**2.2 Air temperature dynamics**

The trend of increased average monthly air temperatures by 0.084°C per year (2003–2018) was recorded (**Figure 3**). If the determined value is used for the prediction of an air temperature after a longer period, data suggest that an increase of as much as 4.7°C may be expected in 50 years. The average multiannual temperature sequences also exhibit an increase (11.8°C for 1981–2018; 12.3°C for 2003–2018; 12.7°C for 2014–2018). Although these data are not sufficiently long-term in nature for solid conclusions, it is still may be considered as indicative of a general increase in air temperature.

#### **2.3 Groundwater dynamics**

Through detailed hydro-pedological research of the monitored area, a pedological characterization survey was completed with five soil-systematic units defined [16]. The classification was done according to [17], and the determined pedological units were semigleyic, hypogleyic, humogleyic, amphygleyic, and hydromeliorated soil. **Figure 4** shows the average monthly values of groundwater levels obtained by shallow piezometers located at 4 m from the soil surface, with a regard to the before-mentioned soil-systematic units.

**97**

rising.

**Figure 3.**

*Agricultural Management Strategies for Countering Drought Conditions in Eastern Croatia*

A relatively slight negative trend of groundwater levels (2003–2018) in the agricultural soils of the monitored area was recorded (6–10 cm per year). However, it should be noted that by observing only the last 5 years of monitoring (2014–2018), a negative trend was much more pronounce, ranging from 18 to 71 cm per year, that is, from 200% in semigleyic soil (negative trend for period 2003–2018 = 9 cm per year; period 2014–2018 = 19 cm per year) to 700% in hypogleyic soil (negative trend for period 2003–2018 = 10 cm per year; period 2014–2018 = 71 cm per year), depending on the soil type. Although the groundwater level was occasionally recorded below 4 m from the soil surface during the studied period, such occurrences were short-lasting (days) and irregular. However, in July 2017 and 2018, the groundwater level at the entire monitoring area lowered below 4 m from the soil surface and remained unchanged until the end of the year. The extremely low groundwater level which occurred in the second half of the last two research years is undoubtedly suggesting the need for

*The dynamics of average monthly air temperatures (°C) at the monitored area of the Biđ-Bosut field.*

The more frequent lowering of groundwater levels below 4 m from the soil surface was the reason for adding 5 deeper piezometers at 15 m from the soil surface during 2014. The average monthly groundwater level data obtained by deep piezometers are presented in **Figure 5**. The values were only slightly increased in comparison to the values measured by the shallow piezometers, which can be explained by a mild difference in pressure between the shallow soil aquifer and the deep water-bearing aquifer. The negative trend of a decreased groundwater level ranged from 26 to 77 cm per year, which is in agreement with the trends obtained by using shallow piezometers. However, data obtained from deep piezometers are for a relatively short period (4 years), and it is expected that after a longer research period, these values could even be

All described climatic and water regime parameters suggest that in the studied Biđ-Bosut area, the agroecosystem changes are becoming more prominent. These changes are usually slow in progressing thus are hard to observe within shorter periods. However, field measurements and alterations of climatic and water regime parameters recorded during this study are contributing to the global predictions in which these changes in the agroecosystem are increasing in importance for the agricultural production. Finally, further continuous observation (monitoring) of climatic, water regime, and soil parameters should result in reliable databases, thus

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88503*

further monitoring in the studied area.

#### **Figure 2.**

*The dynamics of average monthly precipitation (mm) at the monitored area of the Biđ-Bosut field.*

*Agricultural Management Strategies for Countering Drought Conditions in Eastern Croatia DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88503*

**Figure 3.** *The dynamics of average monthly air temperatures (°C) at the monitored area of the Biđ-Bosut field.*

A relatively slight negative trend of groundwater levels (2003–2018) in the agricultural soils of the monitored area was recorded (6–10 cm per year). However, it should be noted that by observing only the last 5 years of monitoring (2014–2018), a negative trend was much more pronounce, ranging from 18 to 71 cm per year, that is, from 200% in semigleyic soil (negative trend for period 2003–2018 = 9 cm per year; period 2014–2018 = 19 cm per year) to 700% in hypogleyic soil (negative trend for period 2003–2018 = 10 cm per year; period 2014–2018 = 71 cm per year), depending on the soil type. Although the groundwater level was occasionally recorded below 4 m from the soil surface during the studied period, such occurrences were short-lasting (days) and irregular. However, in July 2017 and 2018, the groundwater level at the entire monitoring area lowered below 4 m from the soil surface and remained unchanged until the end of the year. The extremely low groundwater level which occurred in the second half of the last two research years is undoubtedly suggesting the need for further monitoring in the studied area.

