storage life undercooled circumstances to about 100 days. Besides, vacuum packaging reduces the oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids and slows the development of rancid meat.

## **11. Conclusion**

In summary, the main sources of pathogens in meat and meat products are; the animal itself; human handlers; equipment's in contact, environmental sources or

water used in preparation. Meat and its products have been engaged in many diseases or outbreaks in human consumers which necessity awareness and educational knowledge about causative agents and control hygienic measures. Therefore, strict hygienic precautions must me prevailed during meat handling and preparations.

## **Author details**

Dhary Alewy Almashhadany Department of Medical Lab Science (DMLS), College of Science (CSCN), Knowledge University (KNU), Erbil, Kurdistan Region, Iraq

\*Address all correspondence to: dhary.hammed@knu.edu.iq

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**177**

srep26074.

*Meat Borne Diseases*

**References**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97391*

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2020;11(1):41-51. doi:10.1093/

[3] Listrat, A., Lebret, B., Louveau, I.,Astruc, T. , Bonnet, M., Lefaucheur, L., Picard, B.and Bugeon, J. (2016): How Muscle Structure and Composition Influence Meat and Flesh Quality. The Scientific World Journal, vol. 2016, Article ID 3182746, 14 pages, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/3182746.

[4] Obeid R, Heil SG, Verhoeven MMA,

Groot LCPGM, Eussen SJPM. Vitamin B12 Intake from Animal Foods,

Biomarkers, and Health Aspects. Front Nutr. 2019; 6:93. Published 2019 Jun 28.

[5] Gómez, I., Janardhanan, R., Ibañez, F.C. and Beriain, M.J. (2020): The Effects of Processing and Preservation Technologies on Meat Quality: Sensory

[6] Tessari P, Lante A, Mosca G. (2016): Essential amino acids: master regulators

of nutrition and environmental footprint? Sci Rep. 2016; 6:26074. Published 2016 May 25. doi:10.1038/

[7] Fayet, F., Flood, V., Petocz, P., & Samman, S. (2013). Avoidance of meat

van den Heuvel EGHM, de

doi:10.3389/fnut.2019.00093.

and Nutritional Aspects.

advances/nmz072.

Campbell WW. Dietary Meat Categories and Descriptions in Chronic Disease Research Are Substantively Different within and between Experimental and Observational Studies: A Systematic Review and Landscape Analysis [published correction appears in Adv Nutr. 2020 Jan 1;11(1):180]. Adv Nutr.

## **References**

*Meat and Nutrition*

**176**

**Author details**

Dhary Alewy Almashhadany

provided the original work is properly cited.

Department of Medical Lab Science (DMLS), College of Science (CSCN),

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

water used in preparation. Meat and its products have been engaged in many diseases or outbreaks in human consumers which necessity awareness and educational knowledge about causative agents and control hygienic measures. Therefore, strict hygienic precautions must me prevailed during meat handling and preparations.

Knowledge University (KNU), Erbil, Kurdistan Region, Iraq

\*Address all correspondence to: dhary.hammed@knu.edu.iq

[1] Boler, D.D. and Woerner, D.R. (2017): What is meat? A perspective from the American Meat Science Association, Animal Frontiers, Volume 7, Issue 4, October 2017, Pages 8-11, https://doi.org/10.2527/af.2017.0436.

[2] O'Connor LE, Gifford CL, Woerner DR, Sharp JL, Belk KE, Campbell WW. Dietary Meat Categories and Descriptions in Chronic Disease Research Are Substantively Different within and between Experimental and Observational Studies: A Systematic Review and Landscape Analysis [published correction appears in Adv Nutr. 2020 Jan 1;11(1):180]. Adv Nutr. 2020;11(1):41-51. doi:10.1093/ advances/nmz072.

[3] Listrat, A., Lebret, B., Louveau, I.,Astruc, T. , Bonnet, M., Lefaucheur, L., Picard, B.and Bugeon, J. (2016): How Muscle Structure and Composition Influence Meat and Flesh Quality. The Scientific World Journal, vol. 2016, Article ID 3182746, 14 pages, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/3182746.

[4] Obeid R, Heil SG, Verhoeven MMA, van den Heuvel EGHM, de Groot LCPGM, Eussen SJPM. Vitamin B12 Intake from Animal Foods, Biomarkers, and Health Aspects. Front Nutr. 2019; 6:93. Published 2019 Jun 28. doi:10.3389/fnut.2019.00093.

[5] Gómez, I., Janardhanan, R., Ibañez, F.C. and Beriain, M.J. (2020): The Effects of Processing and Preservation Technologies on Meat Quality: Sensory and Nutritional Aspects.

[6] Tessari P, Lante A, Mosca G. (2016): Essential amino acids: master regulators of nutrition and environmental footprint? Sci Rep. 2016; 6:26074. Published 2016 May 25. doi:10.1038/ srep26074.

