**4.1 Livestock production as influenced by the gender of owners**

There was a decrease in goats' population among female owners over 12 months (1.4) while it increases among the male owners (5.6) (**Table 2**). The disparity in the population of goats owned is very wide compared to the gender of owners. This is due to some biased gender factors which had favored the men such as (a) cultural position of men. Men are regarded as heads of households and have a final decision on livestock. (b) Men are more traditionally inclined and are not easily deviated from cultural beliefs and practices. Men in these communities appreciate goat because it is widely accepted for cultural ceremonies like ancestral worship, a minor part of the *lobola* and special family community occasions (FGD). Goats are used to pay sexual harassment penalty and minor community fine [24]. These agreed with the findings of the focus group discussion. (c) The average population of goats per men ownership was 27 goats per ownership. It was discovered from the focus group discussion that men tend to keep goats as prestige in the municipality. The average population of goats per female owners is 22; this is because few goats owned by females was possessed at old age (i.e. eldest in the family) or when their husbands are late. Therefore, before female owners reach the disadvantage stage (either old age or widowhood) which gives them an edge and the right of ownership in the household. The government can encourage women livestock owners through projects/policies and programs. This cultural trait in IsiZulu is similar to Xhosa culture of South Africa, where livestock ownership (cattle) is concentrated entirely in the male hands [25].

Culture in South Africa is similar to that of Southern Tanzania as reported by [26], that woman cannot claim ownership of cattle and goats. In the case of a married woman who had an ownership contract of cattle and goats, the animals still belong to the man, even after divorce [26]. More opportunity was given to women in Zimbabwe, where women have control over milking, processing and marketing of milk but cannot influence other decisions such as breeding, feeding and slaughtering [27]. Women are only allowed to own poultry and small ruminants in Botswana [28]. This agreed with the reported by the Food and Agricultural Organization [29] that poultry keeping is largely the responsibility of women in Africa. Furthermore, projects to improve poultry productions were often seemed like a way to reach poor rural women [8]. This painted a picture that cultural behavior in Africa has shifted poultry farming to women.

This cultural practice agreed with [29, 30] findings in Niger, where the man takes control of all livestock used as part of dowry after the marriage. Nuer Society of Sudan does not permit women to own cattle and goats at all as part of their cultural practices, but they have the responsibility for grazing these animals [31]. However, this practice is contrary to the animal husbandry system in Pakis where women have the full ownership control over livestock brought as part of their dowry [32]. Also in Malawi, where women are head of households, they have a total influence on the livestock they process [33]. Studies showed that livestock ownership between genders is becoming an equity in Africa; Zimbabwe and Mozambique [27], Botswana [28], Namibia [34], Malawi [33], Nigeria [35], Kenya [36], Uganda [36].

In stipulations of the population of livestock across communities, goats had the highest population, followed by cattle while poultry and sheep were the smallest populations sampled. The highest population of goats is because goats are slaughtered for more cultural functions by Nguni people. So many households tend to rear more goats and cattle than other animals. Cattle were the second highest in the

**191**

*The Role of Culture in Achieving Sustainable Agriculture in South Africa: Examining Zulu…*

livestock population because it's another livestock that is mostly used for cultural functions. Cattle are used for *lobola* package during "marriage negotiation" in preparation for the cultural wedding. Male owners have more goat and cattle than female owners because they are financially constrained to avoid cattle "thus goats are poor men's cow" (**Table 1**). Due to the environmental and nutritional stress of livestock during the dry season, small-holder farmers in the study site found it easier to manage goats than cattle. Goats are owned by many because (1) it is more affordable than cattle, (2) it can survive harsh environmental conditions, (3) it is a mixed feeder, especially during dry seasons when grasses lose nutrients, and it

Apart from the cultural benefit, there are also economic benefits. Many livestock

Livestock plays a major role in the bride's price ceremony is not complete without the cattle gift. The most important recognized socioeconomic benefit of goats is the usage in ancestral worship (FGD) which is an inherited cultural practice and belief among IsiZulu ethnic group of South Africa. This practice had been sustained alongside with this cultural practice; farmers keep or sell hide of goats and cattle. The hide is used as a pelt for sitting or designed as a cultural dress of IsiZulu people. This justified the impact of livestock to mankind apart from companionship, income, hide and skin, reported by [37]. It promotes inter-social relationship and serves as a means of legal local bills in communities. It also agreed with livestock impacts in Botswana reported by [38] that it is an important household asset in providing security, money, food, cultural and social identity, draught power, skin, hide and medium of exchange. World Bank [30] also reported that livestock production is a very important socioeconomic activity. Therefore, cattle and goats have not lost

