Sheep Digestive Physiology and Constituents of Feeds

*Samir Medjekal and Mouloud Ghadbane*

## **Abstract**

Sheep have a gastrointestinal tract similar to that of other ruminants. Their stomach is made up of four digestive organs: the rumen, the reticulum, the omasum and the abomasum. The rumen plays a role in storing ingested foods, which are fermented by a complex anaerobic rumen microbiota population with different types of interactions, positive or negative, that can occur between their microbial populations. Sheep feeding is largely based on the use of natural or cultivated fodder, which is exploited in green by grazing during the growth period of the grass and in the form of fodder preserved during the winter period. Ruminant foods are essentially of plant origin, and their constituents belong to two types of structures: intracellular constituents and cell wall components. Cellular carbohydrates play a role of metabolites or energy reserves; soluble carbohydrates account for less than 10% dry matter (DM) of foods. The plant cell wall is multi-layered and consists of primary wall and secondary wall. Fundamentally, the walls are deposited at an early stage of growth. A central blade forms the common boundary layer between two adjacent cells and occupies the location of the cell plate. Most of the plant cell walls consist of polysaccharides (cellulose, hemicellulose and pectic substances) and lignin, these constituents being highly polymerized, as well as proteins and tannins.

**Keywords:** cell wall, rumen microbiota, sheep feeding, tannins

## **1. Introduction**

Food is, in general, one of the main factors affecting animal production. Its effects can be noted on both the quantity and quality of animal products. Although this idea is easily accepted by technicians and breeders, especially aware of the negative effects of poor, inadequate or unbalanced nutrition. Ruminant farming depends mainly on the availability and the quality of the fodder. In developing countries, the low forage potential, linked to the limitation of water and arable area, has great difficulties in producing sufficient high-quality animal protein for the human population and involves a massive use of imports of animal products such as dairy and meat products [1].

Herbivores, and especially ruminants, occupy a prominent place in the world, among domestic animals bred for production. Their contribution to satisfying humanity's food needs through the milk and meat they are made to produce is of paramount importance. Ruminant animals have the advantage over monogastric animals of being able to extract and use the energy contained in a plant biomass which cannot be used directly by man because of its high lignocellulose content. As such, ruminant animals cannot be regarded as a direct competitor of man to his food biomass [2].

Ruminants counting the sheep are mammals that are able to procure nutrients from plant-based food by fermenting it in a specialized stomach earlier to digestion, principally through microbial actions. The process, which takes place in the front part of the digestive system and therefore is called foregut fermentation, typically requires the fermented ingesta (known as cud) to be regurgitated and chewed again. The process of rechewing the cud to further break down plant matter and stimulate digestion is called rumination. The digestive system of the ruminant may be considered sterile at birth. Colonization of the digestive tract, particularly of the rumen, will occur gradually with the successive installation of different populations of microorganisms in a well-defined order [3]. As the ecosystem develops, it becomes more complex until it reaches a state of dynamic equilibrium. This is a state for which the ecosystem is able to self-regulate to maintain its functions by constantly adjusting microbial populations, an ecosystem which cannot be stable [4].

A single food is usually insufficient to cover the nutritional needs of the animal; hence, there is a need to combine several foods within a ration. The lambs are fed with green fodder or preserved fodder: hay, straw and corn silage. Their complementary food is, in most cases, cereals, with dehydrated soybean seed called soybean meal, a food that is very rich in protein. All foods consist of water, minerals, carbohydrates, fat and nitrogen. Livestock rations contain approximately 70–80% carbohydrates [5], mainly in the form of starch, cellulose and hemicellulose. As a result, carbohydrates provide on average nearly three-quarters of the food energy of farm animals. Two broad categories of carbohydrates are distinguished according to their location in the plant cell: cytoplasmic (or intracellular) and parietal.

## **2. Anatomy of the digestive tract of the sheep**

Sheep have a digestive tract similar to that of other ruminants; its length of 22–43 m is comparable to that of the goats [6]. The stomach of sheep consists of four digestive organs: the rumen, the reticulum, the omasum and the abomasum (**Figure 1**). The rumen is the first digestive organ. It occupies the left part of the abdomen and is the largest of the gastric reservoirs [7]. It contains 70–75% of the total contents of the digestive tract, representing 50–60% of its volume [8]. The wall of the rumen consists of a muscular tunic which constitutes the bulk of its mass. Its inner surface consists of a horny epithelium, bristled with papillae of varying shapes and dimensions that play an important role in the absorption of products resulting from the metabolism of rumen microorganisms: volatile fatty acids (VFA) and ammonia. Rumen is an excellent reservoir for fermentation; it has anaerobic conditions where most food components are degraded by an extremely abundant and diversified microflora [9]. The reticulum can be compared to junction where the particles that enter and leave the rumen are sorted. It is composed of a reticulated mucosa containing also absorbent papillae. Its main function is to ensure the circulation of particles: it is from the reticulum that the contractions start, which ensure the motor skills of all gastric containers. Food remains in the rumen until it is small enough (≤1 mm) to pass through the reticulo-omasal orifice [10]. This is why the rumen and the reticulum are considered as a single organ, called reticulo-rumen. The partially fermented food then passes into the omasum which is a smaller organ than the rumen and larger than the reticulum. The omasum is a spherical organ made up of many mucous lamellae, similar to the leaves of a book, hence its name. These strips, arranged parallel to the passage of food, ensure the filtration of food particles and absorb water and minerals from the digestive content, before their arrival in the abomasum [11]. The abomasum is the only secretory reservoir. It is lined with a glandular mucosa

**5**

*Sheep Digestive Physiology and Constituents of Feeds DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92054*

similar to that of the monogastric stomach. It consists of secreting cells that

The most favorable conditions for microbial fermentations are found in the rumen and reticulum. It presents itself as the richest and the most complex microbial ecosystem. Rumen is considered to be analogous to a reactor operating continuously with anaerobic microorganisms. It is characterized by the following physico-chemical conditions: the average temperature of the digests in the rumen is constant; it oscillates between 39 and 40°C, and it can reach 41°C during intense fermentations [12]. It is estimated that the average pH during a day ranges from approximately 6.25 to 6.8 [13]. But a rapid fermentation can lower the pH to less than 5, after consuming a rapidly fermentable carbohydrate-rich diet. The pH is generally regulated by saliva, which contains sodium bicarbonate and phosphate salts that buffer the acidity of the rumen at a near-neutral value. The amount of ammonia in the rumen must exceed a critical threshold for a significant portion of the day to ensure a high rate of microbial growth and digestion and hence a significant feed intake. The amount of ammonia needed to optimize the population of microorganisms in the rumen requires an advantageous protein/energy ratio in the absorbed nutrients and is variable according to the diet. In general, for feedbased diets, the ammonia content must be greater than 200 mg of nitrogen per litre [14]. During ruminal fermentation, the population of microorganisms (especially bacteria) ferments carbohydrates and produces energy, gases (CH4, CO2, H2), heat and organic acids. The authors reported concentrations of 74.7, 9.4, 6.5, 5.3, 3.4 and 1.3 (m.mol/l), respectively, for acetate, propionate, butyrate, isobutyrate, valerate and isovalerate [15]. The concentrations of VFA in the rumen change differently depending on the experiment. These different developments could be explained by the essential role of the mucosa in the absorption of VFAs and by the rate at which

produce mucus, hydrochloric acid (pH: 2–3) and pepsin.

**3.1 Physico-chemical conditions in the rumen**

**3. Digestive tract physiology**

*Diagram of part of the ruminant digestive tract [7].*

**Figure 1.**

*Sheep Farming - An Approach to Feed, Growth and Health*

Ruminants counting the sheep are mammals that are able to procure nutrients from plant-based food by fermenting it in a specialized stomach earlier to digestion, principally through microbial actions. The process, which takes place in the front part of the digestive system and therefore is called foregut fermentation, typically requires the fermented ingesta (known as cud) to be regurgitated and chewed again. The process of rechewing the cud to further break down plant matter and stimulate digestion is called rumination. The digestive system of the ruminant may be considered sterile at birth. Colonization of the digestive tract, particularly of the rumen, will occur gradually with the successive installation of different populations of microorganisms in a well-defined order [3]. As the ecosystem develops, it becomes more complex until it reaches a state of dynamic equilibrium. This is a state for which the ecosystem is able to self-regulate to maintain its functions by constantly

adjusting microbial populations, an ecosystem which cannot be stable [4].

their location in the plant cell: cytoplasmic (or intracellular) and parietal.

Sheep have a digestive tract similar to that of other ruminants; its length of 22–43 m is comparable to that of the goats [6]. The stomach of sheep consists of four digestive organs: the rumen, the reticulum, the omasum and the abomasum (**Figure 1**). The rumen is the first digestive organ. It occupies the left part of the abdomen and is the largest of the gastric reservoirs [7]. It contains 70–75% of the total contents of the digestive tract, representing 50–60% of its volume [8]. The wall of the rumen consists of a muscular tunic which constitutes the bulk of its mass. Its inner surface consists of a horny epithelium, bristled with papillae of varying shapes and dimensions that play an important role in the absorption of products resulting from the metabolism of rumen microorganisms: volatile fatty acids (VFA) and ammonia. Rumen is an excellent reservoir for fermentation; it has anaerobic conditions where most food components are degraded by an extremely abundant and diversified microflora [9]. The reticulum can be compared to junction where the particles that enter and leave the rumen are sorted. It is composed of a reticulated mucosa containing also absorbent papillae. Its main function is to ensure the circulation of particles: it is from the reticulum that the contractions start, which ensure the motor skills of all gastric containers. Food remains in the rumen until it is small enough (≤1 mm) to pass through the reticulo-omasal orifice [10]. This is why the rumen and the reticulum are considered as a single organ, called reticulo-rumen. The partially fermented food then passes into the omasum which is a smaller organ than the rumen and larger than the reticulum. The omasum is a spherical organ made up of many mucous lamellae, similar to the leaves of a book, hence its name. These strips, arranged parallel to the passage of food, ensure the filtration of food particles and absorb water and minerals from the digestive content, before their arrival in the abomasum [11]. The abomasum is the only secretory reservoir. It is lined with a glandular mucosa

**2. Anatomy of the digestive tract of the sheep**

A single food is usually insufficient to cover the nutritional needs of the animal; hence, there is a need to combine several foods within a ration. The lambs are fed with green fodder or preserved fodder: hay, straw and corn silage. Their complementary food is, in most cases, cereals, with dehydrated soybean seed called soybean meal, a food that is very rich in protein. All foods consist of water, minerals, carbohydrates, fat and nitrogen. Livestock rations contain approximately 70–80% carbohydrates [5], mainly in the form of starch, cellulose and hemicellulose. As a result, carbohydrates provide on average nearly three-quarters of the food energy of farm animals. Two broad categories of carbohydrates are distinguished according to

**4**

**Figure 1.** *Diagram of part of the ruminant digestive tract [7].*

similar to that of the monogastric stomach. It consists of secreting cells that produce mucus, hydrochloric acid (pH: 2–3) and pepsin.

## **3. Digestive tract physiology**

## **3.1 Physico-chemical conditions in the rumen**

The most favorable conditions for microbial fermentations are found in the rumen and reticulum. It presents itself as the richest and the most complex microbial ecosystem. Rumen is considered to be analogous to a reactor operating continuously with anaerobic microorganisms. It is characterized by the following physico-chemical conditions: the average temperature of the digests in the rumen is constant; it oscillates between 39 and 40°C, and it can reach 41°C during intense fermentations [12]. It is estimated that the average pH during a day ranges from approximately 6.25 to 6.8 [13]. But a rapid fermentation can lower the pH to less than 5, after consuming a rapidly fermentable carbohydrate-rich diet. The pH is generally regulated by saliva, which contains sodium bicarbonate and phosphate salts that buffer the acidity of the rumen at a near-neutral value. The amount of ammonia in the rumen must exceed a critical threshold for a significant portion of the day to ensure a high rate of microbial growth and digestion and hence a significant feed intake. The amount of ammonia needed to optimize the population of microorganisms in the rumen requires an advantageous protein/energy ratio in the absorbed nutrients and is variable according to the diet. In general, for feedbased diets, the ammonia content must be greater than 200 mg of nitrogen per litre [14]. During ruminal fermentation, the population of microorganisms (especially bacteria) ferments carbohydrates and produces energy, gases (CH4, CO2, H2), heat and organic acids. The authors reported concentrations of 74.7, 9.4, 6.5, 5.3, 3.4 and 1.3 (m.mol/l), respectively, for acetate, propionate, butyrate, isobutyrate, valerate and isovalerate [15]. The concentrations of VFA in the rumen change differently depending on the experiment. These different developments could be explained by the essential role of the mucosa in the absorption of VFAs and by the rate at which

the rumen is emptied. The degradation in the rumen of the various substrates and in particular of soluble sugars by the ruminal microflora is accompanied by a strong gas production. The average composition of the gas pool is 60–65% CO2, 25–30% CH4, 6–9% N2, 0.3–0.6% O2, 0.1–0.3% H2 and 0.001% H2S [16]. Gases thus produced in the rumen are largely eliminated by eructation, ensured by the contractions of the rumen, the frequency of which increases with the pressure exerted on the wall.

## **3.2 The ruminal microbiome**

Rumen is a strictly anaerobic ecosystem, where most of the components of lignocellulosic foods are degraded and fermented by an extremely abundant and diverse microflora and microfauna. This microbial population represents more than 350 species of bacteria, fungi and protozoa. The rumen contains a high density of bacteria (1011/ml); this bacterial flora is the most effective for digesting cellulose. Almost all ruminal cellulolysis is based on the activity of cellulolytic bacteria [17]. The main bacterial cellulolytic species of the rumen are *Fibrobacter succinogenes*, *Ruminococcus flavefaciens* and *Ruminococcus albus* [18]. Cellulolytic bacteria appear in the rumen 3 to 4 days after the birth of the animal, while this organ is not yet functional. Their implantation is therefore not conditioned by the consumption of solid foods. Hemicellulolytic flora in the rumen is more widely distributed among bacterial flora than cellulolytic one [19]. A distinction must be made between three categories of hemicellulolytic bacteria: the first is composed of species with depolymerase activity and glycosidic activity, able to hydrolyse the main chain and cut the lateral chains of hemicelluloses, while using oligosaccharides and released monosaccharides. In the second category, species such as *Fibrobacter succinogenes*, for example, have depolymerase activity but are unable to use hemicellulose hydrolysis products. The third category has different glycosidic activities and can use hydrolysis products but has no depolymerase activity. Rumen contains 106 /m of ciliated protozoa [20]. These are microscopic unicellular eukaryotic organisms, usually asexual. However, examples of conjugation with exchange of nuclear material between protozoan cells have been reported [21]. The contribution of the ciliated protozoa to the digestion of cellulose in the rumen is uncertain, due to the impossibility of obtaining them in axenic cultures. But ciliates also contribute to digestion in the rumen by degrading cellulose and vegetable starch [20]. Other ciliated species are also known as cellulolytic, but they have no indication of the extent of their activity. Highly cellulolytic ciliated protozoa include *Eudiplodinium maggii*, *Epidinium ecaudatum*, *Ostracodinium bovis*, *Orphryscolex caudatus* and *Polyplastron multivisiculatum*. *Diplodinium pentacanthum* is considered to be weakly cellulolytic. Defaunated sheep shows that the presence of protozoa in the rumen usually leads to better degradation of hemicelluloses and cellulose, when animals receive a feed-based diet, whereas with soluble carbohydrate-rich diets, the presence of these microorganisms is considered rather harmful to the animal [22]. Physiological studies show that the availability of microbial proteins for digestion is higher in defoliated ruminants than in protozoan-bearing ruminants [22]. Some species of fungus have been isolated from the rumen, but their function in the digestive ecosystem is little known and has been the subject of only rare studies. In adult ruminants, they are much more numerous in animals receiving a feed ration. In pure culture, fungi are able to solubilize a large part of plant walls, fodder, wheat straw and even more lignified fabrics such as wood [23]. With the exception of some strains of *Caecomyces communis*, all anaerobic fungi in the rumen are cellulolytic, and their cellulases are among the most active ones described so far. In addition, fungi appear to be able to solubilize in vitro a small part of the lignin of lignocellulose parietals but do not use this compound as a source of energy [24].