[7] Fayet, F., Flood, V., Petocz, P., & Samman, S. (2013). Avoidance of meat and poultry decreases intakes of omega-3 fatty acids, vitamin B12, selenium and zinc in young women. Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics, 27, 135-142. doi:10.1111/ jhn.12092.

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[73] Ahmed, S.A. and Karanis, P.(2020): Cryptosporidium and Cryptosporidiosis: The Perspective from the Gulf Countries. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 6824; doi:10.3390/ijerph17186824.

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Zoonoses, 151-184. doi:10.1007/ 978-0-387-71358-8\_4.

[80] Aibinu, I.E., Smooker, P.M. and Lopata, A.L. (2019): Anisakis Nematodes in Fish and Shellfish- from infection to allergies. International Journal for Parasitology: Parasites and Wildlife, Volume 9, August 2019, Pages 384-393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. ijppaw.2019.04.007.

[81] Fuehrer, HP., Igel, P. and Auer, H. (2011): Capillaria hepatica in man—an overview of hepatic capillariosis and spurious infections. Parasitol Res 109, 969-979 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/ s00436-011-2494-1.

[82] Murell, K.D. and Pozio, E. (2017): The Liver Flukes: *Clonorchis sinensis*, Opisthorchis spp, and Metorchis spp. In: J.B. Rose and B. Jiménez-Cisneros, (eds) Global Water Pathogen Project. http:// www.waterpathogens.org (Robertson, L (eds) Part 4 Helminths). http://www. waterpathogens.org/book/liver-flukes Michigan State University, E. Lansing, MI, UNESCO.

[83] Chai, J.Y. and Jung, B.K. (2017):Fishborne zoonotic heterophyid infections: An update. Food and Waterborne Parasitology,Volumes 8-9, 2017, Pages 33-63. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.fawpar.2017.09.001.

[84] Li, F., Liu, X.H., Ge, H.L., Xie, C.Y., Cai, R.Y., Hu, Z.C., Zhang, Y.G. and Wang, Z.J. (2018): The discovery of Clinostomum complanatum metacercariae in farmed Chinese sucker, Myxocyprinus asiaticus. Aquaculture, Volume 495, 1 2018, Pages 273-280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. aquaculture.2018.05.052.

[85] Menconi, V., Manfrin, C., Pastorino, P., Mugetti, D., Cortinovis, L., Pizzul, E., Pallavicini, A. and Prearo, M. (2020): First Report of Clinostomum complanatum (Trematoda: Digenea) in European Perch (Perca fluviatilis) from

**183**

*Meat Borne Diseases*

ijerph14060632.

7010021.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97391*

Control Measures. European Journal of Science and Technology No. 14, pp. 39-48, December 2018. DOI: 10.31590/

Raspantini LE, Latorre AO, Górniak SL. (2014): Zearalenone, an estrogenic mycotoxin, is an immunotoxic compound. Toxins (Basel).

2014;6(3):1080-1095. Published 2014 Mar 13. doi:10.3390/toxins6031080.

[94] Porter DL, Levine BL, Kalos M, Bagg A, June CH. Chimeric antigen receptor-modified T cells in chronic lymphoid leukemia. N Engl J Med. 2011 Aug 25;365(8):725-33. doi: 10.1056/ NEJMoa1103849. Epub 2011 Aug 10. Erratum in: N Engl J Med. 2016 Mar 10;374(10):998. PMID: 21830940;

[95] Cenci-Goga, B.T., Iulietto, M.F., Sechi, P., Borgogni, E., Karama, M. and Grispoldi, L. (2020): New Trends in Meat Packaging. Microbiol. Res. 2020, 11, 56-67; doi:10.3390/microbiolres

PMCID: PMC3387277.

11020010.

[93] Hueza IM, Raspantini PC,

ejosat.434750.

an Italian Subalpine Lake: A Risk for Public Health?. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 1389; doi:10.3390/ijerph17041389.

[86] Alshannaq A. and Yu JH. (2017): Occurrence, Toxicity, and Analysis of Major Mycotoxins in Food. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2017;14(6):632. Published 2017 Jun 13. doi:10.3390/

[87] Paterson RRM. (2019): Editorial for the Special Issue: Human Pathogenic Filamentous Fungi from Food/Water

Microorganisms 2019, 7(1), 21; https:// doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms

[88] Munkvold G.P. (2017): Fusarium

and Mycotoxins from Water.

Species and Their Associated Mycotoxins. In: Moretti A., Susca A. (eds) Mycotoxigenic Fungi. Methods in Molecular Biology, vol 1542. Humana Press, New York, NY. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-1-4939-6707-0\_4.

