**2. The teachings of the literature review**

Long-term unemployment, or the persistence of unemployment, reflects what economists call the hysteresis effects of unemployment. The study of the length and frequency of unemployment is now central to the analysis of the functioning of the labor market. It is indeed a cross-cutting theme that can be found in different theories of nature. Foremost among these are job search approaches [5–8], matching models, efficiency wages and labor market segmentation approaches [9, 10]. The relevance of this topic mobilizes several researchers to look at a microeconomic level. Many studies have tried to assess the explanatory factors of the phenomenon, for example, by studying the effects of individual characteristics (demographic, socio-economic and seniority unemployed), the economic situation, the rules of unemployment compensation (conditions of access, replacement rates and duration of compensation) and labor flows in the labor market [11], which are the key empirical facts that require a revision of the paradigm Walrassian [12]. This theoretical revision presupposes a rigorous description of the phenomenon and began with the work of Lancaster [13]. Their first estimates were made directly on the duration of unemployment or on the instantaneous rate of out of unemployment by postulating most often a particular specification. This type of study was gradually replaced by a structural approach explicitly modeling individual behaviors and based on "job search" models [14–20]. Most of these studies focused on the United States in view of the availability of data.

In France, work on this theme started a little later. A first group of works [21, 22] focused the analysis on the duration of youth unemployment by taking as a frame of reference the job search model. A second group of works [23] then studied, without direct reference to the microeconomic theory, unemployed seniority.

As a result of this work, several studies enriching the understanding of the duration of unemployment have developed in developed countries with various

[1, 2]<sup>1</sup> note that the unemployed, looking for a job, are respectively 67.8 months and 47.7 months on average, or about 4 years. Almost 76% of the unemployed are long-

Long-term unemployment, especially for first-time job seekers, mainly affects young people. In 2012, their unemployment duration was 58.9 months, just under 5 years. According to gender, young women leave unemployment after a period of 5.12 years against 4.16 years for young men. Among first-time claimants, they take 7 months more than young men to find a job. These figures show the lack of job opportunities for young people, on the one hand, and on the other hand, the

Nevertheless, several measures in the fight against unemployment have been implemented. These measures began in 1985 with the implementation of the return to land policy. This failed because of its inconsistency with the theory of development as developed by Harris and Todaro [3]. The surplus of the rural labor force tends to migrate to the cities to feed the industrial labor force, hence the increased

In 1991, the Hiring Assistance Program was initiated to support young graduates, especially in urban areas, in order to inhibit the effect of previous initiatives. In the same period, the Absorption Program for Out-of-School Young People (PAJD) was launched to provide support to out-of-school youth. Other initiatives have been undertaken whose aim is to fight against unemployment, insecurity, poverty and exclusion by promoting the integration of young people. We can mention among others, the programs conducted by the Youth Employment Agency (AEJ) ex-Agency Study and Promotion of Employment (AGEPE) [2, 4]: the Employment

Age group 14–24 years old 12.00 7.71 9.65

Middle of residence Abidjan 23.02 16.56 19.50

Level of education No 5.97 2.72 4.39

Marital status Single 16.07 11.27 13.10

Global 10.34 6.5 8.2

<sup>1</sup> ENSETE: Enquête nationale sur la situation de l'emploi et du travail des enfants [2].

*Source: Authors' calculations based on 2012 AGEPE data.*

*Youth unemployment rate by gender in Côte d'Ivoire (in%).*

**Table 1.**

**198**

**Woman Man Ensemble**

25–35 years old 12.41 10.02 12.04 36 years old and + 5.54 3.71 4.43

Other urban 13.83 8.22 10.70 Rural 4.95 2.73 3.72

Primary 12.82 5.36 8.60 Secondary 21.24 12.51 15.24 Superior 40.34 19.57 24.76

Married 8.23 3.47 5.67 Widower/divorced 5.65 2.51 4.70

difficulties young women face in entering the labor market.

term unemployed.

*Regional Development in Africa*

unemployment in urban areas.

conclusions. Fougère [24] highlights the individual characteristics on which employers base their hiring selection strategies, particularly in periods of high unemployment in the case of France. His study is devoted to the influence of the economic situation on the individual durations of unemployment. The individual characteristics enumerated in his study are demographic (sex, age, nationality and family status) and socio-economic (initial training, qualification and previous career path). In the same vein, Bonnal and Fougère [25] reached the same conclusions with the integration of a new socio-economic variable (socioprofessional category of the individual). The work of Joutard and Werquin [26] enriches the understanding by including in the analysis of the individual determinants of duration the distinction between the exit of unemployment on a precarious job and that on a stable job. The results highlight the difference between individual factors and work experience according to the type of job found (stable or precarious). The work of Bourdet and Persson [27], based on a comparative analysis between France and Sweden, emphasizes the need to put in place appropriate policies to absorb youth unemployment fairly quickly. According to this study, the employment policy for young people became permanent in France while it was able to return to Sweden at its level of fifteen years ago (affecting about 4% of the young working population). According to him, this situation is due to the fact that in France the measures were taken late.

