**6. The opportunities in waste as resource**

With only a 4% recycling rate, opportunities to develop a "secondary resources economy" are still largely unexplored in Africa. Current waste management practices have resulted in waste being overlooked for the value that it can provide to local economies. As a result, viable polymer (from plastic), fiber (from paper), metals and nutrients (from organic waste), amongst others, are being lost to Africa's economy through disposal of waste to dumpsites and landfills. Resources which could have been reintroduced back into local and regional economies to support manufacturing and reduce the economic burden on product imports.

Preliminary calculations suggest that diverting waste away from dumpsites towards reuse, recycling and recovery could, conservatively, inject an additional US\$8 billion every year into the African economy [31]. Creating significant socioeconomic opportunities for the continent. And if done responsibly, at the same time address the environmental and human health impacts associated with the current mismanagement of waste. Waste therefore provides considerable opportunity for the continent if only it could be safely collected and directed towards reuse, recycling and recovery.

The informal sector has played a very active role to date in the collection and diversion of reusable and recyclable waste away from landfill in Africa. As such, integrating informal reclaimers into future waste management activities is key to unlocking these opportunities, while also ensuring their improved livelihoods. Labour-intensive collection, sorting and processing of secondary resources could also create many direct jobs and even more indirect and induced employment opportunities at higher levels of pay. Developing local end-use markets that support the local beneficiation of these secondary resources would also ensure that fewer jobs migrate with these secondary resources to other countries.

Because of the gaps that exist in current waste collection and disposal systems, and in waste reuse, recycling and recovery, many social and technological innovations have emerged on the African continent over the past decade. These include innovative waste collection models, such as Wecyclers in Nigeria or Packag-ching in South Africa. Wecyclers uses low-cost, environmentally friendly cargo bicycles called "wecycles" to provide households and businesses in Lagos with convenient collection services for recyclable waste [32]. The Wecyclers and Packag-ching collection programmes reward residents for their recyclables through convenient collection systems, often in areas with no or poor municipal waste collection systems. Innovative end-uses for waste have also emerged on the continent. The Rethaka Foundation's Repurpose Schoolbag initiative addresses not only waste, but also aims to bring light to families and keep children safe while walking to school. The initiative collects and repurposes plastic waste such as PVC billboards into low-cost, highly visible schoolbags for local disadvantaged students, equipped with a small solar panel [32]. The PET recycling company (PETCO) model of voluntary Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) for end-of-life PET plastic bottles, has resulted in a 65% post-consumer recycling rate in South Africa [33]. Utilizing both formal and informal actors in the value chain, the PETCO model is now being replicated in other countries in Africa, including Kenya, Ethiopia and Uganda [34].

Africa has however, recently seen investment in large-scale, traditional waste treatment technologies, such as the first waste PET plastic food-grade bottle-tobottle recycling plant, established by Extrupet in South Africa in 2015. Extrupet has the capacity to recycle over 2.5 million PET bottles per day, converting the waste PET bottles into fiber, thermoforming, food-grade and strapping-grade material, thereby producing high-quality, reliable end-products for use in packaging and other applications [35]. The Reppie 50 MW waste-to-energy plant at the Koshe

**241**

*Solid Waste Management in Africa: Governance Failure or Development Opportunity?*

dump in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia marks a significant transition in Africa's management of waste, with the establishment of a large-scale, MSW thermal treatment

But uptake of alternative waste treatment technologies in Africa has generally been slow, with dumping and open burning of waste remaining the dominant "technology" choice for the management of waste on the continent. While many alternative waste treatment technologies are available worldwide, only some of them are appropriate, or economically viable, for Africa, at least in the short- to

Given the current state of waste management in most African cities, conventional waste treatment technologies are often difficult to implement. A combination of small-scale, low-cost, decentralized, community-driven initiatives and larger-scale, higher-cost, centralized initiatives will therefore be required for Africa. Low-technology (and low-cost) solutions such as cargo bicycles, motor tricycles or donkeycarts are often good alternatives for waste collection in African cities, particularly where access is constrained. Recycling technologies are already being implemented for wastes such as plastic, paper, glass, metal, oil, e-waste and organic waste, but need to be significantly scaled up through the development and