**7**

**Figure 2.**

*Sheep Digestive Physiology and Constituents of Feeds DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92054*

**3.3 Digestion and metabolism in the rumen**

Bacteriophages are parasitic agents of bacteria. They are widespread in the rumen where they can eventually cause lysis of host bacteria. But their role in the food cycle and their presence in the rumen are not well known. However, the size of this population of microorganisms suggests that they are responsible for large bacterial

All rumen microbes are involved in the degradation of plant cell walls. These are degraded by the combined action of bacteria, fungi and protozoa. It is estimated that bacteria and fungi contribute approximately 80% of degradation activity and protozoa 20% [26]. Fibrolytic bacteria such as *Fibrobacter succinogenes*, *Ruminococcus flavefaciens* and *Ruminococcus albus* are generally considered to be the primary microorganisms responsible for the degradation of plant cell walls in the rumen. Digestion in the rumen requires microorganisms to break through resistant wall barriers and must first adhere to food particles. Plant fragments that enter the rumen at meals are quickly colonized by bacteria, fungi and protozoa. Their adhesion capacity increases their time of presence in the rumen and makes their action more effective by concentrating hydrolytic enzymes on the target tissues [27]. Attachment of rumen microorganisms to substrates is a prerequisite for digestion of food particles. Colonization and mode of attack are specific for each microbial species. Bacteria often colonize digestible tissues through stomata, lenticels or

*Summary of digestion and metabolism of nutrient compounds (1). CHO, carbohydrates; NPN, non-protein nitrogen; LCFA, long-chain fatty acids; Ac, acetate; Bu, butyrate; Pr, propionate; UDP, uridine diphosphate.*

lyses which can be a factor reducing the efficiency of food use [25].

*Sheep Farming - An Approach to Feed, Growth and Health*

**3.2 The ruminal microbiome**

the rumen is emptied. The degradation in the rumen of the various substrates and in particular of soluble sugars by the ruminal microflora is accompanied by a strong gas production. The average composition of the gas pool is 60–65% CO2, 25–30% CH4, 6–9% N2, 0.3–0.6% O2, 0.1–0.3% H2 and 0.001% H2S [16]. Gases thus produced in the rumen are largely eliminated by eructation, ensured by the contractions of the rumen, the frequency of which increases with the pressure exerted on the wall.

Rumen is a strictly anaerobic ecosystem, where most of the components of lignocellulosic foods are degraded and fermented by an extremely abundant and diverse microflora and microfauna. This microbial population represents more than 350 species of bacteria, fungi and protozoa. The rumen contains a high density of bacteria (1011/ml); this bacterial flora is the most effective for digesting cellulose. Almost all ruminal cellulolysis is based on the activity of cellulolytic bacteria [17]. The main bacterial cellulolytic species of the rumen are *Fibrobacter succinogenes*, *Ruminococcus flavefaciens* and *Ruminococcus albus* [18]. Cellulolytic bacteria appear in the rumen 3 to 4 days after the birth of the animal, while this organ is not yet functional. Their implantation is therefore not conditioned by the consumption of solid foods. Hemicellulolytic flora in the rumen is more widely distributed among bacterial flora than cellulolytic one [19]. A distinction must be made between three categories of hemicellulolytic bacteria: the first is composed of species with depolymerase activity and glycosidic activity, able to hydrolyse the main chain and cut the lateral chains of hemicelluloses, while using oligosaccharides and released monosaccharides. In the second category, species such as *Fibrobacter succinogenes*, for example, have depolymerase activity but are unable to use hemicellulose hydrolysis products. The third category has different glycosidic activities and can use hydrolysis products but has no depolymerase activity. Rumen contains 106

ciliated protozoa [20]. These are microscopic unicellular eukaryotic organisms, usually asexual. However, examples of conjugation with exchange of nuclear material between protozoan cells have been reported [21]. The contribution of the ciliated protozoa to the digestion of cellulose in the rumen is uncertain, due to the impossibility of obtaining them in axenic cultures. But ciliates also contribute to digestion in the rumen by degrading cellulose and vegetable starch [20]. Other ciliated species are also known as cellulolytic, but they have no indication of the extent of their activity. Highly cellulolytic ciliated protozoa include *Eudiplodinium maggii*, *Epidinium ecaudatum*, *Ostracodinium bovis*, *Orphryscolex caudatus* and *Polyplastron multivisiculatum*. *Diplodinium pentacanthum* is considered to be weakly cellulolytic. Defaunated sheep shows that the presence of protozoa in the rumen usually leads to better degradation of hemicelluloses and cellulose, when animals receive a feed-based diet, whereas with soluble carbohydrate-rich diets, the presence of these microorganisms is considered rather harmful to the animal [22]. Physiological studies show that the availability of microbial proteins for digestion is higher in defoliated ruminants than in protozoan-bearing ruminants [22]. Some species of fungus have been isolated from the rumen, but their function in the digestive ecosystem is little known and has been the subject of only rare studies. In adult ruminants, they are much more numerous in animals receiving a feed ration. In pure culture, fungi are able to solubilize a large part of plant walls, fodder, wheat straw and even more lignified fabrics such as wood [23]. With the exception of some strains of *Caecomyces communis*, all anaerobic fungi in the rumen are cellulolytic, and their cellulases are among the most active ones described so far. In addition, fungi appear to be able to solubilize in vitro a small part of the lignin of lignocellulose parietals but do not use this compound as a source of energy [24].

/m of

**6**

Bacteriophages are parasitic agents of bacteria. They are widespread in the rumen where they can eventually cause lysis of host bacteria. But their role in the food cycle and their presence in the rumen are not well known. However, the size of this population of microorganisms suggests that they are responsible for large bacterial lyses which can be a factor reducing the efficiency of food use [25].

## **3.3 Digestion and metabolism in the rumen**

All rumen microbes are involved in the degradation of plant cell walls. These are degraded by the combined action of bacteria, fungi and protozoa. It is estimated that bacteria and fungi contribute approximately 80% of degradation activity and protozoa 20% [26]. Fibrolytic bacteria such as *Fibrobacter succinogenes*, *Ruminococcus flavefaciens* and *Ruminococcus albus* are generally considered to be the primary microorganisms responsible for the degradation of plant cell walls in the rumen. Digestion in the rumen requires microorganisms to break through resistant wall barriers and must first adhere to food particles. Plant fragments that enter the rumen at meals are quickly colonized by bacteria, fungi and protozoa. Their adhesion capacity increases their time of presence in the rumen and makes their action more effective by concentrating hydrolytic enzymes on the target tissues [27]. Attachment of rumen microorganisms to substrates is a prerequisite for digestion of food particles. Colonization and mode of attack are specific for each microbial species. Bacteria often colonize digestible tissues through stomata, lenticels or

#### **Figure 2.**

*Summary of digestion and metabolism of nutrient compounds (1). CHO, carbohydrates; NPN, non-protein nitrogen; LCFA, long-chain fatty acids; Ac, acetate; Bu, butyrate; Pr, propionate; UDP, uridine diphosphate.*

damaged surfaces, and digestion takes place mainly from the inside to the outside of the colonized tissues. Rumen fungi also degrade the vulnerable surfaces of the plant and have, in addition, the ability to penetrate the cuticle of plants [28]. The association of protozoa with food particles is essential for their maintenance in the rumen, since their duration of division (25–35 hours) is on average higher than that of the small particles and the liquid phase in the rumen. This behaviour would explain the active role of ciliates in food degradation [29]. The integration of ruminal and tissue metabolism in feed degradation by ruminants is illustrated in **Figure 2**.

## **4. Sheep feed**

The feeding of sheep is largely based on the use of natural or cultivated fodder, which is cultivated in green by grazing during the growing season of the grass, and in the form of fodder preserved during the winter period. Sheep feeding stuffs are mainly of plant origin, and their constituents belong to two types of structure: intracellular components and cell wall constituents.

#### **4.1 Intracellular components**

Cellular carbohydrates act as metabolites or energy reserves; soluble carbohydrates account for less than 10% of dry matter (DM) in foods, with the exception of some young grasses, beets (about 2/3 DM) and molasses (about 45% DM). Starches are present in the form of granules of varying size, mainly in seeds and their by-products as well as in tubers. Nitrogenous materials account for 5–60% of the DM of food and are mainly proteins but also polypeptides of reduced size, free amino acids and amides. Fats represent only 2–5% (apart from oilseeds and certain by-products, brewing grains, tomatoes, etc.), of which about half is in the form of fatty acids. These fatty acids are generally much unsaturated, with in particular high proportions of linoleic and linolenic acids [30].

## **4.2 Cell walls**

Cell walls account for 15–90% of DM in food (15–45% for concentrated food, 30–80% for fodder and 60–90% for straw and certain seed husks) [31]. The plant cell wall consists of primary wall and secondary wall. Basically, the walls are deposited at an early stage of growth. A central blade forms the common boundary layer between two adjacent cells and occupies the location of the cell plate. The contiguous cells are linked together by deposition of lignin in the central blade. Most of the plant cell walls consist of polysaccharides (cellulose, hemicelluloses and pectic substances) and lignin, these constituents being strongly polymerized, as well as proteins and tannins. Typically, the polysaccharides of the plant cell wall are grouped into three fractions: (a) cellulose, the compound most resistant to chemical rupture; (b) hemicelluloses, extracted by relatively strong alkaline solution or by mild acid hydrolysis; and (c) pectic polysaccharides, extracted by hot water [32].

### *4.2.1 Cellulose*

Cellulose is the most abundant polysaccharide in nature, accounting for 20–40% of the DM of all higher plants. It consists of glucose units bound in β-(1–4) based on the replication of cellobiose units arranged in parallel (**Figure 3**). The microfibrils of celluloses are linked to each other and to hemicellulose polymers by hydrogen bonds, but there is no evidence of covalent bonds between cellulose and other plant wall components [33].

**9**

**Figure 4.**

*Structure of hemicellulose (1).*

**Figure 3.**

*Structure of cellulose (1).*

*Sheep Digestive Physiology and Constituents of Feeds DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92054*

The term hemicelluloses is applied to polysaccharides of the plant cell wall which are in close association with cellulose, especially in lignified tissues. The structure of hemicelluloses is more complex since it contains both pentoses (arabinose, xylose), hexoses (glucose, mannose, galactose) and uronic acids (127) (**Figure 4**). The digestibility of hemicelluloses is strongly related to that of cellulose and

negatively correlated with lignification, since hemicelluloses are strongly associated

The pectic polysaccharides represent approximately 35% of the plant cell wall; they are located in particular in the central blade. In dicotyledons they are formed mainly of galactosyluronic acid, while monocotyledons appear to contain a minor portion of these polysaccharides. Other major polysaccharides are also among the components of pectins such as rhamnose, arabinose and galactose [32] (**Figure 5**).

Lignin, another compound of the plant cell wall, is generally a limiting factor in the degradation of plant walls in the rumen. It is formed by the polymerization of three aromatic monomers. Lignin is not hydrolysed by bacterial enzymes. But it can be degraded by oxidation by nitrobenzene or by acidolysis in dioxane with hydrochloric acid or permanganate. It permeates the cellulosic net, prevents the adhesion of microbes to membranes and is a real physical barrier for the enzymes involved in the degradation of carbohydrate polymers [35]. The bonds between lignin compounds and hemicelluloses and arabinose units also inhibit the degradation of some of the cellulose and hemicelluloses. Lignin composition, structure and content

*4.2.2 Hemicelluloses*

with lignin [34].

*4.2.4 Lignin*

*4.2.3 The pectic components*

## *4.2.2 Hemicelluloses*

*Sheep Farming - An Approach to Feed, Growth and Health*

intracellular components and cell wall constituents.

proportions of linoleic and linolenic acids [30].

**4.1 Intracellular components**

**4. Sheep feed**

**4.2 Cell walls**

*4.2.1 Cellulose*

wall components [33].

damaged surfaces, and digestion takes place mainly from the inside to the outside of the colonized tissues. Rumen fungi also degrade the vulnerable surfaces of the plant and have, in addition, the ability to penetrate the cuticle of plants [28]. The association of protozoa with food particles is essential for their maintenance in the rumen, since their duration of division (25–35 hours) is on average higher than that of the small particles and the liquid phase in the rumen. This behaviour would explain the active role of ciliates in food degradation [29]. The integration of ruminal and tissue

The feeding of sheep is largely based on the use of natural or cultivated fodder, which is cultivated in green by grazing during the growing season of the grass, and in the form of fodder preserved during the winter period. Sheep feeding stuffs are mainly of plant origin, and their constituents belong to two types of structure:

Cellular carbohydrates act as metabolites or energy reserves; soluble carbohydrates account for less than 10% of dry matter (DM) in foods, with the exception of some young grasses, beets (about 2/3 DM) and molasses (about 45% DM). Starches are present in the form of granules of varying size, mainly in seeds and their by-products as well as in tubers. Nitrogenous materials account for 5–60% of the DM of food and are mainly proteins but also polypeptides of reduced size, free amino acids and amides. Fats represent only 2–5% (apart from oilseeds and certain by-products, brewing grains, tomatoes, etc.), of which about half is in the form of fatty acids. These fatty acids are generally much unsaturated, with in particular high

Cell walls account for 15–90% of DM in food (15–45% for concentrated food, 30–80% for fodder and 60–90% for straw and certain seed husks) [31]. The plant cell wall consists of primary wall and secondary wall. Basically, the walls are deposited at an early stage of growth. A central blade forms the common boundary layer between two adjacent cells and occupies the location of the cell plate. The contiguous cells are linked together by deposition of lignin in the central blade. Most of the plant cell walls consist of polysaccharides (cellulose, hemicelluloses and pectic substances) and lignin, these constituents being strongly polymerized, as well as proteins and tannins. Typically, the polysaccharides of the plant cell wall are grouped into three fractions: (a) cellulose, the compound most resistant to chemical rupture; (b) hemicelluloses, extracted by relatively strong alkaline solution or by mild acid hydrolysis; and (c) pectic polysaccharides, extracted by hot water [32].

Cellulose is the most abundant polysaccharide in nature, accounting for 20–40% of the DM of all higher plants. It consists of glucose units bound in β-(1–4) based on the replication of cellobiose units arranged in parallel (**Figure 3**). The microfibrils of celluloses are linked to each other and to hemicellulose polymers by hydrogen bonds, but there is no evidence of covalent bonds between cellulose and other plant

metabolism in feed degradation by ruminants is illustrated in **Figure 2**.