The more frequent lowering of groundwater levels below 4 m from the soil surface was the reason for adding 5 deeper piezometers at 15 m from the soil surface during 2014. The average monthly groundwater level data obtained by deep piezometers are presented in **Figure 5**. The values were only slightly increased in comparison to the values measured by the shallow piezometers, which can be explained by a mild difference in pressure between the shallow soil aquifer and the deep water-bearing aquifer. The negative trend of a decreased groundwater level ranged from 26 to 77 cm per year, which is in agreement with the trends obtained by using shallow piezometers. However, data obtained from deep piezometers are for a relatively short period (4 years), and it is expected that after a longer research period, these values could even be rising.

All described climatic and water regime parameters suggest that in the studied Biđ-Bosut area, the agroecosystem changes are becoming more prominent. These changes are usually slow in progressing thus are hard to observe within shorter periods. However, field measurements and alterations of climatic and water regime parameters recorded during this study are contributing to the global predictions in which these changes in the agroecosystem are increasing in importance for the agricultural production. Finally, further continuous observation (monitoring) of climatic, water regime, and soil parameters should result in reliable databases, thus

*Drought - Detection and Solutions*

**2.1 Precipitation dynamics**

detail in Section 3.2).

in air temperature.

**2.3 Groundwater dynamics**

before-mentioned soil-systematic units.

**2.2 Air temperature dynamics**

**Figure 2** shows the monthly values of precipitation during the observed period. The monthly precipitation amounts (2003–2018) show a positive but nonsignificant upward trend (0.010 mm per month, that is, 0.12 mm per year), which is in accordance with the multiannual findings from similar studies [15]. In the last 5 years, a mildly negative but also nonsignificant trend (−0.40 mm per year) is visible. Moreover, the average annual sum of precipitation exhibits a mild but constant rise (682.7 mm for 1981–2018; 688.6 mm for 2003–2018; 728.8 mm for 2014–2018). Also, irregular precipitation extremes have been recorded (e.g., in June 2018; **Figure 2**). However, it should be noted here that high amounts of precipitation in a very short period actually have an extremely low effective value for crops (as explained in

The trend of increased average monthly air temperatures by 0.084°C per year (2003–2018) was recorded (**Figure 3**). If the determined value is used for the prediction of an air temperature after a longer period, data suggest that an increase of as much as 4.7°C may be expected in 50 years. The average multiannual temperature sequences also exhibit an increase (11.8°C for 1981–2018; 12.3°C for 2003–2018; 12.7°C for 2014–2018). Although these data are not sufficiently long-term in nature for solid conclusions, it is still may be considered as indicative of a general increase

Through detailed hydro-pedological research of the monitored area, a pedological characterization survey was completed with five soil-systematic units defined [16]. The classification was done according to [17], and the determined pedological units were semigleyic, hypogleyic, humogleyic, amphygleyic, and hydromeliorated soil. **Figure 4** shows the average monthly values of groundwater levels obtained by shallow piezometers located at 4 m from the soil surface, with a regard to the

*The dynamics of average monthly precipitation (mm) at the monitored area of the Biđ-Bosut field.*

**96**

**Figure 2.**

providing a foundation for the selection of appropriate site-specific strategies to counter the occurring changes and their possible negative impact on the agricultural production.

#### **Figure 4.**

*The dynamics of average monthly groundwater levels in the shallow piezometers (located at 4 m from the soil surface) at the monitored area of the Biđ-Bosut field (left, groundwater levels in period 2003–2018; right, groundwater levels in period 2014–2018).*

**99**

**Figure 5.**

annually) vegetation season [20].