[89] Benedict K, Chiller TM. and Mody RK. (2016): Invasive Fungal Infections Acquired from Contaminated Food or Nutritional Supplements: A Review of the Literature. Foodborne Pathog Dis. 2016;13(7):343-349. doi:10.1089/fpd.2015.2108.

[90] Kumar P, Mahato DK, Kamle M, Mohanta TK, Kang SG. (2017):

Aflatoxins: A Global Concern for Food Safety, Human Health and Their Management. Front Microbiol. 2017;

[91] Bui-Klimke TR. and Wu F. (2015): Ochratoxin A and human health risk: a review of the evidence. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2015;55(13):1860-1869. doi:10.1

[92] Erdoğan, A., Ghimire, D., Gürses, M., Çetin, B., Baran, A. (2018): Patulin Contamination in Fruit Juices and Its

7:2170. Published 2017 Jan 17. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2016.02170.

080/10408398.2012.724480.

*Meat Borne Diseases DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97391*

*Meat and Nutrition*

Cryptosporidium and

(1986), 96, 107-111.

Public Health 2020, 17, 6824; doi:10.3390/ijerph17186824.

[75] Feng Y. and Xiao L. (2017): Molecular Epidemiology of Cryptosporidiosis in China. Front Microbiol. 2017; 8:1701. Published 2017 Sep 6. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2017.01701.

Cryptosporidium Infection in Immunocompromised Patients. CLINICAL MICROBIOLOGY

[77] Gebrie, M. and Engdaw, T.A. (2015): Review on Taeniasis and Its Zoonotic Importance. European Journal of Applied Sciences 7 (4): 182-191, 2015. DOI: 10.5829/idosi.ejas.2015.7.4.96169.

[78] Bruschi, F. and Murrell, K.D. (2002): New aspects of human trichinellosis: the impact of new Trichinella species. Postgrad Med J. 2002;78(915):15-22. doi:10.1136/

Diphyllobothrium latumHuman Infection Conundrum and Reconciliation with a Worldwide Zoonosis. Food-Borne Parasitic

2002, p. 145-154.

pmj.78.915.15.

[79] Dick, T. A. (2007). Diphyllobothriasis: The

[76] Hunter, P.R. and Nichols, G. (2002): Epidemiology and Clinical Features of

REVIEWS,0893-8512/02/\$04.000 DOI: 10.1128/CMR.15.1.145-154.2002. Jan.

[72] Fayer R, Esposito, D.H. and Dubey, J.P. (2015): Human Infections with Sarcocystis Species. Clinical

Zoonoses, 151-184. doi:10.1007/

[80] Aibinu, I.E., Smooker, P.M. and Lopata, A.L. (2019): Anisakis

Nematodes in Fish and Shellfish- from infection to allergies. International Journal for Parasitology: Parasites and Wildlife, Volume 9, August 2019, Pages 384-393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.

[81] Fuehrer, HP., Igel, P. and Auer, H. (2011): Capillaria hepatica in man—an overview of hepatic capillariosis and spurious infections. Parasitol Res 109, 969-979 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/

[82] Murell, K.D. and Pozio, E. (2017): The Liver Flukes: *Clonorchis sinensis*, Opisthorchis spp, and Metorchis spp. In: J.B. Rose and B. Jiménez-Cisneros, (eds) Global Water Pathogen Project. http:// www.waterpathogens.org (Robertson, L (eds) Part 4 Helminths). http://www. waterpathogens.org/book/liver-flukes Michigan State University, E. Lansing,

978-0-387-71358-8\_4.

ijppaw.2019.04.007.

s00436-011-2494-1.

MI, UNESCO.

[83] Chai, J.Y. and Jung, B.K.

2017, Pages 33-63. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.fawpar.2017.09.001.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j. aquaculture.2018.05.052.

(2017):Fishborne zoonotic heterophyid infections: An update. Food and Waterborne Parasitology,Volumes 8-9,

[84] Li, F., Liu, X.H., Ge, H.L., Xie, C.Y., Cai, R.Y., Hu, Z.C., Zhang, Y.G. and Wang, Z.J. (2018): The discovery of Clinostomum complanatum

metacercariae in farmed Chinese sucker, Myxocyprinus asiaticus. Aquaculture, Volume 495, 1 2018, Pages 273-280.

[85] Menconi, V., Manfrin, C., Pastorino, P., Mugetti, D., Cortinovis, L., Pizzul, E., Pallavicini, A. and Prearo, M. (2020): First Report of Clinostomum complanatum (Trematoda: Digenea) in European Perch (Perca fluviatilis) from

Microbiology Reviews Feb 2015, 28 (2) 295-311; DOI: 10.1128/CMR.00113-14.

[73] Ahmed, S.A. and Karanis, P.(2020):

Cryptosporidiosis: The Perspective from the Gulf Countries. Int. J. Environ. Res.

[74] Baxby, D. and Hart, C.A. (1986): The incidence of cryptosporidiosis: a two-year prospective survey in a children's hospital. J. Hyg., Carnb.

