Meet the editors

Dr. Nawaz is a geomorphologist with expertise in geographic information systems (GIS), spatial decision support systems, environmental science, and geospatial science teaching and learning. Since 1993, Dr. Nawaz has worked in different universities, including Punjab University in Pakistan, Charles Darwin University, Australia, and the National University of Singapore. He has vast experience and knowledge in the design, development,

delivery, coordination, and teaching of courses in physical geography, GIS, environmental science, and geospatial science. Dr. Nawaz has more than 25 years of research over a broad range of issues relating to catchment management, sustainable development, sediment budget, and geospatial science teaching and learning.

Dr. Farha Sattar completed her Doctorate degree in Geospatial Science focusing on spatial mathematical modeling for 3D gully mapping and erosion quantification within a geoinformatics framework from the Charles Darwin University, Australia. Dr. Farha has more than 24 years' teaching experience in geographic information systems (GIS), spatial mathematics, and e-learning technologies at undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She has

worked in several universities, including the University of the Punjab and the University of Twente, the Netherlands. Dr. S has been working at Charles Darwin University, Australia, since 2008. Prior to joining the School of Education, she worked as a lecturer in GIS in the School of Environment, Charles Darwin University, a lecturer in GIS in the GIS Centre, University of the Punjab, and a project manager in GIS/LIS in the National Database and Registration Authority, Pakistan. Dr. Farha is a certified drone pilot and aeronautical radio operator. She is well equipped with geospatial quantitative techniques and methods and has the experience to supervise research projects at postgraduate level. She has contributed to the curriculum development of GIS, remote sensing, and geography courses. Her research interests include drone technology, ICT in geospatial science, spatial mathematics education, GIS, and remote sensing.

Dr Sandeep Narayan Kundu is a geoscientist with more than 20 years of experience in industry and academia alike. He is currently responsible for designing geologically sound routes for continental submarine energy and telecommunication cables and pipelines at Fugro Singapore Marine Private Limited, and teaches geosciences as an adjunct faculty at the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore.

He has worked in various roles in the geology, geophysics, and petrophysics domain for the energy exploration industry at multinational organizations like BHP Billiton and Reliance Industries. His academic associations were with Friedrich Schiller University, Jena (Germany), Institute of Geoinformatics, University of Muenster

(Germany), Indian Institute of Technology (ISM, India), and the Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur (India). He was awarded the prestigious British Council Fellowship and the Junior Research Fellowship in Earth Sciences and has delivered several keynote addresses at international forums. He is a member of SEAPEX and ICPC and has research interests in geospatial technology applications in geosciences and allied disciplines like environmental change, seafloor surveys, and geohazards.

Contents

and Evolution

*by Muhammad Nawaz*

*by Gencay Sariisik*

Technologies

*by Boris Tarasov*

A Review of Chinese Ice Caves *by Shao-Hua Yang and Yao-Lin Shi*

**Preface III**

**Chapter 1 1**

**Chapter 2 11**

**Chapter 3 31**

**Chapter 4 47**

**Chapter 5 59**

**Chapter 6 85**

Force and Specific Energy in Natural Rocks Cutting by Four-Axis Machine

Advanced Mapping of the Seafloor Using Sea Vehicle Mounted Sounding

Identification of Active Faults in Landslide-Prone Regions Using Ground-

*by Maman Hermana, Maya Genisa, Luluan A. Lubis and Chow Weng Sum*

Dramatic Weakening and Embrittlement of Intact Hard Rocks in the Earth's Crust at Seismic Depths as a Cause of Shallow Earthquakes

*by Tongwei Zhang, Baohua Liu and Xiaodong Liu*

Penetrating Radar: A Case Study from Bandung, Indonesia

Introductory Chapter: Earth Crust - Origin, Structure, Composition