**4.3 Effect of gender ownership, cultural beliefs and management practices on** 

The distribution of small ruminants in South Africa is not even and numbers tend to be higher in dry areas [5]. Flock sizes, especially are larger in dry than in humid areas [39]. Goats are reared among the IsiZulu tribe mainly for four major benefits, namely: meat, milk, skin and wool in this order of importance [40]. The majority of small ruminants are owned by individuals or families in community areas. Majority of farmers practice mixed farming which includes large variations of annual crops (maize, vegetables) and livestock (swine, poultry small and large

Annual crops like maize, vegetables (spinach, cucumber) and livestock like poultry, swine, small and large ruminant animals (FGD). All respondents (smallholder farmers) engaged in free-range systems of farming and graze on communal

their socioeconomic benefits in the IsiZulu culture.

**livestock production.**

*4.3.1 Goat productivity*

ruminants) [8].

farmers have an economic gain from livestock production. This is by individuals selling livestock to friends and butchers. Most times this is done when such an individual farmer is in financial need. Furthermore, Focus Group Discussion revealed that goats play an important role within the cultural activities; goat slaughtering is forbidden unless the head of the household gives contrary instructions. Livestock (cattle) is also used as cultural gifts (*Lobola*) to each other (FGD). *Lobola* is a cultural bride's gift from the groom's family parked together with bride price paid to

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86759*

switches to browsing.

the bride's family.

**4.2 Socioeconomic benefits**

*The Role of Culture in Achieving Sustainable Agriculture in South Africa: Examining Zulu… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86759*

livestock population because it's another livestock that is mostly used for cultural functions. Cattle are used for *lobola* package during "marriage negotiation" in preparation for the cultural wedding. Male owners have more goat and cattle than female owners because they are financially constrained to avoid cattle "thus goats are poor men's cow" (**Table 1**). Due to the environmental and nutritional stress of livestock during the dry season, small-holder farmers in the study site found it easier to manage goats than cattle. Goats are owned by many because (1) it is more affordable than cattle, (2) it can survive harsh environmental conditions, (3) it is a mixed feeder, especially during dry seasons when grasses lose nutrients, and it switches to browsing.

#### **4.2 Socioeconomic benefits**

*Regional Development in Africa*

**4.1 Livestock production as influenced by the gender of owners**

There was a decrease in goats' population among female owners over 12 months (1.4) while it increases among the male owners (5.6) (**Table 2**). The disparity in the population of goats owned is very wide compared to the gender of owners. This is due to some biased gender factors which had favored the men such as (a) cultural position of men. Men are regarded as heads of households and have a final decision on livestock. (b) Men are more traditionally inclined and are not easily deviated from cultural beliefs and practices. Men in these communities appreciate goat because it is widely accepted for cultural ceremonies like ancestral worship, a minor part of the *lobola* and special family community occasions (FGD). Goats are used to pay sexual harassment penalty and minor community fine [24]. These agreed with the findings of the focus group discussion. (c) The average population of goats per men ownership was 27 goats per ownership. It was discovered from the focus group discussion that men tend to keep goats as prestige in the municipality. The average population of goats per female owners is 22; this is because few goats owned by females was possessed at old age (i.e. eldest in the family) or when their husbands are late. Therefore, before female owners reach the disadvantage stage (either old age or widowhood) which gives them an edge and the right of ownership in the household. The government can encourage women livestock owners through projects/policies and programs. This cultural trait in IsiZulu is similar to Xhosa culture of South Africa, where livestock ownership (cattle) is concentrated entirely

Culture in South Africa is similar to that of Southern Tanzania as reported by [26], that woman cannot claim ownership of cattle and goats. In the case of a married woman who had an ownership contract of cattle and goats, the animals still belong to the man, even after divorce [26]. More opportunity was given to women in Zimbabwe, where women have control over milking, processing and marketing of milk but cannot influence other decisions such as breeding, feeding and slaughtering [27]. Women are only allowed to own poultry and small ruminants in Botswana [28]. This agreed with the reported by the Food and Agricultural Organization [29] that poultry keeping is largely the responsibility of women in Africa. Furthermore, projects to improve poultry productions were often seemed like a way to reach poor rural women [8]. This painted a picture that cultural behav-

This cultural practice agreed with [29, 30] findings in Niger, where the man takes control of all livestock used as part of dowry after the marriage. Nuer Society of Sudan does not permit women to own cattle and goats at all as part of their cultural practices, but they have the responsibility for grazing these animals [31]. However, this practice is contrary to the animal husbandry system in Pakis where women have the full ownership control over livestock brought as part of their dowry [32]. Also in Malawi, where women are head of households, they have a total influence on the livestock they process [33]. Studies showed that livestock ownership between genders is becoming an equity in Africa; Zimbabwe and Mozambique [27], Botswana [28], Namibia [34], Malawi [33], Nigeria [35], Kenya

In stipulations of the population of livestock across communities, goats had the highest population, followed by cattle while poultry and sheep were the smallest populations sampled. The highest population of goats is because goats are slaughtered for more cultural functions by Nguni people. So many households tend to rear more goats and cattle than other animals. Cattle were the second highest in the

**4. Discussion**

in the male hands [25].

ior in Africa has shifted poultry farming to women.