*surface) at the monitored area of the Biđ-Bosut field.*

**3.1 Construction of the appropriate irrigation systems**

*Agricultural Management Strategies for Countering Drought Conditions in Eastern Croatia*

**3. Proposed measures for alleviating the consequences of drought**

The measures proposed herein primarily focus not only on the eastern continental Croatia example but can also be applied to other agroecosystems with similar agroecological conditions [18]. Namely, according to the recent analyses for a 50-year period (1961–2010), it confirmed an evidence of increase in drought seasons (defined as consecutive dry days—CDD with daily precipitation <1–10 mm) notably in the eastern continental Croatia (e.g., Slavonia region) by 4%/decade to 7%/decade during summer [19]. In general, the studied agricultural area in continental Croatia characterizes relatively flat arable therein (with fluvisols, gleysols, and cambisols), positioned in between of Sava and Drava rivers, cultivated mostly with cereals and oil crops, with average annual effective precipitation of 521– 890 mm and potential evapotranspiration (ET0) of 690–820 mm, as well as high irrigation demands, either in average (81–260 mm/annually) or dry (168–383 mm/

*The dynamics of average monthly groundwater levels in the deep piezometers (located at 15 m from the soil* 

Frequent periods during which groundwater level lowers below 4 m from the soil surface are imposing substantial limitations in the last decades for the agricultural production which lacks an irrigation system (such is the case in the Biđ-Bosut

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88503*

*Agricultural Management Strategies for Countering Drought Conditions in Eastern Croatia DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88503*

#### **Figure 5.**

*Drought - Detection and Solutions*

tural production.

providing a foundation for the selection of appropriate site-specific strategies to counter the occurring changes and their possible negative impact on the agricul-

*The dynamics of average monthly groundwater levels in the shallow piezometers (located at 4 m from the soil surface) at the monitored area of the Biđ-Bosut field (left, groundwater levels in period 2003–2018; right,* 

**98**

**Figure 4.**

*groundwater levels in period 2014–2018).*

*The dynamics of average monthly groundwater levels in the deep piezometers (located at 15 m from the soil surface) at the monitored area of the Biđ-Bosut field.*

### **3. Proposed measures for alleviating the consequences of drought**

The measures proposed herein primarily focus not only on the eastern continental Croatia example but can also be applied to other agroecosystems with similar agroecological conditions [18]. Namely, according to the recent analyses for a 50-year period (1961–2010), it confirmed an evidence of increase in drought seasons (defined as consecutive dry days—CDD with daily precipitation <1–10 mm) notably in the eastern continental Croatia (e.g., Slavonia region) by 4%/decade to 7%/decade during summer [19]. In general, the studied agricultural area in continental Croatia characterizes relatively flat arable therein (with fluvisols, gleysols, and cambisols), positioned in between of Sava and Drava rivers, cultivated mostly with cereals and oil crops, with average annual effective precipitation of 521– 890 mm and potential evapotranspiration (ET0) of 690–820 mm, as well as high irrigation demands, either in average (81–260 mm/annually) or dry (168–383 mm/ annually) vegetation season [20].

#### **3.1 Construction of the appropriate irrigation systems**

Frequent periods during which groundwater level lowers below 4 m from the soil surface are imposing substantial limitations in the last decades for the agricultural production which lacks an irrigation system (such is the case in the Biđ-Bosut area). Agricultural production in the study (monitoring) area, although located in a traditionally agricultural region, so far does not rely on irrigation as a possible solution for alleviating occasional negative drought effects. The possible reason for that is because local agricultural production in this area is mostly located on hydromorphic soils, characterized by occasional or permanent moisturization by groundwater within 1 m from the soil surface [18]. Thus, the issue of lacking soil moisture which can last for several months has been an occurrence noted in this area only for the last 10 or so years, while before the main problem was the opposite: excess surface and groundwater amounts.