While in Côte d'Ivoire, the high rate of unemployment may be attributable, on the one hand, to the inadequacy of jobs in the modern sector<sup>2</sup> and, on the other hand, to the fact that a large proportion of those wishing to work are not seeking a job, and the duration of unemployment can be explained by other additional parameters related to the personal characteristics of the individual. To our knowledge, no study has addressed the determinants of the duration of unemployment duration by integrating an econometric analysis for the case of Côte d'Ivoire. In view of the above, we will attempt to conduct this study based on the AGPEE

*A Gender Analysis of the Determinants of Youth Unemployment in Côte d'Ivoire*

Our econometric study of the links between the individual characteristics of young people and the duration of unemployment joins the paradigm of the demand for labor [35].<sup>3</sup> The heterogeneity of individual characteristics makes it possible to assess the correlation existing between jobseekers and the difficulty of getting out of unemployment. From a methodological point of view, our analysis is enriched by

The objective being to estimate the probability of a young person finding a job according to the number of months spent unemployed, several econometric models could be useful: for example, a probit or a Tobit. The use of a duration model essentially resides in the fact that it allows to keep in the sample individuals still unemployed at the time of the survey. This type of model is necessary, especially to take into account the censored unemployment episodes. One of the difficulties encountered with the estimation by a duration model is to choose, from all the possible options, a particular description of the probability distribution of the duration variable, having implications on the form of the risk function. A common prediction of empirically observed unemployment durations is that they are characterized by a negative time dependence,<sup>4</sup> leading to the rejection of constant random functions, such as that associated with the exponential model [36]. For this type of analysis, the Weibull model is the most appropriate. This parametric estimation method is widely used [37, 38] because of, on the one hand, the relatively simple form of its survival function and, on the other hand, it belongs both to the family of so-called accelerated life models and so-called proportional hazards models. In addition, the Weibull model can estimate a monotonous chance increasing, monotonous decreasing or constant. A first, primarily descriptive, approach to the durations of our sample using the non-parametric Kaplan-Meier estimator encourages

<sup>2</sup> The distribution of jobs in Côte d'Ivoire is divided into three sectors: the modern sector characterized

<sup>3</sup> Mériaux [35] calls the "labor demand paradigm" as a guiding principle of an observational program. Rather than focusing on the exchange of facts that occur on the market, priority is given to the different

<sup>4</sup> Allowing to estimate the chances that an individual leaves unemployment, or any other state of the labor market, at a given moment, knowing that he was unemployed until the previous moment (function

by modern production technology, a skilled and salaried workforce and compliance with labor regulations. The informal rural sector is identified by microenterprises often confused with the family

unit, a rudimentary production technique and the non-respect of labor regulations.

characteristics of each individual that could be an asset or a constraint to the job search.

the integration of a certain number of explanatory variables.

literature and data in 2012.

**3. Methodology and data source**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85287*

**3.1 Econometric model of duration**

of risk).

**201**

The growth and persistence of unemployment are worrying because of the change in its physiognomy, which highlights the duality between graduates and non-graduates [28] and the issue of the exit from unemployment with unemployed seniority [29]. The work of Lê et al. [30] leads to an increase in the long-term unemployment rate between 2008 and 2013 among the most fragile asset categories: workers, employees, young people, people without diplomas, single parents, inhabitants of sensitive urban areas and immigrants. In 2013, for example, people without a diploma have a long-term unemployment risk that is twice as high as those with a level of 2 years or more.

On the other hand, other studies have pointed out that the effect of time spent on unemployment on the risk of leaving unemployment is explained by the heterogeneous nature of the cohorts of entries into unemployment. According to Di Paola and Moullet [31], the non-taking into account of the heterogeneity existing between individuals leads to a negative temporal dependence of the risk of exit from unemployment. This phenomenon of negative time dependence of risk also underlined by Heckman and Singer [14] is better known under the name of "movers-stayers." It shows the importance of controlling individual heterogeneity in understanding the phenomenon.

Some studies on long-term unemployment have been observed in Africa. The first study is done by Lachaud [32]. According to this author, the mode of access to the labor market seems to be a major determinant of situations of social exclusion, and the influence of this factor goes far beyond what could be called the inherent "logical exclusion" of the destabilization of African economies. Guessan [33] indicates that Ivorian unemployed people in Côte d'Ivoire are less active in job search than non-Ivorian unemployed people and are more competitive. In addition, the study points out that the unemployment rate and the density of the municipality of residence of the unemployed influence the intensity of the job search and the choice of job search methods. Chort et al. [34] conclude for Senegal that apprenticeship is a decisive factor in entry into the labor market, based on the competing risk-entry duration models. By comparing the trajectories of former apprentices with those of non-apprentices, they conclude that the role of entry to apprenticeship is important for subsequent social and occupational integration.

*A Gender Analysis of the Determinants of Youth Unemployment in Côte d'Ivoire DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85287*

While in Côte d'Ivoire, the high rate of unemployment may be attributable, on the one hand, to the inadequacy of jobs in the modern sector<sup>2</sup> and, on the other hand, to the fact that a large proportion of those wishing to work are not seeking a job, and the duration of unemployment can be explained by other additional parameters related to the personal characteristics of the individual. To our knowledge, no study has addressed the determinants of the duration of unemployment duration by integrating an econometric analysis for the case of Côte d'Ivoire. In view of the above, we will attempt to conduct this study based on the AGPEE literature and data in 2012.