Although almost all African countries have some policies that dictate how waste should be managed, there are many factors that constrain the waste management system in Africa. These factors include weak legislation, lack of enforcement, low public awareness, negative attitudes, the poor state of services, corruption, political

Poor financing is a major constraint to the development of the waste sector in Africa. This is largely due to the fact that the waste sector is still perceived as a high-risk investment in Africa [37]. There are tremendous challenges and constraints to waste management finance and to setting up sustainable revenue models in Africa. Existing waste management financing models currently used in Africa are limited, aggravated by weak institutional frameworks and poor governance of public resources. Strengthening institutions and regulatory frameworks is therefore paramount in reducing the perceived sector risk. There is a huge need for investment finance in the waste sector. However, raising investor confidence is a challenge, particularly in low income countries. Project costing and cost recovery is often poorly understood by government agencies in charge of waste logistics and

Estimated investment needs for the sector range from US\$6–42 billion (in 2015), depending on the alternative waste treatment technologies implemented. These figures are expected to triple to US\$17–125 billion by 2040, given current population growth and urbanization patterns and assuming investment in large-scale waste technologies [37]. Public-private partnerships will therefore be key to unlocking the opportunities that waste provides as secondary resource for the African continent.

Africa faces many challenges with respect to solid waste management. Factors

such as lack of awareness; weak environmental legislation and enforcement; and limited resources, including financial resources, result in inefficient waste management in most African countries, which directly impacts upon human and environmental health. Available evidence suggests that the current poor state of solid waste management is largely due to failures in governance and organizational weaknesses resulting in poor service delivery and a perceived high risk for private

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86974*

strengthening of local and regional end-use markets.

instability and conflicts [36].

management.

**7. Conclusions**

plant [35].

medium-term.

*Solid Waste Management in Africa: Governance Failure or Development Opportunity? DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86974*

dump in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia marks a significant transition in Africa's management of waste, with the establishment of a large-scale, MSW thermal treatment plant [35].

But uptake of alternative waste treatment technologies in Africa has generally been slow, with dumping and open burning of waste remaining the dominant "technology" choice for the management of waste on the continent. While many alternative waste treatment technologies are available worldwide, only some of them are appropriate, or economically viable, for Africa, at least in the short- to medium-term.

Given the current state of waste management in most African cities, conventional waste treatment technologies are often difficult to implement. A combination of small-scale, low-cost, decentralized, community-driven initiatives and larger-scale, higher-cost, centralized initiatives will therefore be required for Africa. Low-technology (and low-cost) solutions such as cargo bicycles, motor tricycles or donkeycarts are often good alternatives for waste collection in African cities, particularly where access is constrained. Recycling technologies are already being implemented for wastes such as plastic, paper, glass, metal, oil, e-waste and organic waste, but need to be significantly scaled up through the development and strengthening of local and regional end-use markets.

Although almost all African countries have some policies that dictate how waste should be managed, there are many factors that constrain the waste management system in Africa. These factors include weak legislation, lack of enforcement, low public awareness, negative attitudes, the poor state of services, corruption, political instability and conflicts [36].

Poor financing is a major constraint to the development of the waste sector in Africa. This is largely due to the fact that the waste sector is still perceived as a high-risk investment in Africa [37]. There are tremendous challenges and constraints to waste management finance and to setting up sustainable revenue models in Africa. Existing waste management financing models currently used in Africa are limited, aggravated by weak institutional frameworks and poor governance of public resources. Strengthening institutions and regulatory frameworks is therefore paramount in reducing the perceived sector risk. There is a huge need for investment finance in the waste sector. However, raising investor confidence is a challenge, particularly in low income countries. Project costing and cost recovery is often poorly understood by government agencies in charge of waste logistics and management.