The completion of the irrigation canal in 2018 (**Figure 6**) was the main prerequisite for irrigation of the surrounding agricultural soils. The canal is connected to the Sava river, and, with the proper regulation of water levels in the canal, it could provide necessary and sustainable amount of irrigation water. It was projected that, during high water levels of the Sava river, water will be pumped into the melioration canal, from which it would then be channeled to the surrounding highly arable agricultural fields during the most of vegetation season given on negative water balance, for example [20]. More precisely, considering the amount of water in the Sava river [18], this hydrotechnical solution could help to ensure adequate amount of water for irrigation of the approximately 10,000 ha of surrounding agricultural soil. As for the quality of the water, studies from various authors have made it clear that the water from the Sava river is of ample quality to irrigate the local crops, for example [18]. However, water quality is an important factor when considering its use for crop irrigation; thus, if canal water is used for irrigation, it is necessary to implement permanent water quality control.

Application of appropriate water management strategies for the usage of Sava river water for irrigation of crops is of major importance. Such strategies include application of the modern low-pressurized/low-energized (fert)irrigation system, adaptation of cropping pattern (e.g., to give advantage to winter over spring cereals/ cultivars and to those with shorter vegetation period when water balance is the most negative), modernization of conveyance systems (e.g., channel overlying or replacing with pipelines), conduct irrigation management on real time data measurements, application of conservation agriculture practices, and many others [20, 21]. Some of the most recent studies have confirmed that almost all crops cultivated on the studied areas are exposed to water stress (negative water balance) with significant yield losses even in normal (average) sessions. For instance, in Brodskoposavska County (overspread on the most of elaborated area), an average annual (for 1963–2005 period) effective precipitation reaches 690 mm, while potential evapotranspiration (ET0) is 718 mm, causing the negative water balance during vegetation period for almost −200 mm [22]. According to the same study, irrigation requirements in average climate season for the most cropped cultures yield from 82 mm (corn) up to 160 mm (sugar beet) and over 200 mm (lucerne), while in dry seasons water requirements are higher by 1.8–1.9-fold (lucerne and sugar beet) up

**101**

**Figure 7.**

*2014 to 2018.*

*Agricultural Management Strategies for Countering Drought Conditions in Eastern Croatia*

to 2.6-fold (corn). The yield reduction in the case of nonirrigated conditions on this area is also significant for the most of crops, even in normal (from 11% in corn and soybean up to 25% in sugar beet on texture-lighter soils) and especially in dry seasons (from 25% in soybean up to 47% in sugar beet on texture-lighter soils). Although Sava river can provide the required amount of water for irrigation, excessive (unsustainable) management measures could possibly create additional (agro)ecological issues regarding water levels of Sava river and even question the sustainability of such practice. This possibility is confirmed by the trend of lower levels of Sava river by 0.51 m per year for the period from 2014 to 2018 (**Figure 7**). Using Sava river water for irrigation should therefore be applied with the utmost rationality, that is, taking into consideration the optimal water regime within the river-soil-plant-atmosphere system, for example [23]. Additionally, the education of local farmers should be included as an important step in the planning and implementation of any irrigation system which is depending on a natural system,

**3.2 Using the existing irrigation infrastructure for the purpose of collecting** 

However, in June 2018, 257.4 mm of precipitation was recorded (**Figure 2**), which exceeds the average monthly precipitation in this area by several times (320%). These extremes were usually accompanied by storms and hail, which is why the authorities declared a state of emergency for the years 2010, 2014, and 2018. As mentioned before, such high amount of precipitation in a very short time has a very small effective value for crops because in such conditions water cannot infiltrate in the soil, usually resulting in (sub) surface runoff. In the studied area, most of the water from surface runoff streams firstly into the drainage canals, then toward the Sava river, and finally reaching the Danube river and ultimately the Black Sea. Thus, water from surface runoff is basically lost from this area and does not have any effect on the water regime of the soils, although the possibilities and sustainability of some on-farm water storage systems (e.g., surface accumulations, public reservoirs) should be also evaluated. This was confirmed by field measurements (**Figures 2-5**), from which it is clear that even the abundant rainfall in June

*The dynamics of Sava river daily levels at the Sava-Slavonski Šamac measuring station for the period from* 

During the 1960s and 1970s, the main issue for the agricultural production in the studied region was the excess amount of surface and groundwater. That is why the area has an abundance of drainage canal networks through which excessive water

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88503*

such as (Sava) river.

**precipitation**

was channeled into the recipient—the Sava river.