**8**

The term hemicelluloses is applied to polysaccharides of the plant cell wall which are in close association with cellulose, especially in lignified tissues. The structure of hemicelluloses is more complex since it contains both pentoses (arabinose, xylose), hexoses (glucose, mannose, galactose) and uronic acids (127) (**Figure 4**). The digestibility of hemicelluloses is strongly related to that of cellulose and negatively correlated with lignification, since hemicelluloses are strongly associated with lignin [34].

## *4.2.3 The pectic components*

The pectic polysaccharides represent approximately 35% of the plant cell wall; they are located in particular in the central blade. In dicotyledons they are formed mainly of galactosyluronic acid, while monocotyledons appear to contain a minor portion of these polysaccharides. Other major polysaccharides are also among the components of pectins such as rhamnose, arabinose and galactose [32] (**Figure 5**).

## *4.2.4 Lignin*

Lignin, another compound of the plant cell wall, is generally a limiting factor in the degradation of plant walls in the rumen. It is formed by the polymerization of three aromatic monomers. Lignin is not hydrolysed by bacterial enzymes. But it can be degraded by oxidation by nitrobenzene or by acidolysis in dioxane with hydrochloric acid or permanganate. It permeates the cellulosic net, prevents the adhesion of microbes to membranes and is a real physical barrier for the enzymes involved in the degradation of carbohydrate polymers [35]. The bonds between lignin compounds and hemicelluloses and arabinose units also inhibit the degradation of some of the cellulose and hemicelluloses. Lignin composition, structure and content

**Figure 3.** *Structure of cellulose (1).*

**Figure 4.** *Structure of hemicellulose (1).*

vary with tissues, organs, botanical origin, plant growth stage and environmental factors. The maturity of fodder plants is a determining factor in their lignin content. But for the same stage of maturity, vegetables are richer in lignin than herbs [34].

## *4.2.5 Proteins*

Proteins are minor compounds of the plant cell wall. Three main classes of parietal proteins are distinguished: glycerin-rich proteins, proline-rich proteins and hydroxyproline-rich glycoproteins (exp: extensins). Peptide chains can be networked by ether bonds between two tyrosine molecules [36].

## *4.2.6 Tannins*

Tannins are concentrated in the vacuoles of the plant cell [37]. They are composed of high molecular weight polyphenols (MM 500–3000). Their presence in trees, wooded shrubs and food products gives a bitter taste that can affect the animal's appetite and voluntary intake. Tannins can be divided into condensed tannins and water-soluble tannins. Condensed tannins (proanthocyanidins) are distributed in the broadest vesicles of the plant, while water-soluble tannins are restricted to dicotyledonous angiosperms which usually contain glucose as the central nucleus. Tannins affect grazing behaviour and therefore depress forage uptake in sheep [38].

## **5. Conclusion**

Sheep have a gastrointestinal tract similar to that of other ruminants. The rumen plays a role in storing ingested foods, which are fermented by a complex anaerobic rumen microbiota population with different types of interactions. Sheep feeding is

**11**

**Author details**

Samir Medjekal\* and Mouloud Ghadbane

provided the original work is properly cited.

Mohamed Boudiaf of M'sila, Algeria

Faculty of Sciences, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

\*Address all correspondence to: samir.medjekal@univ-msila.dz

*Sheep Digestive Physiology and Constituents of Feeds DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92054*

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

**Conflict of interest**

largely based on the use of natural or cultivated fodder, which is exploited in green by grazing during the growth period of the grass and in the form of fodder preserved during the winter period. Cellular carbohydrates play a role of metabolites or energy reserves; soluble carbohydrates account for less than 10% dry matter of

foods, and the plant cell wall consists of primary wall and secondary wall.

*Sheep Digestive Physiology and Constituents of Feeds DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92054*

largely based on the use of natural or cultivated fodder, which is exploited in green by grazing during the growth period of the grass and in the form of fodder preserved during the winter period. Cellular carbohydrates play a role of metabolites or energy reserves; soluble carbohydrates account for less than 10% dry matter of foods, and the plant cell wall consists of primary wall and secondary wall.

## **Conflict of interest**

*Sheep Farming - An Approach to Feed, Growth and Health*

vary with tissues, organs, botanical origin, plant growth stage and environmental factors. The maturity of fodder plants is a determining factor in their lignin content. But for the same stage of maturity, vegetables are richer in lignin than herbs [34].

Proteins are minor compounds of the plant cell wall. Three main classes of parietal proteins are distinguished: glycerin-rich proteins, proline-rich proteins and hydroxyproline-rich glycoproteins (exp: extensins). Peptide chains can be

Tannins are concentrated in the vacuoles of the plant cell [37]. They are composed of high molecular weight polyphenols (MM 500–3000). Their presence in trees, wooded shrubs and food products gives a bitter taste that can affect the animal's appetite and voluntary intake. Tannins can be divided into condensed tannins and water-soluble tannins. Condensed tannins (proanthocyanidins) are distributed in the broadest vesicles of the plant, while water-soluble tannins are restricted to dicotyledonous angiosperms which usually contain glucose as the central nucleus. Tannins affect grazing behaviour and therefore depress forage uptake in sheep [38].

Sheep have a gastrointestinal tract similar to that of other ruminants. The rumen plays a role in storing ingested foods, which are fermented by a complex anaerobic rumen microbiota population with different types of interactions. Sheep feeding is

networked by ether bonds between two tyrosine molecules [36].

**10**

*4.2.5 Proteins*

**Figure 5.**

*Structure of pectin (1).*

*4.2.6 Tannins*

**5. Conclusion**

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

## **Author details**

Samir Medjekal\* and Mouloud Ghadbane Faculty of Sciences, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University Mohamed Boudiaf of M'sila, Algeria

\*Address all correspondence to: samir.medjekal@univ-msila.dz

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

## **References**

[1] Medjekal S. Effet de la saison de collecte sur la valeur nutritive, la production de méthane et de tannins condensés d'arbustes fourragers locaux. Essai de contrôle in vitro de la méthanogénèse ruminale d'ovins par l'utilisation de plantes médicinales [thesis]. Constantine: Mentouri Canstantine University; 2016

[2] Barone R. Appareil digestif, Appareil respiratoire. Splanchologie I. Tome 3. In: Barone R, editor. Anatomie Comparée des Mammifères Domestiques. 2nd ed. Paris: Vigot; 1984. pp. 333-379

[3] Krause DO, Smith WJ, Ryan FM, Mackie RI, McSweeney CS. Use of 16S-rRNA based techniques to investigate the ecological succession of microbial populations in the immature lamb rumen: Tracking of a specific strain of inoculated Ruminococcus and interactions with other microbial populations *In Vivo*. Microbial Ecology. 1999;**38**(4):365-376. DOI: 10.1007/s002489901006

[4] Lévêque C. Ecologie. De l'écosystème à la biosphère. Masson Sciences. Paris: Dunod; 2001. p. 502

[5] Hvelplund T. Volatile fatty acids and protein production in the rumen. In: Jouany JP, editor. Rumen Microbial Metabolism and Ruminant Digestion. 1st ed. Paris: INRA; 1991. pp. 165-178

[6] Devendra C. The digestive efficiency of goats. World Review of Animal Production. 1978;**14**:9-22

[7] Château NG, Larpent JP, Castellanos MI, Larpent JL. Les Probiotiques En Alimentation Animal Et Humaine. Paris, France: Tec. & Doc., Lavoisier; 1994. p. 192

[8] Soltner D. Alimentation des animauxdomestiques. Collection: Sciences et Techniques Agricoles. 20th ed. Paris; 1994

[9] Fonty G, Jouany JP, Forano E, Gouet P. L'écosystème microbien du réticulo-rumen. In: Jarrige R, Ruckebusch Y, Demarquilly C, Farce MH, Journet M, editors. Nutrition des Ruminants Domestiques -Ingestion et Digestion. Paris: INRA Éditions; 1995. pp. 299-347

[10] Gülter H. Physiologie des Animaux Domestiques. Paris: Vigot; 1975. p. 272

[11] Ushida K, Tanaka H, Kojima Y. A simple in situ method for estimating fungal population size in the rumen. Letters in Applied Microbiology. 1989;**9**:109-111. DOI: 10.1111/j.1472- 765X.1989.tb00302.x

[12] Hungate RE. The Rumen and Its Microbes. New York. London: Academic Press; 1966. p. 533

[13] Sauffrant WB. Effect of dietary fiber on ileal digestibility and endogenous nitrogen losses in bigs. Animal Feed Science and Technology. 2001;**90**:93-102. DOI: 10.1016/ S0377-8401(01)00199-7

[14] Satter LD, Slyter LL. Effect of ammonia concentration on rumen microbial protein production in vitro. The British Journal of Nutrition. 1974;**32**:194-208. DOI: 10.1079/ BJN19740073

[15] Lindella RN, Lewis H. Intake, digestion and rumen parameters of goats fed mature veld hay ground with deep litter poultry manure and supplemented with graded levels of polymanaged groundnut hay. Livestock Research for Rural Development. 1995;**6**(3):35-52

[16] Engelhardt WV, Lechner-Doll M, Heller R, Schwartz HJ, Ernest WC, Ernest WC. Utilisation of agricultural waste production in animal nutrition.

**13**

*Sheep Digestive Physiology and Constituents of Feeds DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92054*

> interactions with other rumen micro-organisms in relation to fiber digestion. In: Tsuda T, Sasaki Y, Kawashima R, editors. Physiological Aspects of Digestion and Metabolism in Ruminants. San Diego: Academic Press;

[25] Ritchie AE, Robinson IM, Alison MJ. Rumen bactériophage: Survey of morphological types. In: Favard P, editor. Microscopie électronique. Vol. 3. Paris: Société Francaise de Microscopie Electronique;

[26] Dijkstra J. Tamminga s: Simulation of the effects of diet on the contribution of rumen protozoa to degradation of fibre in the rumen. The British Journal of Nutrition. 1995;**74**:617-634. DOI:

[27] Fonty J, Forano E. Ecologie de la dégradation et de la fermentation des polyosides constitutifs des parois végétales dans le rumen. Cahiers Agricultures. 1999;**8**(1):21-35

[28] Gabriella AV, Eric SK. Microbial and animal limitations to fiber digestion and utilisation. The Journal of Nutrition. 1997;**127**:819S-823S. DOI: 10.1093/

[29] Williams AG, Coleman CS. The Rumen Protozoa. New York: Springer-

[30] Sauvant D. Compositions et analyses des aliments. In: Alimentation des bovins, ovins et caprins. Paris:

Paris: INRA; 1987. pp. 142-160

[31] Grenet E, Demarquilly C. Rappels sur la digestion des fourrages dans le rumen (parois) et ses conséquences. In: Demarquilly C, editor. Les Fourrages Secs: Récolte, Traitement, Utilisation.

[32] Dey PM, Brinson K. Plant cell walls. Advances in Carbohydrate Chemistry

1991. pp. 655-679

1970. pp. 333-334

10.1079/bjn19950166

jn/127.5.819S

Verlag; 1991. p. 423

INRA; 1988. pp. 305-314

Animal Resources Development.

[18] Stewart CS, Hj F, Bryant MP. The rumen bacteria. In: Hobson PN, Stewart CS, editors. The Rumen Microbial Ecosystem. London: Blackie Academic and Professional; 1997.

[19] Dehority BA. Microbial ecology of cell wall fermentation. In: Jung HG, Buxton DR, Hatfield RD, Ralph J, editors. Forage Cell Wall Structure and Digestibility. Madison: ASA-CSSA-

[20] Richard D, Anseline B, Baehr JC, Chaffard J, Mereaux J, Perilleux E, et al. Physiologie des Animaux. Physiologie Cellulaire et Fonctions de Nutrition.

SSSA; 1993. pp. 425-453

Paris: Nathan; 1997. p. 352

[21] Silanicove N, Giloba N,

10.10 21/jf950189b

Press; 1994. pp. 69-78

1989;**65**(1-2):119-122

of wood by rumen anaerobic fungi. FEMS Microbiology Letters.

[24] Fonty G, Joblin KN. Rumen anaerobic fungi: Their role and

Perevolotsky A, Nitsan Z. Effect of daily supplementation of plyethylene glycol on intake and digestion of tannins containing leaves (Quercus calliprions, Pistacia lenticus and Ceretonia siliqua) by goats. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 1996;**44**:199-274. DOI:

[22] Jouany JP, Ushida K. Plant cell wall degradation by rumen protozoa. In: Prins RA, Stewart CS, editors. Microorganisms in Ruminant Digestion. Nottingham: Nottingham University

[23] Joblin KN, Naylor GE. Fermentation

[17] Bernard JK. In vitro mixed ruminal micro-organisms fermentation of whole cotton seed, coated with gelatinized corn starch and urea. Journal of Dairy Science. 2001;**84**(1):154-158. DOI: 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(01)74464-5

1987;**25**:56-69

pp. 10-72

*Sheep Digestive Physiology and Constituents of Feeds DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92054*

Animal Resources Development. 1987;**25**:56-69

[17] Bernard JK. In vitro mixed ruminal micro-organisms fermentation of whole cotton seed, coated with gelatinized corn starch and urea. Journal of Dairy Science. 2001;**84**(1):154-158. DOI: 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(01)74464-5

[18] Stewart CS, Hj F, Bryant MP. The rumen bacteria. In: Hobson PN, Stewart CS, editors. The Rumen Microbial Ecosystem. London: Blackie Academic and Professional; 1997. pp. 10-72

[19] Dehority BA. Microbial ecology of cell wall fermentation. In: Jung HG, Buxton DR, Hatfield RD, Ralph J, editors. Forage Cell Wall Structure and Digestibility. Madison: ASA-CSSA-SSSA; 1993. pp. 425-453

[20] Richard D, Anseline B, Baehr JC, Chaffard J, Mereaux J, Perilleux E, et al. Physiologie des Animaux. Physiologie Cellulaire et Fonctions de Nutrition. Paris: Nathan; 1997. p. 352

[21] Silanicove N, Giloba N, Perevolotsky A, Nitsan Z. Effect of daily supplementation of plyethylene glycol on intake and digestion of tannins containing leaves (Quercus calliprions, Pistacia lenticus and Ceretonia siliqua) by goats. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 1996;**44**:199-274. DOI: 10.10 21/jf950189b

[22] Jouany JP, Ushida K. Plant cell wall degradation by rumen protozoa. In: Prins RA, Stewart CS, editors. Microorganisms in Ruminant Digestion. Nottingham: Nottingham University Press; 1994. pp. 69-78

[23] Joblin KN, Naylor GE. Fermentation of wood by rumen anaerobic fungi. FEMS Microbiology Letters. 1989;**65**(1-2):119-122

[24] Fonty G, Joblin KN. Rumen anaerobic fungi: Their role and

interactions with other rumen micro-organisms in relation to fiber digestion. In: Tsuda T, Sasaki Y, Kawashima R, editors. Physiological Aspects of Digestion and Metabolism in Ruminants. San Diego: Academic Press; 1991. pp. 655-679