Estimated investment needs for the sector range from US\$6–42 billion (in 2015), depending on the alternative waste treatment technologies implemented. These figures are expected to triple to US\$17–125 billion by 2040, given current population growth and urbanization patterns and assuming investment in large-scale waste technologies [37]. Public-private partnerships will therefore be key to unlocking the opportunities that waste provides as secondary resource for the African continent.

### **7. Conclusions**

Africa faces many challenges with respect to solid waste management. Factors such as lack of awareness; weak environmental legislation and enforcement; and limited resources, including financial resources, result in inefficient waste management in most African countries, which directly impacts upon human and environmental health. Available evidence suggests that the current poor state of solid waste management is largely due to failures in governance and organizational weaknesses resulting in poor service delivery and a perceived high risk for private

*Regional Development in Africa*

cling and recovery.

**6. The opportunities in waste as resource**

With only a 4% recycling rate, opportunities to develop a "secondary resources

Preliminary calculations suggest that diverting waste away from dumpsites towards reuse, recycling and recovery could, conservatively, inject an additional US\$8 billion every year into the African economy [31]. Creating significant socioeconomic opportunities for the continent. And if done responsibly, at the same time address the environmental and human health impacts associated with the current mismanagement of waste. Waste therefore provides considerable opportunity for the continent if only it could be safely collected and directed towards reuse, recy-

The informal sector has played a very active role to date in the collection and diversion of reusable and recyclable waste away from landfill in Africa. As such, integrating informal reclaimers into future waste management activities is key to unlocking these opportunities, while also ensuring their improved livelihoods. Labour-intensive collection, sorting and processing of secondary resources could also create many direct jobs and even more indirect and induced employment opportunities at higher levels of pay. Developing local end-use markets that support the local beneficiation of these secondary resources would also ensure that fewer

Because of the gaps that exist in current waste collection and disposal systems, and in waste reuse, recycling and recovery, many social and technological innovations have emerged on the African continent over the past decade. These include innovative waste collection models, such as Wecyclers in Nigeria or Packag-ching in South Africa. Wecyclers uses low-cost, environmentally friendly cargo bicycles called "wecycles" to provide households and businesses in Lagos with convenient collection services for recyclable waste [32]. The Wecyclers and Packag-ching collection programmes reward residents for their recyclables through convenient collection systems, often in areas with no or poor municipal waste collection systems. Innovative end-uses for waste have also emerged on the continent. The Rethaka Foundation's Repurpose Schoolbag initiative addresses not only waste, but also aims to bring light to families and keep children safe while walking to school. The initiative collects and repurposes plastic waste such as PVC billboards into low-cost, highly visible schoolbags for local disadvantaged students, equipped with a small solar panel [32]. The PET recycling company (PETCO) model of voluntary Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) for end-of-life PET plastic bottles, has resulted in a 65% post-consumer recycling rate in South Africa [33]. Utilizing both formal and informal actors in the value chain, the PETCO model is now being replicated in other

economy" are still largely unexplored in Africa. Current waste management practices have resulted in waste being overlooked for the value that it can provide to local economies. As a result, viable polymer (from plastic), fiber (from paper), metals and nutrients (from organic waste), amongst others, are being lost to Africa's economy through disposal of waste to dumpsites and landfills. Resources which could have been reintroduced back into local and regional economies to support

manufacturing and reduce the economic burden on product imports.

jobs migrate with these secondary resources to other countries.

countries in Africa, including Kenya, Ethiopia and Uganda [34].

Africa has however, recently seen investment in large-scale, traditional waste treatment technologies, such as the first waste PET plastic food-grade bottle-tobottle recycling plant, established by Extrupet in South Africa in 2015. Extrupet has the capacity to recycle over 2.5 million PET bottles per day, converting the waste PET bottles into fiber, thermoforming, food-grade and strapping-grade material, thereby producing high-quality, reliable end-products for use in packaging and other applications [35]. The Reppie 50 MW waste-to-energy plant at the Koshe

**240**

sector investors. The economic, social and environmental costs of inaction—of doing nothing—far outweigh the cost of implementing waste management solutions on the continent, and if the 2030 Agenda for sustainable development is to be achieved, action has to be taken.