**Figure 6.** *Opening of the Biđ-Bosut field irrigation canal.*

*Agricultural Management Strategies for Countering Drought Conditions in Eastern Croatia DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88503*

to 2.6-fold (corn). The yield reduction in the case of nonirrigated conditions on this area is also significant for the most of crops, even in normal (from 11% in corn and soybean up to 25% in sugar beet on texture-lighter soils) and especially in dry seasons (from 25% in soybean up to 47% in sugar beet on texture-lighter soils).

Although Sava river can provide the required amount of water for irrigation, excessive (unsustainable) management measures could possibly create additional (agro)ecological issues regarding water levels of Sava river and even question the sustainability of such practice. This possibility is confirmed by the trend of lower levels of Sava river by 0.51 m per year for the period from 2014 to 2018 (**Figure 7**). Using Sava river water for irrigation should therefore be applied with the utmost rationality, that is, taking into consideration the optimal water regime within the river-soil-plant-atmosphere system, for example [23]. Additionally, the education of local farmers should be included as an important step in the planning and implementation of any irrigation system which is depending on a natural system, such as (Sava) river.

#### **3.2 Using the existing irrigation infrastructure for the purpose of collecting precipitation**

During the 1960s and 1970s, the main issue for the agricultural production in the studied region was the excess amount of surface and groundwater. That is why the area has an abundance of drainage canal networks through which excessive water was channeled into the recipient—the Sava river.

However, in June 2018, 257.4 mm of precipitation was recorded (**Figure 2**), which exceeds the average monthly precipitation in this area by several times (320%). These extremes were usually accompanied by storms and hail, which is why the authorities declared a state of emergency for the years 2010, 2014, and 2018. As mentioned before, such high amount of precipitation in a very short time has a very small effective value for crops because in such conditions water cannot infiltrate in the soil, usually resulting in (sub) surface runoff. In the studied area, most of the water from surface runoff streams firstly into the drainage canals, then toward the Sava river, and finally reaching the Danube river and ultimately the Black Sea. Thus, water from surface runoff is basically lost from this area and does not have any effect on the water regime of the soils, although the possibilities and sustainability of some on-farm water storage systems (e.g., surface accumulations, public reservoirs) should be also evaluated. This was confirmed by field measurements (**Figures 2-5**), from which it is clear that even the abundant rainfall in June

#### **Figure 7.**

*Drought - Detection and Solutions*

excess surface and groundwater amounts.

implement permanent water quality control.

area). Agricultural production in the study (monitoring) area, although located in a traditionally agricultural region, so far does not rely on irrigation as a possible solution for alleviating occasional negative drought effects. The possible reason for that is because local agricultural production in this area is mostly located on hydromorphic soils, characterized by occasional or permanent moisturization by groundwater within 1 m from the soil surface [18]. Thus, the issue of lacking soil moisture which can last for several months has been an occurrence noted in this area only for the last 10 or so years, while before the main problem was the opposite:

The completion of the irrigation canal in 2018 (**Figure 6**) was the main prerequisite for irrigation of the surrounding agricultural soils. The canal is connected to the Sava river, and, with the proper regulation of water levels in the canal, it could provide necessary and sustainable amount of irrigation water. It was projected that, during high water levels of the Sava river, water will be pumped into the melioration canal, from which it would then be channeled to the surrounding highly arable agricultural fields during the most of vegetation season given on negative water balance, for example [20]. More precisely, considering the amount of water in the Sava river [18], this hydrotechnical solution could help to ensure adequate amount of water for irrigation of the approximately 10,000 ha of surrounding agricultural soil. As for the quality of the water, studies from various authors have made it clear that the water from the Sava river is of ample quality to irrigate the local crops, for example [18]. However, water quality is an important factor when considering its use for crop irrigation; thus, if canal water is used for irrigation, it is necessary to