**190**

[36], Uganda [36].

Apart from the cultural benefit, there are also economic benefits. Many livestock farmers have an economic gain from livestock production. This is by individuals selling livestock to friends and butchers. Most times this is done when such an individual farmer is in financial need. Furthermore, Focus Group Discussion revealed that goats play an important role within the cultural activities; goat slaughtering is forbidden unless the head of the household gives contrary instructions. Livestock (cattle) is also used as cultural gifts (*Lobola*) to each other (FGD). *Lobola* is a cultural bride's gift from the groom's family parked together with bride price paid to the bride's family.

Livestock plays a major role in the bride's price ceremony is not complete without the cattle gift. The most important recognized socioeconomic benefit of goats is the usage in ancestral worship (FGD) which is an inherited cultural practice and belief among IsiZulu ethnic group of South Africa. This practice had been sustained alongside with this cultural practice; farmers keep or sell hide of goats and cattle. The hide is used as a pelt for sitting or designed as a cultural dress of IsiZulu people. This justified the impact of livestock to mankind apart from companionship, income, hide and skin, reported by [37]. It promotes inter-social relationship and serves as a means of legal local bills in communities. It also agreed with livestock impacts in Botswana reported by [38] that it is an important household asset in providing security, money, food, cultural and social identity, draught power, skin, hide and medium of exchange. World Bank [30] also reported that livestock production is a very important socioeconomic activity. Therefore, cattle and goats have not lost their socioeconomic benefits in the IsiZulu culture.

## **4.3 Effect of gender ownership, cultural beliefs and management practices on livestock production.**

#### *4.3.1 Goat productivity*

The distribution of small ruminants in South Africa is not even and numbers tend to be higher in dry areas [5]. Flock sizes, especially are larger in dry than in humid areas [39]. Goats are reared among the IsiZulu tribe mainly for four major benefits, namely: meat, milk, skin and wool in this order of importance [40]. The majority of small ruminants are owned by individuals or families in community areas. Majority of farmers practice mixed farming which includes large variations of annual crops (maize, vegetables) and livestock (swine, poultry small and large ruminants) [8].

Annual crops like maize, vegetables (spinach, cucumber) and livestock like poultry, swine, small and large ruminant animals (FGD). All respondents (smallholder farmers) engaged in free-range systems of farming and graze on communal

lands. Due to high rates of tick infestation, farmers through their groups and associations established dip-tanks within the community as a means of control.

No good flock management is practiced for a frivolous reason; farmers only rear for social purposes. FGD recorded that farmers practiced similar livestock farming system which has become a cultural norm in the area. It is a system whereby farmers have limited contribution (input and almost no feed) to the production. The only consistent management routine in goat rearing is the administration of modern medicine. Farmers find it easy to spray, drench, rub and inject goats.

It was observed that farmers have poor housing and tethering of livestock. A rural livestock farming system by both genders are the same but it affects livestock productivity because of inadequate facilities. This observation agreed with the study reported by [40] that small ruminant production in traditional systems throughout tropical Africa is fair. Small ruminants are generally recognized for their importance and contribution to mankind, especially in the tropics [28]. However, Africans who keep small ruminant stock rear it for irrational reasons for meeting particular needs and specific objectives of owners [29].

#### *4.3.2 Cattle productivity*

Improvement in cattle feeding through supplementation with additional feed source (such as silage and hay) will contribute greatly to cattle production. Observations during forage sampling at different seasons showed that cattle struggle to fed (graze) on communal pasture during the dry and early wet season because communal grazing lands are fully mature. It was noted during the focus group discussion, that Umsinga farmers treat cattle as livestock that do not need much attention and adequate management routine. Umsinga farmers believed that cattle have the ability to serve as draught animals and it is also a major factor in the opening up of arable areas, especially in places with heavy soils [41].

Large families during festive period do slaughter cattle for meat purposes as indicated from the focus group discussion and for cultural ceremonies. Apart from cattle being a source of income, the skin is culturally used for mat, decoration and clothing among the IsiZulu tribe. Another attribute of cattle farming in Umsinga communities is that the number of cattle herd is a form of prestige within the community. This has drawn the interest of many owners into the farming system. Cattle are rarely milked.