While the costs of implementing alternative waste treatment technologies is suggested to be in the range of US\$6–42 billion, diverting waste away from dumpsites and landfills towards reuse, recycling and recovery could inject a potential US\$8 billion per annum of resource value into the African economy. This will result in improved livelihoods for informal reclaimers and the creation of new job and business opportunities for the continent.

But African countries cannot harness the development opportunity that waste provides, if waste remains scattered, uncollected across our environment, and our towns and cities, and if there is no incentive (political, legislative or economic) to divert waste away from dumpsites and landfills into economically productive value chains.

The African Union has set an aspiration that "*African cities will be recycling at least 50% of the waste they generate by 2023*" [38, 39]. The authors of the Africa Waste Management Outlook fully support the goal of the African Union and believe that even higher rates can be achieved, by developing appropriate collection systems and end-use markets for the following opportunity waste streams


The Africa Waste Management Outlook has set out a vision for Africa to "*Extend regular and reliable waste collection services to all, with safe disposal of residual waste to engineered landfills, while maximizing the recovery of secondary resources from these waste streams through social and technological innovations appropriate for Africa.*"

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*Solid Waste Management in Africa: Governance Failure or Development Opportunity?*

This requires that government, business and civil society "*bring waste under control*" (i.e. collection services for all and safe disposal of waste to engineered landfills), while simultaneously "*harnessing the opportunities of waste as resource*" through reuse, recycling and recovery. This will require a clear strategy for (i) capacity development and awareness raising, (ii) evidence generation and use in support of decision-making and policy development, (iii) strengthening institutions, policies and enforcing legislation, and (iv) adopting appropriate, inclusive waste services

Good governance is crucial for creating an enabling environment for sustainable materials management (including waste management) [40]. As such, there is a need to strengthen capacity (financial, institutional, technological and infrastructural) to drive environmentally sound waste management [41]. Since solid waste management is a sustainable development issue that cuts across socio-economic activities, it

Finally, regional and sub-regional approaches to solving solid waste issues in Africa, with sharing of information and experiences, must be explored as capacity

The authors acknowledge the role of the UNEP (through its Africa Office and its International Environmental Technology Centre—IETC), without whose leadership, the development of the Africa Waste Management Outlook would not have been possible. The financial contribution of the Governments of Japan and South

Africa in the development of the Outlook are also acknowledged.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86974*

must be considered a political priority for Africa.

and resources vary greatly between countries.

and technologies (**Figure 5**).

**Acknowledgements**

**Figure 5.** *Proposed approach to addressing solid waste in Africa [3].*

*Solid Waste Management in Africa: Governance Failure or Development Opportunity? DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86974*

This requires that government, business and civil society "*bring waste under control*" (i.e. collection services for all and safe disposal of waste to engineered landfills), while simultaneously "*harnessing the opportunities of waste as resource*" through reuse, recycling and recovery. This will require a clear strategy for (i) capacity development and awareness raising, (ii) evidence generation and use in support of decision-making and policy development, (iii) strengthening institutions, policies and enforcing legislation, and (iv) adopting appropriate, inclusive waste services and technologies (**Figure 5**).

Good governance is crucial for creating an enabling environment for sustainable materials management (including waste management) [40]. As such, there is a need to strengthen capacity (financial, institutional, technological and infrastructural) to drive environmentally sound waste management [41]. Since solid waste management is a sustainable development issue that cuts across socio-economic activities, it must be considered a political priority for Africa.

Finally, regional and sub-regional approaches to solving solid waste issues in Africa, with sharing of information and experiences, must be explored as capacity and resources vary greatly between countries.