Application of appropriate water management strategies for the usage of Sava river water for irrigation of crops is of major importance. Such strategies include application of the modern low-pressurized/low-energized (fert)irrigation system, adaptation of cropping pattern (e.g., to give advantage to winter over spring cereals/ cultivars and to those with shorter vegetation period when water balance is the most negative), modernization of conveyance systems (e.g., channel overlying or replacing with pipelines), conduct irrigation management on real time data measurements, application of conservation agriculture practices, and many others [20, 21]. Some of the most recent studies have confirmed that almost all crops cultivated on the studied areas are exposed to water stress (negative water balance) with significant yield losses even in normal (average) sessions. For instance, in Brodskoposavska County (overspread on the most of elaborated area), an average annual (for 1963–2005 period) effective precipitation reaches 690 mm, while potential evapotranspiration (ET0) is 718 mm, causing the negative water balance during vegetation period for almost −200 mm [22]. According to the same study, irrigation requirements in average climate season for the most cropped cultures yield from 82 mm (corn) up to 160 mm (sugar beet) and over 200 mm (lucerne), while in dry seasons water requirements are higher by 1.8–1.9-fold (lucerne and sugar beet) up

**100**

**Figure 6.**

*Opening of the Biđ-Bosut field irrigation canal.*

*The dynamics of Sava river daily levels at the Sava-Slavonski Šamac measuring station for the period from 2014 to 2018.*

2018 did not lead to a noticeable rise in groundwater levels. Moreover, for the whole first half of 2018, the groundwater did not exceed the level of 3.7 m from the soil surface, and in July of the same year, groundwater level lowered below 4 m from the soil surface, remaining at stated level until the end of the year 2018.

The network of drainage canals was up until 10 years ago used exclusively for drainage of the excess water from the area. During the last 10 or so years, the appearance of excess water became increasingly rare, and in 2017 and 2018, no such occurrence was recorded, except for a few days in June 2018 (data not shown). What is more, in the last several years, the lack of moisture in soil has become especially noticeable and culminated in 2018. One possible hydrotechnical solution for such issue would be to modify the existing canal network by implementing the controlled drainage canal system (where water flow is controlled and limited by a regulating system) at the main drainage canals. This way, in cases of an extreme precipitation, the drainage canals would preserve their primary drainage function, but in case of lower precipitation (when no excessive water is present in soil but before the drought conditions), by closing the canal release point, the same canals could be used as a form of a precipitation retention system. This proposed system of a branched-out canal network could, with an adequate regulation of canal water release points, prove to be very useful when additional amount of water for the agricultural plant production is necessary, that is, under drought conditions. Using these drainage waters as a potentially valuable "resource" rather than considering them as a "waste" can contribute to the alleviation of water scarcity, thus the negative effects of drought conditions [24], which is also in accordance with the widely accepted and nowadays preferential concept of sustainability in agricultural production.

Additionally, if subsurface drainage systems are installed, there is also the possibility of implementing the subsurface drainage water regulation system which could control the groundwater level according to the soil moisture. According to [25], controlled drainage, also known as drainage water management, is a practice of using the water control structure at the drainage outlet in order to raise the groundwater level and thus retain water in soil during periods when drainage is not needed, but a deficiency of soil water is present. The implementation of controlled systems (\$120 or \$50–100 per ha if upgrading from conventional drainage systems) is relatively inexpensive [26] and therefore should be taken into account when designing an agricultural systems. However, considering the initial cost of installing such system, its introduction should be accompanied by a sufficiently profitable agricultural production that would presumably justify the additional investment.

## **3.3 Selection of crops and growing techniques in agricultural areas without the irrigation systems**

Agricultural production without an irrigation system is completely depending on climate and available soil moisture (weather-dependent). In the context of increasingly important climate change, such production will presumably encounter more and more stressful conditions (i.e., plant water stress). In order to maintain the productivity, drought- and heat-tolerant crops/cultivars/hybrids must become the product of choice, as must the application of techniques to maintain the soil moisture by reducing evaporation [27, 28]. More precisely, evaporation occurs when moist soil is exposed to the atmosphere. In theory, to reduce the evaporation, it is necessary to reduce the exposed soil surface as much as possible and/or to shorten the time of the soil exposure to the atmosphere. In practice, mulching with plant residues and/or polyethylene foils can be used for this purpose [29]. Also, certain probiotic soil enhancers which have become available on the market recently can

**103**

*Agricultural Management Strategies for Countering Drought Conditions in Eastern Croatia*

and evaporation (in comparison with, e.g., irrigation boom).

opportunities and trends may be of major importance.

agroecosystems on the elaborated area.