[25] Ritchie AE, Robinson IM, Alison MJ. Rumen bactériophage: Survey of morphological types. In: Favard P, editor. Microscopie électronique. Vol. 3. Paris: Société Francaise de Microscopie Electronique; 1970. pp. 333-334

[26] Dijkstra J. Tamminga s: Simulation of the effects of diet on the contribution of rumen protozoa to degradation of fibre in the rumen. The British Journal of Nutrition. 1995;**74**:617-634. DOI: 10.1079/bjn19950166

[27] Fonty J, Forano E. Ecologie de la dégradation et de la fermentation des polyosides constitutifs des parois végétales dans le rumen. Cahiers Agricultures. 1999;**8**(1):21-35

[28] Gabriella AV, Eric SK. Microbial and animal limitations to fiber digestion and utilisation. The Journal of Nutrition. 1997;**127**:819S-823S. DOI: 10.1093/ jn/127.5.819S

[29] Williams AG, Coleman CS. The Rumen Protozoa. New York: Springer-Verlag; 1991. p. 423

[30] Sauvant D. Compositions et analyses des aliments. In: Alimentation des bovins, ovins et caprins. Paris: INRA; 1988. pp. 305-314

[31] Grenet E, Demarquilly C. Rappels sur la digestion des fourrages dans le rumen (parois) et ses conséquences. In: Demarquilly C, editor. Les Fourrages Secs: Récolte, Traitement, Utilisation. Paris: INRA; 1987. pp. 142-160

[32] Dey PM, Brinson K. Plant cell walls. Advances in Carbohydrate Chemistry

**12**

*Sheep Farming - An Approach to Feed, Growth and Health*

[9] Fonty G, Jouany JP, Forano E, Gouet P. L'écosystème microbien du réticulo-rumen. In: Jarrige R,

Journet M, editors. Nutrition des Ruminants Domestiques -Ingestion et Digestion. Paris: INRA Éditions; 1995.

pp. 299-347

765X.1989.tb00302.x

Press; 1966. p. 533

BJN19740073

1995;**6**(3):35-52

Ruckebusch Y, Demarquilly C, Farce MH,

[10] Gülter H. Physiologie des Animaux Domestiques. Paris: Vigot; 1975. p. 272

[11] Ushida K, Tanaka H, Kojima Y. A simple in situ method for estimating fungal population size in the rumen. Letters in Applied Microbiology. 1989;**9**:109-111. DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-

[12] Hungate RE. The Rumen and Its Microbes. New York. London: Academic

[13] Sauffrant WB. Effect of dietary fiber on ileal digestibility and endogenous nitrogen losses in bigs. Animal Feed Science and Technology.

2001;**90**:93-102. DOI: 10.1016/ S0377-8401(01)00199-7

[14] Satter LD, Slyter LL. Effect of ammonia concentration on rumen microbial protein production in vitro. The British Journal of Nutrition. 1974;**32**:194-208. DOI: 10.1079/

[15] Lindella RN, Lewis H. Intake, digestion and rumen parameters of goats fed mature veld hay ground with deep litter poultry manure and supplemented with graded levels of polymanaged groundnut hay. Livestock Research for Rural Development.

[16] Engelhardt WV, Lechner-Doll M, Heller R, Schwartz HJ, Ernest WC, Ernest WC. Utilisation of agricultural waste production in animal nutrition.

[1] Medjekal S. Effet de la saison de collecte sur la valeur nutritive, la production de méthane et de tannins condensés d'arbustes fourragers locaux. Essai de contrôle in vitro de la méthanogénèse ruminale d'ovins par l'utilisation de plantes médicinales [thesis]. Constantine: Mentouri Canstantine University; 2016

**References**

[2] Barone R. Appareil digestif, Appareil respiratoire. Splanchologie I. Tome 3. In: Barone R, editor. Anatomie Comparée des Mammifères Domestiques. 2nd ed.

Paris: Vigot; 1984. pp. 333-379

DOI: 10.1007/s002489901006

Dunod; 2001. p. 502

Production. 1978;**14**:9-22

Lavoisier; 1994. p. 192

ed. Paris; 1994

[7] Château NG, Larpent JP, Castellanos MI, Larpent JL. Les Probiotiques En Alimentation Animal Et Humaine. Paris, France: Tec. & Doc.,

[8] Soltner D. Alimentation des animauxdomestiques. Collection: Sciences et Techniques Agricoles. 20th

[4] Lévêque C. Ecologie. De l'écosystème à la biosphère. Masson Sciences. Paris:

[6] Devendra C. The digestive efficiency of goats. World Review of Animal

[5] Hvelplund T. Volatile fatty acids and protein production in the rumen. In: Jouany JP, editor. Rumen Microbial Metabolism and Ruminant Digestion. 1st ed. Paris: INRA; 1991. pp. 165-178

[3] Krause DO, Smith WJ, Ryan FM, Mackie RI, McSweeney CS. Use of 16S-rRNA based techniques to investigate the ecological succession of microbial populations in the immature lamb rumen: Tracking of a specific strain of inoculated Ruminococcus and interactions with other microbial populations *In Vivo*. Microbial Ecology. 1999;**38**(4):365-376.

**Chapter 2**

Portugal

*and Sérgio Santos*

**Abstract**

sustainability.

**1. Introduction**

**15**

Sheep Grazing Management in the

Mountain Region: Serra da Estrela,

Semi-natural Mediterranean pastures are an important resource in traditional systems of land use, namely in the Serra da Estrela region, located in the centre of mainland Portugal, where livestock activity is performed, mostly based in the dairy sheep farming. It is a region of rugged and mountainous relief, composed of shrub and herbaceous strata, usually associated with the sheep diet while they are grazing. These pastures take on some typologies, mainly in the mountain areas, including meadows, mesophille perennial *Nardus* grasslands and other perennial pastures of high ecological and scenic value. The floristic composition is predominantly composed of grasses (Poaceae), and legume (Fabaceae) species. The implementation of adequate cultivation techniques for the pasture management allows an increase in its productivity and nutritional value, resulting in increased stocking rate and reduced supplementation needs. In addition, these techniques promote the maintenance of biodiversity and landscape mosaic supporting the environment programmatic indications of the Common Agricultural Policy. Thus, the characteristics, potentialities and management practices of grasslands in the Serra da Estrela region are described, based on a literature review. This chapter aims to provide useful information, to the farmers who intend to make their pastures management more efficient while promoting environmental

**Keywords:** Serra da Estrela region, sheep farming, perennial pastures, grazing

In the central region of mainland Portugal, mainly in the valleys embedded in the Serra da Estrela massif [1], the traditional management of native dairy sheep (**Figure 1**) based on the use of natural and semi-natural grasslands, gives their products a strong identity and an appreciable quality, while contributing to regional

Serra da Estrela is a region of rugged and mountainous relief [2], composed of

development and the conservation of valuable mountain ecosystems.

shrub and herbaceous strata, with peculiar soil-climatic conditions [3]. It is

management, nutritional value, sustainability

*António Monteiro, José Costa, Fernando Esteves*

and Biochemistry. 1984;**42**:265-382. DOI: 10.1016/S0065-2318(08)60127-4

[33] Morrison IM. Carbohydrate chemistry and rumen digestion. The Nutrition Society. 1979;**38**:269-274

[34] Jouany JP. Defaunation of the rumen. In: Jouany JP, editor. Rumen Microbial Metabolism and Ruminant Digestion. Paris: INRA Éditions; 1991. pp. 239-261

[35] Grenet E, Bestle JM. Microbes and fiber degradation. In: Jouany JP, editor. Rumen Microbial Metabolism and Ruminants Digestion. Paris: INRA; 1991. pp. 107-129

[36] Cassab CI, Varner JE. Cell wall proteins. Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology. 1988;**39**:321-353

[37] Jung HJG, Fahey GCJR. Interactions among phenolic monomers and in vitro fermentation. Journal of Dairy Science. 1983, 1983;**66**:1255-1265. DOI: 10.3168/ jds.S0022-0302(83)81932-8

[38] Cope WA, Burns JC. Component of forage quality in sericea lespedeza in relation to strain, season, and cutting treatments. Agronomy Journal. 1974;**66**:389-394. DOI: 10.2134/agronj 1974.00021962006600030016x

## **Chapter 2**

*Sheep Farming - An Approach to Feed, Growth and Health*

and Biochemistry. 1984;**42**:265-382. DOI: 10.1016/S0065-2318(08)60127-4

[33] Morrison IM. Carbohydrate chemistry and rumen digestion. The Nutrition Society. 1979;**38**:269-274

[34] Jouany JP. Defaunation of the rumen. In: Jouany JP, editor. Rumen Microbial Metabolism and Ruminant Digestion. Paris: INRA Éditions; 1991.

[35] Grenet E, Bestle JM. Microbes and fiber degradation. In: Jouany JP, editor. Rumen Microbial Metabolism and Ruminants Digestion. Paris: INRA;

[36] Cassab CI, Varner JE. Cell wall proteins. Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology.

[37] Jung HJG, Fahey GCJR. Interactions among phenolic monomers and in vitro fermentation. Journal of Dairy Science. 1983, 1983;**66**:1255-1265. DOI: 10.3168/

[38] Cope WA, Burns JC. Component of forage quality in sericea lespedeza in relation to strain, season, and cutting treatments. Agronomy Journal. 1974;**66**:389-394. DOI: 10.2134/agronj 1974.00021962006600030016x

jds.S0022-0302(83)81932-8

pp. 239-261

1991. pp. 107-129

1988;**39**:321-353

**14**

## Sheep Grazing Management in the Mountain Region: Serra da Estrela, Portugal

*António Monteiro, José Costa, Fernando Esteves and Sérgio Santos*

## **Abstract**

Semi-natural Mediterranean pastures are an important resource in traditional systems of land use, namely in the Serra da Estrela region, located in the centre of mainland Portugal, where livestock activity is performed, mostly based in the dairy sheep farming. It is a region of rugged and mountainous relief, composed of shrub and herbaceous strata, usually associated with the sheep diet while they are grazing. These pastures take on some typologies, mainly in the mountain areas, including meadows, mesophille perennial *Nardus* grasslands and other perennial pastures of high ecological and scenic value. The floristic composition is predominantly composed of grasses (Poaceae), and legume (Fabaceae) species. The implementation of adequate cultivation techniques for the pasture management allows an increase in its productivity and nutritional value, resulting in increased stocking rate and reduced supplementation needs. In addition, these techniques promote the maintenance of biodiversity and landscape mosaic supporting the environment programmatic indications of the Common Agricultural Policy. Thus, the characteristics, potentialities and management practices of grasslands in the Serra da Estrela region are described, based on a literature review. This chapter aims to provide useful information, to the farmers who intend to make their pastures management more efficient while promoting environmental sustainability.

**Keywords:** Serra da Estrela region, sheep farming, perennial pastures, grazing management, nutritional value, sustainability

## **1. Introduction**

In the central region of mainland Portugal, mainly in the valleys embedded in the Serra da Estrela massif [1], the traditional management of native dairy sheep (**Figure 1**) based on the use of natural and semi-natural grasslands, gives their products a strong identity and an appreciable quality, while contributing to regional development and the conservation of valuable mountain ecosystems.

Serra da Estrela is a region of rugged and mountainous relief [2], composed of shrub and herbaceous strata, with peculiar soil-climatic conditions [3]. It is

**2. Geomorphologic and climatic characteristics of the Serra da Estrela**

*Sheep Grazing Management in the Mountain Region: Serra da Estrela, Portugal*

sometimes interrupted by larger tectonic basins [2].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92649*

*Geographic location of mountain region—Serra da Estrela, Portugal.*

<sup>1</sup> Soil acidity, which is frequent in mountainous regions, is one of the main limiting factors in the development of altitude pastures. The accentuated acidity is mainly due to the constant base washing of the soil profile as a result of the high levels of precipitation associated with the relief effect [11].

Serra da Estrela is the highest mountain massif in mainland Portugal (40° 20' N, 7° 35' W, 1993 m ASL) and is part of the Iberian Central Cordillera [1]. It is covered by a biogeographical unit known as the Estrelensean Sector (Carpetan-Leonese subprovince) [4] aligned in a NE–SW direction (**Figure 2**) [1]. Its relief is characterized by the widespread occurrence of uplifted planation surfaces, the majority of which are between 600 and 900 m in altitude, dissected by deep river valleys,

Acid1 and phosphorus-poor palaeozoic schists intruded by variscan granitoids

Despite widespread perceptions of more recent changes in climate behavior patterns, the warmest month is July and the coldest is January. The average annual

During the summer, there are usually periods of a few consecutive days with high temperatures. Climate data show that it has been a trend towards an increasing frequency of days with very high temperatures, as well as the occurrence of several

Average precipitation values vary between 1000 mm in the territories of the Mondego valley, Seia and Gouveia and values above 2500 mm per year at the highest altitudes of the central plateau. Despite its irregular pattern, rainfall occurs mainly between November and March [14]. The western side of the mountain presents a larger number of days with rainfall, but a slightly lower total amount than the eastern part, which in turn shows a smaller number of days with rain [15]. There is a large snowfall irregularity and rarely lasts more than a few weeks per year, especially below 1700 m. Wind regimes are complex and show large spatial variations. The more frequent directions are west and

are the prevailing lithological types in Serra da Estrela mountain [2]. Phytogeographic elements suggest that the Serra da Estrela is in the transition between the Mediterranean and Atlantic influence [4]. Its very particular geographical position, in conjunction with the territory orography, influences the local climate char-

acteristics and allows the existence of several bioclimatic stages [3].

temperature is lower than 7°C mostly in the plateau areas [12].

**mountain**

heat waves in last years [13].

northwest [16].

**Figure 2.**

**17**

**Figure 1.** *Native breed of dairy sheep "*Bordaleira serra da Estrela*" grazing.*

characterized by hot and dry summers, generally cold and long winters and with some inter-annual and inter-monthly precipitation irregularity [4]. The soils are mostly of granite or schist origin, with low pH and low fertility, especially based on low organic matter levels [2].

The main types of herbaceous formations that occur in Serra da Estrela mountain grasslands include permanent semi-natural meadows ("lameiros"), mesophille perennial *Nardus* grasslands, available in areas of higher altitude and high oligotrophy and other perennial pastures of high ecological and scenic value [5].

Permanent semi-natural meadows play an important role in the feed regime of dairy sheep while they are grazing. *Lameiros* are usually characterized by their water availability [6] and for their grazing management regime as pasture, forage and hay meadows, where Poaceae and Fabaceae species of some nutritional value predominate, namely, *Dactylis glomerata*, *Lolium perenne*, *Festuca arundinacea*, *Holcus lanatus,Trifolium pratense* and *Trifolium repens*, tolerant to soil and climatic conditions [7].

The management of these meadows consists of grazing throughout the year, except in the spring to allow a cut for hay production, being the feeding basis of the native breeds [8]. It is precisely the alternation of cutting with grazing, as well as the practice of cleaning and meticulous distribution of irrigation water, that has contributed to its maintenance and sustainability [7]. However, the trend towards depopulation of mountain regions, coupled with a scenario of increasing limitation of water resources, may endanger the sustainability of semi-natural mountain grasslands.