**182**

an Italian Subalpine Lake: A Risk for Public Health?. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 1389; doi:10.3390/ijerph17041389.

[86] Alshannaq A. and Yu JH. (2017): Occurrence, Toxicity, and Analysis of Major Mycotoxins in Food. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2017;14(6):632. Published 2017 Jun 13. doi:10.3390/ ijerph14060632.

[87] Paterson RRM. (2019): Editorial for the Special Issue: Human Pathogenic Filamentous Fungi from Food/Water and Mycotoxins from Water. Microorganisms 2019, 7(1), 21; https:// doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms 7010021.

[88] Munkvold G.P. (2017): Fusarium Species and Their Associated Mycotoxins. In: Moretti A., Susca A. (eds) Mycotoxigenic Fungi. Methods in Molecular Biology, vol 1542. Humana Press, New York, NY. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-1-4939-6707-0\_4.

[89] Benedict K, Chiller TM. and Mody RK. (2016): Invasive Fungal Infections Acquired from Contaminated Food or Nutritional Supplements: A Review of the Literature. Foodborne Pathog Dis. 2016;13(7):343-349. doi:10.1089/fpd.2015.2108.

[90] Kumar P, Mahato DK, Kamle M, Mohanta TK, Kang SG. (2017): Aflatoxins: A Global Concern for Food Safety, Human Health and Their Management. Front Microbiol. 2017; 7:2170. Published 2017 Jan 17. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2016.02170.

[91] Bui-Klimke TR. and Wu F. (2015): Ochratoxin A and human health risk: a review of the evidence. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2015;55(13):1860-1869. doi:10.1 080/10408398.2012.724480.

[92] Erdoğan, A., Ghimire, D., Gürses, M., Çetin, B., Baran, A. (2018): Patulin Contamination in Fruit Juices and Its

Control Measures. European Journal of Science and Technology No. 14, pp. 39-48, December 2018. DOI: 10.31590/ ejosat.434750.

[93] Hueza IM, Raspantini PC, Raspantini LE, Latorre AO, Górniak SL. (2014): Zearalenone, an estrogenic mycotoxin, is an immunotoxic compound. Toxins (Basel). 2014;6(3):1080-1095. Published 2014 Mar 13. doi:10.3390/toxins6031080.

[94] Porter DL, Levine BL, Kalos M, Bagg A, June CH. Chimeric antigen receptor-modified T cells in chronic lymphoid leukemia. N Engl J Med. 2011 Aug 25;365(8):725-33. doi: 10.1056/ NEJMoa1103849. Epub 2011 Aug 10. Erratum in: N Engl J Med. 2016 Mar 10;374(10):998. PMID: 21830940; PMCID: PMC3387277.

[95] Cenci-Goga, B.T., Iulietto, M.F., Sechi, P., Borgogni, E., Karama, M. and Grispoldi, L. (2020): New Trends in Meat Packaging. Microbiol. Res. 2020, 11, 56-67; doi:10.3390/microbiolres 11020010.

**185**

**Chapter 11**

**Abstract**

experience.

**1. Introduction**

edible products.

**2. Stress definition and physiology**

Effects of Pre-Slaughter Stress

The current concern regarding how animals are raised, which kind of feedstuffs were fed, and the management activities employed in the livestock segment system is increasing, primarily due to the public and/or customer opinion. Therefore, a positive pressure is being placed in the industry/production to be more effective in communicating these processes and to explain what indeed occurs during the animal's productive life, from birth to slaughter. Hence, it is imperative to explain what type of situations animals face during their productive lives and how these might impact productive, health, and the quality of the final product sold at the supermarket. Additionally, it is important to understand that technologies have been developed that could mitigate some of these stress-related losses (health and productive), as well as to improve meat quality traits and overall customer eating

**Keywords:** cattle, customer experience, DFD, nutrition, pre-slaughter stress

During daily management activities, beef and dairy animals are exposed to several situations that may trigger a stress-induced inflammatory response. This response, in turn, might greatly impact health, performance, and well-being of the herd, which affects the overall profitability of livestock operations. Therefore, it is paramount to understand the mechanisms underlying the occurrence of stress and how we can use technologies to alleviate the negative effects of this response for the herd. Hence, the objective of this review is to provide an overview on stress physiology, immune system, and the interaction among these, as well as its effects on meat characteristics of beef animals and consumer acceptability implications on

The term stress is classically defined as the reaction of an animal to factors that potentially influence its homeostasis, whereas animals that are unable to cope with these factors are classified as stressed [1]. As aforementioned, ruminants are inevitably exposed to several management situations that expose them to the occurrence of stress,

on Meat Characteristics and

Consumer Experience

*Bruno I. Cappellozza and Rodrigo S. Marques*

## **Chapter 11**