**4. Conclusion**

be used for the same purpose of reducing the evaporation [30]. These soil enhancers enrich the soil with beneficial microbes which accelerate decomposition of soil organic matter into smaller compounds capable to retain more water in the soil and further to plant-available nutrients, which increases the overall soil fertility but also improves soil capacity to retain moisture. Additionally, if the irrigation systems are applied in the studied area of Biđ-Bosut field, the appropriate irrigation systems are those with the localized water distribution (e.g., micro-sprinklers or drip irrigation), which distribute water only alongside the crops and thus reduce water losses

At the end, the important viewpoint of the drought-alleviating management techniques is also from the economical aspect. Generally, adequate agricultural management includes the cost-benefit ratio regarding the crop value. Higher input into the agricultural production should be justified by investing into profitable crops, which will presumably pay out the initial investment. In this context, replacing the less profitable crops with crops for which the market demand is higher could be an appropriate action. However, this agricultural management strategy is not an easy task as it is not grounded on a permanent aspect but strongly relies on the current supply and demand market circumstances. Thus, additional economic analyses which include supplementary perspectives such as estimations of future market

Climatic and soil water regime data (2003–2018) suggest that the agroecosystem changes are becoming more prominent in the studied Biđ-Bosut area, and thus the future agricultural production may be exposed to the greater pressures regarding the insufficient amount of water in the soil. Also, some of the most recent midterm climate scenarios (models) performed for the studied and wider area support our theses. For instance, modern climate models from local to global scales employ relatively different horizontal resolutions from 10 to 300 km [19] and predict wide range of climate parameters, that is, scenarios. At the European scale (notably in its central part), it is expected that average seasonal near-surface temperature (Ta) is going to increase in the period 2011–2040 by 0.2–2°C [19]. According to the same authors and for the same midterm period, in Croatia the largest changes in Ta can be expected in the mid of vegetation session (summer) with an increase of Ta by 0.8–1°C in the central part of Croatia and around 0.8°C in eastern (Slavonia) region. As regards the average precipitation, a decrease of precipitation between 2 and 8% is predicted over the larger part of Croatia [19]. Consequently, higher evapotranspiration demands (over increasing average vegetation air temperature) and reduced average effective precipitations might further exacerbate water imbalances in the

Installation of the irrigation systems is a possible solution for countering the negative impact of drought, but other management strategies should also be implemented in order to achieve the sustainability of agricultural production. In this context, the education of local farmers should be included as an important step in the planning and implementation of any drought countering techniques, in order to achieve the highest success rate by adhering the rules and instructions referring to the rational and responsible water use. Finally, this study has shown that multiannual climate and soil water regime data may provide a good basis for the decision-making process in creating sustainable agricultural management policies (construction of the appropriate irrigation systems and use of the existing irrigation infrastructure for the purpose of collecting precipitation, use of drought- and

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88503*

#### *Agricultural Management Strategies for Countering Drought Conditions in Eastern Croatia DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88503*

be used for the same purpose of reducing the evaporation [30]. These soil enhancers enrich the soil with beneficial microbes which accelerate decomposition of soil organic matter into smaller compounds capable to retain more water in the soil and further to plant-available nutrients, which increases the overall soil fertility but also improves soil capacity to retain moisture. Additionally, if the irrigation systems are applied in the studied area of Biđ-Bosut field, the appropriate irrigation systems are those with the localized water distribution (e.g., micro-sprinklers or drip irrigation), which distribute water only alongside the crops and thus reduce water losses and evaporation (in comparison with, e.g., irrigation boom).

At the end, the important viewpoint of the drought-alleviating management techniques is also from the economical aspect. Generally, adequate agricultural management includes the cost-benefit ratio regarding the crop value. Higher input into the agricultural production should be justified by investing into profitable crops, which will presumably pay out the initial investment. In this context, replacing the less profitable crops with crops for which the market demand is higher could be an appropriate action. However, this agricultural management strategy is not an easy task as it is not grounded on a permanent aspect but strongly relies on the current supply and demand market circumstances. Thus, additional economic analyses which include supplementary perspectives such as estimations of future market opportunities and trends may be of major importance.