Beyond its economic relevance for livestock grazing and hay production, it is of huge interest to emphasize the great importance of mountain meadows for the essential services they perform, such as soil improvement and conservation, increased infiltration, drainage and water availability, soil protection against erosion and carbon sequestration [9]. Besides that, meadows are recognized as a protected habitat particularly of rare plant and fauna species and contribute to the beauty of the landscape mosaic [10].

Thus, the attributes, potential and practices of pasture management in Serra da Estrela are described, based on a bibliographic review. This chapter aims to provide useful information, especially for farmers who want to make pasture management more efficient and promote environmental sustainability in this region.

## **2. Geomorphologic and climatic characteristics of the Serra da Estrela mountain**

Serra da Estrela is the highest mountain massif in mainland Portugal (40° 20' N, 7° 35' W, 1993 m ASL) and is part of the Iberian Central Cordillera [1]. It is covered by a biogeographical unit known as the Estrelensean Sector (Carpetan-Leonese subprovince) [4] aligned in a NE–SW direction (**Figure 2**) [1]. Its relief is characterized by the widespread occurrence of uplifted planation surfaces, the majority of which are between 600 and 900 m in altitude, dissected by deep river valleys, sometimes interrupted by larger tectonic basins [2].

Acid1 and phosphorus-poor palaeozoic schists intruded by variscan granitoids are the prevailing lithological types in Serra da Estrela mountain [2]. Phytogeographic elements suggest that the Serra da Estrela is in the transition between the Mediterranean and Atlantic influence [4]. Its very particular geographical position, in conjunction with the territory orography, influences the local climate characteristics and allows the existence of several bioclimatic stages [3].

Despite widespread perceptions of more recent changes in climate behavior patterns, the warmest month is July and the coldest is January. The average annual temperature is lower than 7°C mostly in the plateau areas [12].

During the summer, there are usually periods of a few consecutive days with high temperatures. Climate data show that it has been a trend towards an increasing frequency of days with very high temperatures, as well as the occurrence of several heat waves in last years [13].

Average precipitation values vary between 1000 mm in the territories of the Mondego valley, Seia and Gouveia and values above 2500 mm per year at the highest altitudes of the central plateau. Despite its irregular pattern, rainfall occurs mainly between November and March [14]. The western side of the mountain presents a larger number of days with rainfall, but a slightly lower total amount than the eastern part, which in turn shows a smaller number of days with rain [15]. There is a large snowfall irregularity and rarely lasts more than a few weeks per year, especially below 1700 m. Wind regimes are complex and show large spatial variations. The more frequent directions are west and northwest [16].

<sup>1</sup> Soil acidity, which is frequent in mountainous regions, is one of the main limiting factors in the development of altitude pastures. The accentuated acidity is mainly due to the constant base washing of the soil profile as a result of the high levels of precipitation associated with the relief effect [11].

characterized by hot and dry summers, generally cold and long winters and with some inter-annual and inter-monthly precipitation irregularity [4]. The soils are mostly of granite or schist origin, with low pH and low fertility, especially based on

The main types of herbaceous formations that occur in Serra da Estrela mountain grasslands include permanent semi-natural meadows ("lameiros"), mesophille

The management of these meadows consists of grazing throughout the year, except in the spring to allow a cut for hay production, being the feeding basis of the native breeds [8]. It is precisely the alternation of cutting with grazing, as well as the practice of cleaning and meticulous distribution of irrigation water, that has contributed to its maintenance and sustainability [7]. However, the trend towards depopulation of mountain regions, coupled with a scenario of increasing limitation of water resources, may endanger the sustainability of semi-natural mountain

Beyond its economic relevance for livestock grazing and hay production, it is of

Thus, the attributes, potential and practices of pasture management in Serra da Estrela are described, based on a bibliographic review. This chapter aims to provide useful information, especially for farmers who want to make pasture management

huge interest to emphasize the great importance of mountain meadows for the essential services they perform, such as soil improvement and conservation, increased infiltration, drainage and water availability, soil protection against erosion and carbon sequestration [9]. Besides that, meadows are recognized as a protected habitat particularly of rare plant and fauna species and contribute to the

more efficient and promote environmental sustainability in this region.

perennial *Nardus* grasslands, available in areas of higher altitude and high oligotrophy and other perennial pastures of high ecological and scenic value [5]. Permanent semi-natural meadows play an important role in the feed regime of dairy sheep while they are grazing. *Lameiros* are usually characterized by their water availability [6] and for their grazing management regime as pasture, forage and hay meadows, where Poaceae and Fabaceae species of some nutritional value predominate, namely, *Dactylis glomerata*, *Lolium perenne*, *Festuca arundinacea*, *Holcus lanatus,Trifolium pratense* and *Trifolium repens*, tolerant to soil and climatic

low organic matter levels [2].

*Native breed of dairy sheep "*Bordaleira serra da Estrela*" grazing.*

*Sheep Farming - An Approach to Feed, Growth and Health*

conditions [7].

**Figure 1.**

grasslands.

**16**

beauty of the landscape mosaic [10].

## **3. Grasslands in Serra da Estrela mountain region**

Mountain grasslands are semi-natural permanent meadows dominated by spontaneous or sub-spontaneous herbaceous plants, with the predominance of poaceae species [7, 17]. They are typified by extensive farming using traditional breeds of sheep [9] and represent a valuable resource in the livestock farming activity of the region [5]. Their management is very different due to the high species richness and heterogeneous locations [18]. Semi-natural grasslands require continued grazing and/or mowing for their maintenance [9, 19] and have a relatively low productivity compared with intensively managed grasslands [20]. Their productivity is low, but they offer a number of services valued by society [21].

spontaneous herbaceous vegetation whose composition varies in place and time as a function of soil and climatic conditions and the duration and grazing or mowing

They are usually found in places with good water availability and fine-textured soils with high levels of organic matter [6]. Mountain meadows are not a result of deliberate sowing of improved species and are not subjected to practices such as

"Lameiros" are usually characterized by their water availability, as **irrigated meadows** located along permanent watercourses, **imperfect irrigated meadows** when located along non-permanent or reduced low-flow watercourses and **non-irrigated meadows** (or *lameiros de secadal*), next to temporary watercourses

The grazing management regime in the meadows is generally characterized as:

• **Pasture meadows**, also known as "pastigueiros," whenever its production is used exclusively for grazing [7, 17]. They occupy non-irrigated plateau areas, therefore are less productive, but can sustain livestock during spring and early

• **Forage meadows**, usually irrigated at least for some part of the year, are more productive than "pastigueiros" and made up of a larger number of nutritious

excluding grazing in the spring [24] so that the grass grows and can be cut for hay in early summer to be reserved for consumption during the following

• **Hay meadows**, also known as "segadeiros" or cutting meadows, are the most productive pastures, irrigated all year round, fertilized and cut exclusively during the summer, and the grass is immediately consumed by the animals

In meadows with a large animal density, the replacement of *Juncus effusus* and

*J. acutiflorus* with *J. inflexus* is often observed, accompanied by several other nitrophilic species such as *Agrostis stolonifera*, *Potentilla reptans*, *Mentha suaveolens* and *Ranunculus repens*. In fact, these are low-yielding species, produce poor-quality hay and avoided by ruminants. The most productive and palatable species include *Holcus lanatus*, *Cynosurus cristatus*, *Festuca arundinacea subsp. arundinacea*, *Plantago*

*lanceolata*,*Trifolium pratense* and *T. repens* (**Table 1**). The drier parts of the meadows often show an impoverished community of *Arrhenatherum elatius subsp.*

Beyond its economic relevance for livestock grazing and hay production, meadows are recognized as a protected habitat particularly of rare plant and fauna species. "Lameiros" also contribute to the beauty of the landscape mosaic, thus with

Sheep grazing controls the development of various herbaceous species on the meadows, acting as an agent for the pasture maintenance [25, 26]. Grazing occurs in spring due to the higher precocity of its vegetative development in relation to the

*bulbosum* or communities of *Agrostis castellana* in even drier soils [23].

impacts on tourism, particularly relative to nature trails [10].

*3.1.1 Meadows management: cultural practices*

*3.1.1.1 Grazing and grass/hay management*

species. They are also used in a mixed regime (mowing and grazing),

intensity, chemical or organic fertilization or the irrigation system [23].

*Sheep Grazing Management in the Mountain Region: Serra da Estrela, Portugal*

without water for irrigation and usually located on the highest altitude

pesticide application or soil tillage [7].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92649*

plateaus [7, 17].

summer [24];

winter [7, 17].

[7, 17, 24].

**19**

In fact, mountain grasslands of Serra da Estrela (**Figure 3**) are an important aspect of landscape and management and of great ecological value [5, 18], being part of the most protected ecosystem in Europe. They are recognized as key habitats for maintaining biodiversity in agricultural landscapes [20] and also an extremely important carbon store [22].

Mountain pastures on private land are often subject to mixed use of mowing and trampling. Mowing is important for getting hay in late spring or early summer depending on its location [7, 17]. In territories above 1000 m altitude and generally in Common lands (*Baldios*), pastures are used only for grazing, in many cases just in the summer season, with lower intensities of use and, consequently, with invasion of shrub species [21].

Mountain meadows growth is strongly conditioned by environmental conditions, in particular by altitude, slope, exposure, soil and inter-annual climate variation, and also due to the management conditions, such as irrigation, fertilization and utilization management (grazing and mowing) [7].

The main types of herbaceous formations that occur in Serra da Estrela mountain grasslands include permanent semi-natural meadows ("lameiros"), mesophille perennial *Nardus* grasslands and other perennial pastures, which will be described below [5].

## **3.1 Mountain semi-natural meadows ("lameiros") and its floristic composition**

Mountain semi-natural meadows ("lameiros") are one of the most characteristic elements of the mountain landscapes of northern and central Portugal [10], namely in the Serra da Estrela, dominated by complexes of spontaneous and sub-

**Figure 3.** *Mountain grasslands in Louriga, Serra da Estrela.*

*Sheep Grazing Management in the Mountain Region: Serra da Estrela, Portugal DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92649*

spontaneous herbaceous vegetation whose composition varies in place and time as a function of soil and climatic conditions and the duration and grazing or mowing intensity, chemical or organic fertilization or the irrigation system [23].

They are usually found in places with good water availability and fine-textured soils with high levels of organic matter [6]. Mountain meadows are not a result of deliberate sowing of improved species and are not subjected to practices such as pesticide application or soil tillage [7].

"Lameiros" are usually characterized by their water availability, as **irrigated meadows** located along permanent watercourses, **imperfect irrigated meadows** when located along non-permanent or reduced low-flow watercourses and **non-irrigated meadows** (or *lameiros de secadal*), next to temporary watercourses without water for irrigation and usually located on the highest altitude plateaus [7, 17].

The grazing management regime in the meadows is generally characterized as:


In meadows with a large animal density, the replacement of *Juncus effusus* and *J. acutiflorus* with *J. inflexus* is often observed, accompanied by several other nitrophilic species such as *Agrostis stolonifera*, *Potentilla reptans*, *Mentha suaveolens* and *Ranunculus repens*. In fact, these are low-yielding species, produce poor-quality hay and avoided by ruminants. The most productive and palatable species include *Holcus lanatus*, *Cynosurus cristatus*, *Festuca arundinacea subsp. arundinacea*, *Plantago lanceolata*,*Trifolium pratense* and *T. repens* (**Table 1**). The drier parts of the meadows often show an impoverished community of *Arrhenatherum elatius subsp. bulbosum* or communities of *Agrostis castellana* in even drier soils [23].

Beyond its economic relevance for livestock grazing and hay production, meadows are recognized as a protected habitat particularly of rare plant and fauna species. "Lameiros" also contribute to the beauty of the landscape mosaic, thus with impacts on tourism, particularly relative to nature trails [10].

#### *3.1.1 Meadows management: cultural practices*

#### *3.1.1.1 Grazing and grass/hay management*

Sheep grazing controls the development of various herbaceous species on the meadows, acting as an agent for the pasture maintenance [25, 26]. Grazing occurs in spring due to the higher precocity of its vegetative development in relation to the

**3. Grasslands in Serra da Estrela mountain region**

*Sheep Farming - An Approach to Feed, Growth and Health*

they offer a number of services valued by society [21].

and utilization management (grazing and mowing) [7].

important carbon store [22].

of shrub species [21].

below [5].

**Figure 3.**

**18**

*Mountain grasslands in Louriga, Serra da Estrela.*

Mountain grasslands are semi-natural permanent meadows dominated by spontaneous or sub-spontaneous herbaceous plants, with the predominance of poaceae species [7, 17]. They are typified by extensive farming using traditional breeds of sheep [9] and represent a valuable resource in the livestock farming activity of the region [5]. Their management is very different due to the high species richness and heterogeneous locations [18]. Semi-natural grasslands require continued grazing and/or mowing for their maintenance [9, 19] and have a relatively low productivity compared with intensively managed grasslands [20]. Their productivity is low, but

In fact, mountain grasslands of Serra da Estrela (**Figure 3**) are an important aspect of landscape and management and of great ecological value [5, 18], being part of the most protected ecosystem in Europe. They are recognized as key habitats for maintaining biodiversity in agricultural landscapes [20] and also an extremely

Mountain pastures on private land are often subject to mixed use of mowing and

Mountain meadows growth is strongly conditioned by environmental conditions, in particular by altitude, slope, exposure, soil and inter-annual climate variation, and also due to the management conditions, such as irrigation, fertilization

The main types of herbaceous formations that occur in Serra da Estrela mountain grasslands include permanent semi-natural meadows ("lameiros"), mesophille perennial *Nardus* grasslands and other perennial pastures, which will be described

**3.1 Mountain semi-natural meadows ("lameiros") and its floristic composition**

elements of the mountain landscapes of northern and central Portugal [10], namely in the Serra da Estrela, dominated by complexes of spontaneous and sub-

Mountain semi-natural meadows ("lameiros") are one of the most characteristic

trampling. Mowing is important for getting hay in late spring or early summer depending on its location [7, 17]. In territories above 1000 m altitude and generally in Common lands (*Baldios*), pastures are used only for grazing, in many cases just in the summer season, with lower intensities of use and, consequently, with invasion


The meadows irrigation is made by surface run-off using a system in which the run-off water concentrated in water lines is diverted to small slope channels from

Water flowing over pasture is a traditional practice of winter irrigation made by

a continuous flowing of a thin layer of water ("lima") covering the entire soil surface, to prevent frost damage [29] and to allow the rapid resumption of vegetation development during the spring [30]. Especially at night, irrigation water is relatively hotter than soil, pasture and air temperature, so the effect of frost is

*Sheep Grazing Management in the Mountain Region: Serra da Estrela, Portugal*

If water availability is not enough to guarantee this kind of irrigation for a relatively long period of frost, it is preferable to not irrigate, so as to avoid freezing of water in the soil upper layers causing damages to the plants root system, a

Fertilizer application is a cultural technique with a positive effect on hay and pasture productivity [29, 30]. Studies by several authors show the positive effect of

Traditional fertilization relies essentially on grazing animal waste and run-off "waters" from where they occur. Animal droppings are the main source of nutrients in mountain pastures and can reach 100 kg of nitrogen, 90 kg of potassium and 9 kg

Nitrogen fertilizers are indicated as those that lead to greater production increases and contribute more to the evolution of pasture composition, with reper-

In meadows, the main problems with weeds are fetuses, brambles and other

The clearing of furrows, waterline banks is also a cultural operation with a positive effect on the meadows productivity, as it favors the conditions for water conduction and, consequently, the homogeneity of its distribution. This operation is normally carried out during the winter period by farmers and shepherds [34].

The practice of rotational and rationed grazing by conditioning the number of grazing animals, per unit area and grazing time, avoids the under-utilization of "lameiros" in summer, resorting to the use of fences or regular displacement of

The yields can vary from 4 to 6 tons of dry matter (DM) per hectare (ha) per year, up to 12 tons DM/ha/year, which corresponds, respectively, to less than 1

These differences in pasture production are related to the availability of water,

the type of vegetation, the irrigation management and also the geographical

These weeds' incidence is generally associated with poor management of grass use. Its control is generally made by means of a cleaning cut which, at the same time, enhances the growth of more palatable species, correcting or nullifying the effects of a less efficient use [7]. Controlled fire use is used as a cleaning technique

where it flows over the permanent pastures [24, 27, 28].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92649*

phenomenon that is locally referred to as "descalçamento" [24].

this cultural technique on the mountain meadows yield [30, 32, 33].

of phosphorus per hectare in 365 days of grazing [7].

weeds rejected by grazing animals (low-palatability plants).

livestock unit (LSU)/ha and more than 2 LSU/ha [7].

cussions on dry matter (DM) production [7].

attenuated [31].

*3.1.1.3 Fertilization*

*3.1.1.4 Weed control*

*3.1.1.5 Pasture yield*

**21**

animals between plots [7].

in the continuous weed patches.

#### **Table 1.**

*Floristic composition in meadows with different water and use regimes—Adapted from [7].*

common lands ("baldios"), thus ensuring an adequate transition between feeding of herds with hay in winter and with grazing the common lands in the summer.

When the grass is ready to be grazed in the common lands, access to the meadows is limited in order to allow the development of the vegetation to obtain hay [8]. Hay cutting time should coincide as closely as possible with the dominant grass spike in the meadows to obtain hay with good nutritional value [7].

When the common lands vegetation becomes scarce and very dry in the late summer and, at the same time, there occurs the regrowth of vegetation in the meadows after hay cutting, grazing is allowed again until mid or late autumn [8] depending on the environmental and growing conditions of the grass [21].

The absence of the flocks grazing results in loss of biodiversity, due to changes in vegetation development [25]. Similarly, hay cutting also acts as a maintenance agent favouring the development of the most desirable plants and the persistence of rare plant species. Haying has a very positive effect on yield, both on hay and pasture, which is less significant with late haying [17].

## *3.1.1.2 Water regime*

Irrigation is practised in meadows throughout the year whenever water is available although its functionality changes seasonally. During the summer (usually, July to September), it aims to meet the water needs of vegetation and, during the winter period, provides a favourable thermal balance at the grass's micro-climate level ("lima" watering) [24].

The meadows irrigation is made by surface run-off using a system in which the run-off water concentrated in water lines is diverted to small slope channels from where it flows over the permanent pastures [24, 27, 28].

Water flowing over pasture is a traditional practice of winter irrigation made by a continuous flowing of a thin layer of water ("lima") covering the entire soil surface, to prevent frost damage [29] and to allow the rapid resumption of vegetation development during the spring [30]. Especially at night, irrigation water is relatively hotter than soil, pasture and air temperature, so the effect of frost is attenuated [31].

If water availability is not enough to guarantee this kind of irrigation for a relatively long period of frost, it is preferable to not irrigate, so as to avoid freezing of water in the soil upper layers causing damages to the plants root system, a phenomenon that is locally referred to as "descalçamento" [24].

## *3.1.1.3 Fertilization*

Fertilizer application is a cultural technique with a positive effect on hay and pasture productivity [29, 30]. Studies by several authors show the positive effect of this cultural technique on the mountain meadows yield [30, 32, 33].

Traditional fertilization relies essentially on grazing animal waste and run-off "waters" from where they occur. Animal droppings are the main source of nutrients in mountain pastures and can reach 100 kg of nitrogen, 90 kg of potassium and 9 kg of phosphorus per hectare in 365 days of grazing [7].

Nitrogen fertilizers are indicated as those that lead to greater production increases and contribute more to the evolution of pasture composition, with repercussions on dry matter (DM) production [7].

## *3.1.1.4 Weed control*

common lands ("baldios"), thus ensuring an adequate transition between feeding of herds with hay in winter and with grazing the common lands in the summer. When the grass is ready to be grazed in the common lands, access to the meadows is limited in order to allow the development of the vegetation to obtain hay [8]. Hay cutting time should coincide as closely as possible with the dominant

When the common lands vegetation becomes scarce and very dry in the late summer and, at the same time, there occurs the regrowth of vegetation in the meadows after hay cutting, grazing is allowed again until mid or late autumn [8] depending on the environmental and growing conditions of the grass [21].

The absence of the flocks grazing results in loss of biodiversity, due to changes in vegetation development [25]. Similarly, hay cutting also acts as a maintenance agent favouring the development of the most desirable plants and the persistence of rare plant species. Haying has a very positive effect on yield, both on hay and pasture,

Irrigation is practised in meadows throughout the year whenever water is available although its functionality changes seasonally. During the summer (usually, July to September), it aims to meet the water needs of vegetation and, during the winter period, provides a favourable thermal balance at the grass's micro-climate level

grass spike in the meadows to obtain hay with good nutritional value [7].

which is less significant with late haying [17].

**Types of mountain semi-natural meadows**

**water**

**Imperfect irrigated meadows**

*Sheep Farming - An Approach to Feed, Growth and Health*

**Floristic composition close to irrigated or non-irrigated meadows, depending on the greater or lesser availability of**

*Poa trivialis Arrhenatherum*

**Notes Abundance**

*Floristic composition in meadows with different water and use regimes—Adapted from [7].*

**Non-irrigated meadows**

*Agrostis castellana*

*Agrostis x fouilladei*

*Trifolium dubium*

*Gaudinia fragilis*

*elatius* subsp*. bulbosum*

**Pasture meadows**

*Rumex obtusifolius*

*Rumex conglomeratus*

*Mentha suaveolens*

*Brachypodium rupestre*

**of species rejected by animals**

**Hay meadows**

*Trifolium repens*

*Rumex crispus Lolium perenne*

*Dactylis glomerata*

*Trifolium pratense*

*Holcus lanatus*

*Ranunculus repens*

*Plantago lanceolata*

*Glyceria declinata*

**Have the largest amounts of plants of great nutritional value**

**Irrigated meadows**

*Plantago lanceolata*

*Cynosurus cristatus*

*Hypochaeris radicata*

*Dactylis glomerata*

*Trifolium pratense*

*Trifolium repens*

**Table 1.**

**Species** *Holcus lanatus*

*3.1.1.2 Water regime*

("lima" watering) [24].

**20**

In meadows, the main problems with weeds are fetuses, brambles and other weeds rejected by grazing animals (low-palatability plants).

These weeds' incidence is generally associated with poor management of grass use. Its control is generally made by means of a cleaning cut which, at the same time, enhances the growth of more palatable species, correcting or nullifying the effects of a less efficient use [7]. Controlled fire use is used as a cleaning technique in the continuous weed patches.

The clearing of furrows, waterline banks is also a cultural operation with a positive effect on the meadows productivity, as it favors the conditions for water conduction and, consequently, the homogeneity of its distribution. This operation is normally carried out during the winter period by farmers and shepherds [34].

## *3.1.1.5 Pasture yield*

The practice of rotational and rationed grazing by conditioning the number of grazing animals, per unit area and grazing time, avoids the under-utilization of "lameiros" in summer, resorting to the use of fences or regular displacement of animals between plots [7].

The yields can vary from 4 to 6 tons of dry matter (DM) per hectare (ha) per year, up to 12 tons DM/ha/year, which corresponds, respectively, to less than 1 livestock unit (LSU)/ha and more than 2 LSU/ha [7].

These differences in pasture production are related to the availability of water, the type of vegetation, the irrigation management and also the geographical

location. The best returns and economic results are obtained when a community management is adopted as opposed to the individual management of semi-natural meadows [35].

**4. Grassland species management, chemical and nutritive values**

*Sheep Grazing Management in the Mountain Region: Serra da Estrela, Portugal*

winter is the preferred time for sowing. Spring sowing may be an option in higher altitude areas, or areas with more reliable rainfall over late spring and

On established pastures, cocksfoot (*Dactylis glomerata*) initiates growth early in the spring. Grazing should begin when growth reaches approximately 20 cm. A 28-

Winter grazing should be limited to 60% of annual growth. Autumn to early

Cocksfoot is capable of moderate to high levels of herbage production in wellmanaged, regularly fertilized pastures. Growth rates of 60–80 kg DM/ha/day are possible in autumn and spring under conditions of good moisture and temperature. In winter, production will commonly range from 5 to 20 kg DM/ha/day. The actual amount of herbage produced will be influenced by many factors, including altitude,

The protein content declines with maturity. This high protein content is balanced by a fiber content that is often higher than that of other grasses (ryegrass and

Cocksfoot is highly palatable to livestock especially in the early part of the

*Festuca arundinacea* (tall fescue) is a perennial plant with large size and well adapted to a wide range of climates. Tolerant of various soil types, it has a better yield on deep and fertile soils. It is not compatible with ryegrass (*Lolium* spp.). Sowing is done in the fall, usually mixed with lucerne in irrigated meadows. Seed establishment is slow and grassland has a weak initial development [45]. It can be used for direct grazing, mowing, hay production, hay silage or silage. Growth begins in early spring and grazing should begin after the plants are at least 15 cm tall. The height of the stubble should be kept at 10 cm. Regrowth is favourable in cool spring and fall weather. The recommended rest period between grazing cycles is approximately 21–28 days. Frequent spring grazing cycles when plants are in the vegetative stage will help reduce alkaloid concentrations in animal diets if there is a

Tall fescue has high digestibility at the appearance of the first year and provides good-quality biomass with 14–15% protein content in dry matter [41]

**CP CF NDF ADF Lignin Ash OMD**

*Chemical composition and nutritive value of cocksfoot (*Dactylis glomerata*) [44].*

Fresh 20.7 16.3 29.7 59.9 32.3 4.5 9.7 69.4 66.3 12.0 9.5 58.9 Dried 89.1 13.1 30.2 63.7 36.5 4.5 8.7 65.1 61.5 11.1 8.9 57.7 *DM: Dry matter; CP: Crude protein; CF: Crude fiber; NDF: Neutral detergent fiber; ADF: Acid detergent fiber; OMD: Organic matter digestibility; ED: Energy digestibility; DE: Digestible energy; ME: Metabolizable energy; ND:*

**Composition (% DM) Nutritive value**

**(%)**

**ED (%)** **DE (MJ/ kg DM)**

**ME (MJ/ kg DM)**

**ND (%)**

**4.1** *Dactylis glomerata*

summer [42].

to 35-day recovery period is recommended [41].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92649*

soil texture, soil moisture and temperature [42].

symbiotic relation with endophyte organisms [41].

fescue) at the same stage of maturity [43].

growing season [41] (**Table 2**).

**4.2** *Festuca arundinacea*

(**Table 3**).

**Herbage DM (%**

*Nitrogen digestibility.*

**Table 2.**

**23**

**as fed)**

## **3.2** *Cervunais* **and other perennial pastures**

## *3.2.1* Cervunais

This particular ecosystem in Serra da Estrela, named "*cervunal,*" is characterized by the dominance of *Nardus stricta* L. (Poaceae), and involves 10.000 ha of a biogenetic reservation (DL n° 140/99, 24th April—Appendix B-1, 6230) within the Natural Park of Serra da Estrela (NPSE) [36].

*Cervunais* occur in areas of higher altitude (above 1600 m) and high oligotrophy. They are well adapted to winter cold and also to poor, acidic, often moist and poorly drained soils and are usually grazed by sheep and not submitted to mowing [5]. Due to their late development, *Cervunais* are an important resource for sheep feeding during late spring/early summer, playing an important role in the local economy, often arising from the Serra da Estrela cheese production system [37].

Their maintenance is clearly dependent on the correct management of grazing, which is fundamental in controlling invasion by woody species. At present, grazing management is in decline and the woody species are invading some of the grassland. The greater amount of combustible material in the woody plants has the potential to increase the temperature of fires to damaging levels, even in wet areas, compared to the fires by shepherds on the grasslands [36].

Fire represents the main threat to the conservation of this type of grasslands and is associated with inadequate practices of land management and planning [38]. Severe fires over the last decade have transformed the high-altitude grassland biogenetic reserve in the Natural Park of Estrela Mountain (NPSE) of Portugal. The most remarkable change in the herbaceous vegetation after fire was the abrupt increase of *Festuca trichophylla* in the burnt area, to the detriment and abrupt decrease of *Nardus stricta* [36].

## *3.2.2 Other permanent highland pastures*

Lowland hay meadows (*Alopecurus pratensis*, *Sanguisorba officinalis*) are made up of tall grass, associated with deep and well-drained soil. Their maintenance promotes the infiltration of water in the soil, the regulation of nutrient levels, the lack of continuity of the forest mosaic and, consequently, the prevention of forest fires. These grasslands are dominated by the species *Arrhenatherum elatius* subsp*. bulbosum*, *Agrostis castellana* or *Festuca rothmaleri* [39].

Molinia meadows are associated with calcareous, peaty and loamy soils (*Molinion caeruleae*), including the juncal and juncal-meadows, dominated by *Juncus effusus* and/or *Juncus acutiflorus* which develop in deep and acidic soils conserving moisture during almost the whole year. They are usually near water lines, occupying the territory of riparian forests. Juncal and juncal-meadows are not fertilized and have reduced feed value for sheep [40].

**Pseudo-steppe with grasses and annuals of the** *Thero-Brachypodietea* are distinguished by the occupation of deep, well-drained, oligotrophic soils, including communities dominated by *Agrostis castellana*, which are frequent in non-irrigated meadows [41]. They also include perennial grasslands, usually dominated by heliophilous grasses such as *Arrhenatherum elatius subsp. baeticum*, *Agrostis castellana, Celtica gigantea* and *Festuca elegans* [38].

## **4. Grassland species management, chemical and nutritive values**

## **4.1** *Dactylis glomerata*

location. The best returns and economic results are obtained when a community management is adopted as opposed to the individual management of semi-natural

This particular ecosystem in Serra da Estrela, named "*cervunal,*" is characterized

*Cervunais* occur in areas of higher altitude (above 1600 m) and high oligotrophy. They are well adapted to winter cold and also to poor, acidic, often moist and poorly drained soils and are usually grazed by sheep and not submitted to mowing [5]. Due to their late development, *Cervunais* are an important resource for sheep feeding during late spring/early summer, playing an important role in the local economy,

Their maintenance is clearly dependent on the correct management of grazing, which is fundamental in controlling invasion by woody species. At present, grazing management is in decline and the woody species are invading some of the grassland. The greater amount of combustible material in the woody plants has the potential to increase the temperature of fires to damaging levels, even in wet areas, compared to

Fire represents the main threat to the conservation of this type of grasslands and

Lowland hay meadows (*Alopecurus pratensis*, *Sanguisorba officinalis*) are made up of tall grass, associated with deep and well-drained soil. Their maintenance promotes the infiltration of water in the soil, the regulation of nutrient levels, the lack of continuity of the forest mosaic and, consequently, the prevention of forest fires. These grasslands are dominated by the species *Arrhenatherum elatius* subsp*.*

Molinia meadows are associated with calcareous, peaty and loamy soils (*Molinion caeruleae*), including the juncal and juncal-meadows, dominated by *Juncus effusus* and/or *Juncus acutiflorus* which develop in deep and acidic soils conserving moisture during almost the whole year. They are usually near water lines, occupying the territory of riparian forests. Juncal and juncal-meadows are not

**Pseudo-steppe with grasses and annuals of the** *Thero-Brachypodietea* are distinguished by the occupation of deep, well-drained, oligotrophic soils, including communities dominated by *Agrostis castellana*, which are frequent in non-irrigated meadows [41]. They also include perennial grasslands, usually dominated by heliophilous grasses such as *Arrhenatherum elatius subsp. baeticum*, *Agrostis*

is associated with inadequate practices of land management and planning [38]. Severe fires over the last decade have transformed the high-altitude grassland biogenetic reserve in the Natural Park of Estrela Mountain (NPSE) of Portugal. The most remarkable change in the herbaceous vegetation after fire was the abrupt increase of *Festuca trichophylla* in the burnt area, to the detriment and abrupt

by the dominance of *Nardus stricta* L. (Poaceae), and involves 10.000 ha of a biogenetic reservation (DL n° 140/99, 24th April—Appendix B-1, 6230) within the

often arising from the Serra da Estrela cheese production system [37].

meadows [35].

*3.2.1* Cervunais

**3.2** *Cervunais* **and other perennial pastures**

*Sheep Farming - An Approach to Feed, Growth and Health*

Natural Park of Serra da Estrela (NPSE) [36].

the fires by shepherds on the grasslands [36].

decrease of *Nardus stricta* [36].

*3.2.2 Other permanent highland pastures*

*bulbosum*, *Agrostis castellana* or *Festuca rothmaleri* [39].

fertilized and have reduced feed value for sheep [40].

*castellana, Celtica gigantea* and *Festuca elegans* [38].

**22**

On established pastures, cocksfoot (*Dactylis glomerata*) initiates growth early in the spring. Grazing should begin when growth reaches approximately 20 cm. A 28 to 35-day recovery period is recommended [41].

Winter grazing should be limited to 60% of annual growth. Autumn to early winter is the preferred time for sowing. Spring sowing may be an option in higher altitude areas, or areas with more reliable rainfall over late spring and summer [42].

Cocksfoot is capable of moderate to high levels of herbage production in wellmanaged, regularly fertilized pastures. Growth rates of 60–80 kg DM/ha/day are possible in autumn and spring under conditions of good moisture and temperature. In winter, production will commonly range from 5 to 20 kg DM/ha/day. The actual amount of herbage produced will be influenced by many factors, including altitude, soil texture, soil moisture and temperature [42].

The protein content declines with maturity. This high protein content is balanced by a fiber content that is often higher than that of other grasses (ryegrass and fescue) at the same stage of maturity [43].

Cocksfoot is highly palatable to livestock especially in the early part of the growing season [41] (**Table 2**).

## **4.2** *Festuca arundinacea*

*Festuca arundinacea* (tall fescue) is a perennial plant with large size and well adapted to a wide range of climates. Tolerant of various soil types, it has a better yield on deep and fertile soils. It is not compatible with ryegrass (*Lolium* spp.). Sowing is done in the fall, usually mixed with lucerne in irrigated meadows. Seed establishment is slow and grassland has a weak initial development [45]. It can be used for direct grazing, mowing, hay production, hay silage or silage. Growth begins in early spring and grazing should begin after the plants are at least 15 cm tall. The height of the stubble should be kept at 10 cm. Regrowth is favourable in cool spring and fall weather. The recommended rest period between grazing cycles is approximately 21–28 days. Frequent spring grazing cycles when plants are in the vegetative stage will help reduce alkaloid concentrations in animal diets if there is a symbiotic relation with endophyte organisms [41].

Tall fescue has high digestibility at the appearance of the first year and provides good-quality biomass with 14–15% protein content in dry matter [41] (**Table 3**).


*DM: Dry matter; CP: Crude protein; CF: Crude fiber; NDF: Neutral detergent fiber; ADF: Acid detergent fiber; OMD: Organic matter digestibility; ED: Energy digestibility; DE: Digestible energy; ME: Metabolizable energy; ND: Nitrogen digestibility.*

#### **Table 2.**

*Chemical composition and nutritive value of cocksfoot (*Dactylis glomerata*) [44].*


*DM: Dry matter; CP: Crude protein; CF: Crude fiber; NDF: Neutral detergent fiber; ADF: Acid detergent fiber; OM: Organic matter.*

**Table 3.**

*Chemical composition of tall fescue (*Festuca arundinacea*) [46].*


Red clover should be cut for hay when no more than 50% is in flower, when it has the optimal feeding value, with more than 14–15% protein. Mowing red clover later impairs its feeding value but also compromises the second cut, as young shoots

**Phenology DM (%) CP CF NDF ADF NDF Ash OM** Spikelet 28.7 6.3 34.2 71.5 41.0 5.6 — 91.1 *DM: Dry matter; CP: Crude protein; CF: Crude fiber; NDF: Neutral detergent fiber; ADF: Acid detergent fiber; OM:*

*Sheep Grazing Management in the Mountain Region: Serra da Estrela, Portugal*

**Composition (% DM)**

Red clover is preferably grazed in spring. Grazing begins at the quarter to half-

White clover (*Trifolium repens*) is the most important forage legume for grazing, whether as a spontaneous component of natural or permanent pastures or sown in association with grasses such as perennial ryegrass (*Lolium perenne*) [51]. The inclusion of white clover (**Figure 4**) in mixed pasture (grass and legume) increases the feeding value of the pasture due to the high protein and organic matter (OM)

White clover can withstand both continuous stocking and rotational grazing. In rotational grazing systems, stolons can regrow during rest periods, thereby increasing the white clover contribution to the stand. White clover cultivars should be chosen in accordance with the intended type of grazing: small leaf cultivars are best suited for continuous grazing by sheep, while large leaf types are best adapted to rotational grazing by sheep. In mixed swards, grazing should be heavy enough to

Ribwort plantain (*Plantago lanceolata*) has a good production of dry matter, mainly in winter activity. In many environments, plantain produces similar

amounts of perennial ryegrass fodder. A feature of plantain productivity is its rapid

Fresh 19.0 19.7 22.4 36.4 26.6 4.1 10.4 74.1 70.9 13.1 10.4 73.3 Dried 89.5 18.3 27.4 37.7 28.3 6.0 6.8 66.2 62.7 11.9 9.5 65.1 *DM: Dry matter; CP: Crude protein; CF: Crude fiber; NDF: Neutral detergent fiber; ADF: Acid detergent fiber; OMD: Organic matter digestibility; ED: Energy digestibility; DE: Digestible energy; ME: Metabolizable energy; ND:*

**CP CF NDF ADF Lignin Ash OMD**

*Chemical composition and nutritive value of red clover (*Trifolium pratense*) [50].*

**Composition (% DM) Nutritive value**

**(%)**

**ED (%)** **DE (MJ/ kg DM)**

**ME (MJ/ kg DM)**

**ND (%)**

recommended. Regrowth is excellent in spring when temperatures are low and soil moisture is available, but poor later in the summer [41]. Its contribution to biomass production declines rapidly after the first 2–3 years under grazing [51] (**Table 6**).

already elongated may be removed during the first cutting [50].

**4.6** *Trifolium repens*

*Organic matter.*

**Table 5.**

digestibility of white clover [52].

*Chemical composition of* Holcus lanatus *[47].*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92649*

**4.7** *Plantago lanceolata*

**Herbage DM (%**

*Nitrogen digestibility.*

**Table 6.**

**25**

**as fed)**

bloom stage. In spring and early summer, a rest period of 21–35 days is

prevent white clover being shaded and thus its decline [52] (**Table 7**).

*DM: Dry matter; CP: Crude protein; CF: Crude fiber; NDF: Neutral detergent fiber; ADF: Acid detergent fiber; OM: Organic matter.*

**Table 4.**

*Chemical composition of perennial ryegrass (*Lolium perenne *L.) [46, 47].*

## **4.3** *Lolium perenne* **L.**

*Lolium perenne* L. (perennial ryegrass) (**Table 4**) is better adapted to the temperate climate of the Atlantic than to hot summers as they slow down its growth. It also prefers fertile, heavy and moist soil, slightly acidic pH—demanding in nitrogen.

Sowing is preferably made in the fall, with fast seed germination and crop establishment. It has regeneration speed and resistance to trampling. It can be mixed with red clover, white clover or hybrid ryegrass (*L. perenne*, *L. multiflorum*). Thus, when mixed with white clover, it produces about 12–14 t MS per ha/year.

Perennial ryegrass has high digestibility and protein content compared to other perennial grasses [45].

## **4.4** *Holcus lanatus*

*Holcus lanatus* occurs over a wide range of soil types, although it prefers a soil pH range of 5–7.5. It is found in hay meadow communities, poorly drained and waterlogged soils, and low-fertility and nutrient-rich soils, pastures and meadows. Although *H. lanatus* is adapted to growing in wet conditions, it can also survive moderate drought, but with a much reduced growth rate [48].

Normally, *H. lanatus* is not preferred by flocks as its hairy nature means it is less digestible than perennial ryegrass (*Lolium perenne*) [49]. The young shoots are promptly consumed by the flocks, the dry matter content is low, digestibility is good and the mineral composition is relatively high [48] (**Table 5**).

### **4.5** *Trifolium pratense*

*Trifolium pratense* (red clover) is sown in autumn or spring. It is a very productive plant, but demanding in humidity, phosphorus, potassium and other elements. It shows predominant growth in autumn-winter, is more suited to cutting than grazing, produces up to 5–6 cuts in the first year when sown in the fall and is used for mowing when pure and mainly for grazing in mixtures [45].

*Sheep Grazing Management in the Mountain Region: Serra da Estrela, Portugal DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92649*


**Table 5.**

*Organic matter.*

**4.3** *Lolium perenne* **L.**

*OM: Organic matter.*

**Table 4.**

*OM: Organic matter.*

*Chemical composition of tall fescue (*Festuca arundinacea*) [46].*

*Sheep Farming - An Approach to Feed, Growth and Health*

*Chemical composition of perennial ryegrass (*Lolium perenne *L.) [46, 47].*

**Table 3.**

perennial grasses [45].

**4.5** *Trifolium pratense*

**24**

**4.4** *Holcus lanatus*

*Lolium perenne* L. (perennial ryegrass) (**Table 4**) is better adapted to the temperate climate of the Atlantic than to hot summers as they slow down its growth. It also prefers fertile, heavy and moist soil, slightly acidic pH—demanding in nitrogen. Sowing is preferably made in the fall, with fast seed germination and crop establishment. It has regeneration speed and resistance to trampling. It can be mixed with red clover, white clover or hybrid ryegrass (*L. perenne*, *L. multiflorum*). Thus, when mixed with white clover, it produces about 12–14 t MS per ha/year. Perennial ryegrass has high digestibility and protein content compared to other

**Phenology DM (%) CP CF NDF ADF NDF Ash OM** Early flowering 83.4 15.0 30.7 65.1 39.9 4.6 — 83.4 *DM: Dry matter; CP: Crude protein; CF: Crude fiber; NDF: Neutral detergent fiber; ADF: Acid detergent fiber;*

**Phenology DM (%) CP CF NDF ADF NDF Ash OM** Spikelet 21.0 15.0 26.8 56.8 30.2 3.8 — 84.7 Hay 80.0 22.1 19.6 41.9 29.6 4.9 — 91.6 *DM: Dry matter; CP: Crude protein; CF: Crude fiber; NDF: Neutral detergent fiber; ADF: Acid detergent fiber;*

**Composition (% DM)**

**Composition (% DM)**

*Holcus lanatus* occurs over a wide range of soil types, although it prefers a soil pH range of 5–7.5. It is found in hay meadow communities, poorly drained and waterlogged soils, and low-fertility and nutrient-rich soils, pastures and meadows. Although *H. lanatus* is adapted to growing in wet conditions, it can also survive

Normally, *H. lanatus* is not preferred by flocks as its hairy nature means it is less

*Trifolium pratense* (red clover) is sown in autumn or spring. It is a very productive plant, but demanding in humidity, phosphorus, potassium and other elements. It shows predominant growth in autumn-winter, is more suited to cutting than grazing, produces up to 5–6 cuts in the first year when sown in the fall and is used

digestible than perennial ryegrass (*Lolium perenne*) [49]. The young shoots are promptly consumed by the flocks, the dry matter content is low, digestibility is

moderate drought, but with a much reduced growth rate [48].

good and the mineral composition is relatively high [48] (**Table 5**).

for mowing when pure and mainly for grazing in mixtures [45].

*Chemical composition of* Holcus lanatus *[47].*

Red clover should be cut for hay when no more than 50% is in flower, when it has the optimal feeding value, with more than 14–15% protein. Mowing red clover later impairs its feeding value but also compromises the second cut, as young shoots already elongated may be removed during the first cutting [50].

Red clover is preferably grazed in spring. Grazing begins at the quarter to halfbloom stage. In spring and early summer, a rest period of 21–35 days is recommended. Regrowth is excellent in spring when temperatures are low and soil moisture is available, but poor later in the summer [41]. Its contribution to biomass production declines rapidly after the first 2–3 years under grazing [51] (**Table 6**).

#### **4.6** *Trifolium repens*

White clover (*Trifolium repens*) is the most important forage legume for grazing, whether as a spontaneous component of natural or permanent pastures or sown in association with grasses such as perennial ryegrass (*Lolium perenne*) [51]. The inclusion of white clover (**Figure 4**) in mixed pasture (grass and legume) increases the feeding value of the pasture due to the high protein and organic matter (OM) digestibility of white clover [52].

White clover can withstand both continuous stocking and rotational grazing. In rotational grazing systems, stolons can regrow during rest periods, thereby increasing the white clover contribution to the stand. White clover cultivars should be chosen in accordance with the intended type of grazing: small leaf cultivars are best suited for continuous grazing by sheep, while large leaf types are best adapted to rotational grazing by sheep. In mixed swards, grazing should be heavy enough to prevent white clover being shaded and thus its decline [52] (**Table 7**).

### **4.7** *Plantago lanceolata*

Ribwort plantain (*Plantago lanceolata*) has a good production of dry matter, mainly in winter activity. In many environments, plantain produces similar amounts of perennial ryegrass fodder. A feature of plantain productivity is its rapid


*DM: Dry matter; CP: Crude protein; CF: Crude fiber; NDF: Neutral detergent fiber; ADF: Acid detergent fiber; OMD: Organic matter digestibility; ED: Energy digestibility; DE: Digestible energy; ME: Metabolizable energy; ND: Nitrogen digestibility.*

#### **Table 6.**

*Chemical composition and nutritive value of red clover (*Trifolium pratense*) [50].*

Mediterranean mountain grasslands generate high levels of biodiversity and a range

Well-managed grassland is associated with environmental advantages, including soil carbon sequestration, reduced soil erosion, and maintenance of ecosystem services associated with grasslands [9]. Shrub vegetation associated with these grasslands may contribute to the retention of soil water, a reduction in run-off and diminished soil erosion. Under climate changes scenarios that predict an increased frequency of high-intensity rainfall and more events leading to downstream

flooding, the positive role of grasslands in mitigating such events may increase [57]. In tests conducted in different regions of the USA, with different soils and slopes varying between 2 and 16.5%, soil losses of 14.6–250.4 t ha<sup>1</sup> year<sup>1</sup> were observed with monocultures of corn or cotton, while under the same conditions with pastures

Extensive grazing is an essential tool for reducing fire risk on semi-natural pastures with shrubs and trees [21]. In the Mediterranean, grasslands have an important role in fire prevention. Rural abandonment is leading to the development and dominance of shrub formations, increasing vegetation fuel load and the hazards of fire. Frequently, extensive woodland and shrub vegetation are interrupted by areas of grassland or pasture, which act as effective barriers against propagation of wildfires. Maintenance of open grassland areas is thus essential to maintain landscape heterogeneity and a potential tool to mitigate the risks of wildfires [57]. In drier regions of Europe, and more widely with future climate change projections, wild fires will cause considerable loss of human life, environmental and property

Threats are endangering the future of grasslands [59]. Although biodiversity is one of the most important ecosystem services provided by European semi-natural grasslands, agriculture remains as a driver of biodiversity loss, either through intensification and conversion of grassland to arable cropping, or land abandonment and loss of the traditional farming practices that have often generated species-rich habitats [18]. Appreciation and implementation of mechanisms for payment of environmental

services, possibly similar to those already in uses in some forest land uses, may potentially contribute to the economic sustainability and future conservation of grasslands and their multifunctional role [57]. Recently, the Portuguese Carbon Fund has demonstrated interest in remunerating the farmers willing to control shrub encroachment at pastures through the use of non-invasive techniques that

The potential of pasture soils as carbon sinks, however, can be difficult to maintain in relation to predicted climate change scenarios, such as increased fre-

The sheep farming associated with permanent mountain pastures is of great significance for the sustainability and for the social and economic development of the local populations; so, the greater and better knowledge of the potential of this type of grasslands is of great relevance for the valorization of regions affected by

As the total area of grasslands has declined, particularly grasslands of high biodiversity, mountain areas are now among the last refuges of High Nature Value (HNV) grassland in Europe. Many traditionally managed mountain grasslands, which have developed under centuries of livestock grazing, are still species-rich

*Sheep Grazing Management in the Mountain Region: Serra da Estrela, Portugal*

of other environmental services and amenities [57].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92649*

the losses amounted to only 0.01–0.70 t ha<sup>1</sup> year<sup>1</sup> [58].

compared with lowlands [18].

damage, and carbon release [21].

promote soil carbon sequestration [59].

quency of droughts and heat waves [57].

desertification and less economically favoured.

**6. Conclusions**

**27**

### **Figure 4.**

*White clover (*Trifolium repens*).*


*DM: Dry matter; CP: Crude protein; CF: Crude fiber; NDF: Neutral detergent fiber; ADF: Acid detergent fiber; OMD: Organic matter digestibility; ED: Energy digestibility; DE: Digestible energy; ME: Metabolizable energy; ND: Nitrogen digestibility.*

#### **Table 7.**

*Chemical composition and nutritive value of white clover (*Trifolium repens*) [53].*


*DM: Dry matter; CP: Crude protein; CF: Crude fiber; NDF: Neutral detergent fiber; ADF: Acid detergent fiber; OM: Organic matter.*

#### **Table 8.**

*Chemical composition of* Plantago lanceolata *[55].*

response to moisture in autumn and also the rapid rumen degradation rates to improve dry matter intake [54].

In sheep grazing swards of white clover, ribwort plantain is fairly palatable. It proves to be suitable in combination with grass in swards to sustain growth in finishing lambs. It may also be recommended as an alternative to hay. However, compared to chicory (*Cichorium intybus*), it supports less live-weight gain and lower hot carcass weights [55] (**Table 8**).

## **5. Mountain grasslands as providers of an ecosystem service in Serra da Estrela**

The sustainability depends on the multi-functional role of farming systems. Pastures are central part of these High Natural Value (HNV) systems [56].

## *Sheep Grazing Management in the Mountain Region: Serra da Estrela, Portugal DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92649*

Mediterranean mountain grasslands generate high levels of biodiversity and a range of other environmental services and amenities [57].

As the total area of grasslands has declined, particularly grasslands of high biodiversity, mountain areas are now among the last refuges of High Nature Value (HNV) grassland in Europe. Many traditionally managed mountain grasslands, which have developed under centuries of livestock grazing, are still species-rich compared with lowlands [18].

Well-managed grassland is associated with environmental advantages, including soil carbon sequestration, reduced soil erosion, and maintenance of ecosystem services associated with grasslands [9]. Shrub vegetation associated with these grasslands may contribute to the retention of soil water, a reduction in run-off and diminished soil erosion. Under climate changes scenarios that predict an increased frequency of high-intensity rainfall and more events leading to downstream flooding, the positive role of grasslands in mitigating such events may increase [57]. In tests conducted in different regions of the USA, with different soils and slopes varying between 2 and 16.5%, soil losses of 14.6–250.4 t ha<sup>1</sup> year<sup>1</sup> were observed with monocultures of corn or cotton, while under the same conditions with pastures the losses amounted to only 0.01–0.70 t ha<sup>1</sup> year<sup>1</sup> [58].

Extensive grazing is an essential tool for reducing fire risk on semi-natural pastures with shrubs and trees [21]. In the Mediterranean, grasslands have an important role in fire prevention. Rural abandonment is leading to the development and dominance of shrub formations, increasing vegetation fuel load and the hazards of fire. Frequently, extensive woodland and shrub vegetation are interrupted by areas of grassland or pasture, which act as effective barriers against propagation of wildfires. Maintenance of open grassland areas is thus essential to maintain landscape heterogeneity and a potential tool to mitigate the risks of wildfires [57]. In drier regions of Europe, and more widely with future climate change projections, wild fires will cause considerable loss of human life, environmental and property damage, and carbon release [21].

Threats are endangering the future of grasslands [59]. Although biodiversity is one of the most important ecosystem services provided by European semi-natural grasslands, agriculture remains as a driver of biodiversity loss, either through intensification and conversion of grassland to arable cropping, or land abandonment and loss of the traditional farming practices that have often generated species-rich habitats [18].

Appreciation and implementation of mechanisms for payment of environmental services, possibly similar to those already in uses in some forest land uses, may potentially contribute to the economic sustainability and future conservation of grasslands and their multifunctional role [57]. Recently, the Portuguese Carbon Fund has demonstrated interest in remunerating the farmers willing to control shrub encroachment at pastures through the use of non-invasive techniques that promote soil carbon sequestration [59].

The potential of pasture soils as carbon sinks, however, can be difficult to maintain in relation to predicted climate change scenarios, such as increased frequency of droughts and heat waves [57].

## **6. Conclusions**

The sheep farming associated with permanent mountain pastures is of great significance for the sustainability and for the social and economic development of the local populations; so, the greater and better knowledge of the potential of this type of grasslands is of great relevance for the valorization of regions affected by desertification and less economically favoured.

response to moisture in autumn and also the rapid rumen degradation rates to

**Herbage DM (% as fed) CP CF NDF ADF Lignin Ash OM** Aerial part 15.7 20.4 13.6 41.1 29.3 13.8 12.4 — *DM: Dry matter; CP: Crude protein; CF: Crude fiber; NDF: Neutral detergent fiber; ADF: Acid detergent fiber; OM:*

In sheep grazing swards of white clover, ribwort plantain is fairly palatable. It proves to be suitable in combination with grass in swards to sustain growth in finishing lambs. It may also be recommended as an alternative to hay. However, compared to chicory (*Cichorium intybus*), it supports less live-weight gain and lower

**Composition (% DM) Nutritive value**

**(%)**

**Composition (% DM)**

**ED (%)** **DE (MJ/ kg DM)**

**ME (MJ/ kg DM)**

**ND (%)**

**CP CF NDF ADF Lignin Ash OMD**

*Chemical composition and nutritive value of white clover (*Trifolium repens*) [53].*

Fresh 16.8 24.9 19.6 27.5 22.1 3.9 11.3 80.9 77.3 14.2 11.1 82.2 Dried 82.7 22.7 23.4 29.4 28.8 3.5 12.3 65.1 61.6 10.7 8.4 69.3 *DM: Dry matter; CP: Crude protein; CF: Crude fiber; NDF: Neutral detergent fiber; ADF: Acid detergent fiber; OMD: Organic matter digestibility; ED: Energy digestibility; DE: Digestible energy; ME: Metabolizable energy; ND: Nitrogen*

**5. Mountain grasslands as providers of an ecosystem service in Serra da**

The sustainability depends on the multi-functional role of farming systems.

Pastures are central part of these High Natural Value (HNV) systems [56].

improve dry matter intake [54].

*Chemical composition of* Plantago lanceolata *[55].*

hot carcass weights [55] (**Table 8**).

**Estrela**

**26**

**Figure 4.**

*digestibility.*

*Organic matter.*

**Table 8.**

**Table 7.**

*White clover (*Trifolium repens*).*

*Sheep Farming - An Approach to Feed, Growth and Health*

**(% as fed)**

**Herbage DM**

Semi-natural pastures are an important source of feed for sheep grazing and when harvested as hay for the winter period in Serra da Estrela mountain. Therefore, it is necessary to optimize meadow management practices in order to meet their increasing needs for quality forages, as well as the knowing of adequate nutritive value of herbage, essential for a high rate of live-weight gain and overall sheep performance. In this sense, we suggest a guidance or training programmes that should be promoted to make farmers aware of how to improve and sustain pasture productivity.

**References**

[1] Mora C, Vieira G, Alcoforado MJ,

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92649*

*Sheep Grazing Management in the Mountain Region: Serra da Estrela, Portugal*

O monte de Pitões (Relatório final). Lisboa: Departamento de Economia Agrária e Sociologia Rural. Instituto Superior de Agronomia (ISA); 1995

[9] David S, Julie W, Alice J, Neal H, Martin P. Background report on best environmental management practice for the crop and animal production sector: Preliminary findings supporting the development of an EMAS Sectoral Reference Document. RC Science for Policy Report, Publications Office of the

European Union, Luxembourg. European Commission. 2014. p. 584

[10] Pôças I, Cunha M, Pereira LS. Remote sensing based indicators of changes in a mountain rural landscape

of Northeast Portugal. Applied Geography. 2011;**31**:871-880. DOI: 10.1016/j.apgeog.2011.01.014

Douro (UTAD); 1986. p. 73

**34**:143-164

[12] Espinha Marques J, Duarte J, Constantino A, Aguiar C, Rocha F, Marques J, et al. In situ measurement of hydraulic conductivity of mountain soils: A case study in Serra da Estrela Mountain (Central Portugal). Cadernos do Laboratorio Xeolóxico de Laxe. 2009;

[13] Santos Silva J, Cruz V, Barbosa J. Estudo e desenvolvimento de estratégias para prevenção dos riscos associados ao clima quente, nas explorações de pequenos ruminantes, em portugal. Livro de Actas do 6.0 Seminário Internacional da Rede FAO-CIHEAM sobre Ovinos e Caprinos - Sub-Rede Sistemas de Produção DRAP-N *I* FAO-

[14] Madureira L, Magalhães P, Gabriel Silva P, Marinho C, Oliveira R. Economia dos Serviços de Ecossistema – Um guia para conhecer e valorizar serviços de

CIHEAM. 2008;**6**:203-209

[11] Moreira N. O Melhoramento das Pastagens de Montanha. Vila Real: Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto

Temperatures in the Serra da Estrela. Portugal Finisterra: Revista Portuguesa de Geografia; 2001. pp. 49-60. DOI:

[2] Aguiar C, Vila-Viçosa C. Trás-os-Montes and Beira Alta. In: Loidi J, editor. The Vegetation of the Iberian Peninsula. Plant and Vegetation. Vol. 12. Cham, Switzerland: Springer; 2017. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-54784-8\_9

[3] Meireles C, Mendes P, Vila-Viçosa C, Cano-Carmona E, Pinto-Gomes C. Geobotanical aspects of *Cytisus*

*oromediterraneus* and *Genista cinerascens* in Serra da Estrela (Portugal). Plant Sociology. 2013;**50**(1):23-31. DOI:

[4] Meireles C, Pinto-Gomes C, Cano E. Approach to climatophilous vegetation series of Serra da Estrela (Portugal). Acta Botanica Gallica: Botany Letters.

[5] Ribeiro S, Monteiro A. Pastagens permanentes em zonas de montanha: caracterização, gestão e conservação. Revista de Ciências Agrárias. 2014;

[6] Pereira LS, Sousa VS. Lameiros e prados de lima. In: Evaluación de los Usos del Agua en Tierras Secas de Iberoamerica. Mendoza: CYTED e Inst. Argentino de Investigaciones de las Zonas Aridas; 2006. pp. 191-202

[7] Moreira N, Aguiar C, Pires JM. Lameiros e outros prados e pastagens de elevado valor florístico. In: Pastagens de Montanha. Lisboa: Direcção Geral de Desenvolvimento Rural; 2001. ISBN:

[8] Santos J. Relatório de Investigação: Práticas pastoris, cargas pecuárias e aspectos organizativos do pastoreio:

10.7338/pls2013501/03

2012;**159**(3):283-287

**37**(1):131-140

972-8693-18-4

**29**

editors. Daily Minimum Air

10.18055/Finis1647

Permanent mountain pastures are also of major importance for the conservation of floristic, faunistic and landscape biodiversity and other related ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration, soil conservation or as a factor in regulating the hydrological cycle. It is important that the traditional practices and the environmental management undertaken by farmers are not endangered by a desire of other stakeholders to transform the landscape, reducing farm capital.

Due to its ecological and economic value, it is also important to ensure the maintenance and improvement of these ecosystems in order to promote or increase its biodiversity. Encouraging the development of these land use will allow activities linked to livestock production and provide different externalities and ecosystems, thus according to the environment-supporting programmatic indications of the Common Agricultural Policy.

Furthermore, studies are necessary to fully understand the ecological and economical implications of reduction and changes in mountain grasslands in the context of a future rain decrease and global warming.

Finally, new researches should be carried out, such as the integrated processing and data analysis related to animal behavior and location, together with the analysis of the nutritional value of pasture species that will allow the creation of a decision support tool in the livestock management process.

## **Author details**

António Monteiro1,2\*, José Costa1 , Fernando Esteves<sup>1</sup> and Sérgio Santos<sup>1</sup>

1 Agrarian Superior School, Polytechnic Institute of Viseu, Viseu, Portugal

2 CERNAS, Research Centre for Natural Resources, Environment and Society, Polytechnic Institute of Viseu, Polytechnic Campus, Viseu, Portugal

\*Address all correspondence to: amonteiro@esav.ipv.pt

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Sheep Grazing Management in the Mountain Region: Serra da Estrela, Portugal DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92649*

## **References**

Semi-natural pastures are an important source of feed for sheep grazing and when harvested as hay for the winter period in Serra da Estrela mountain. Therefore, it is necessary to optimize meadow management practices in order to meet their increasing needs for quality forages, as well as the knowing of adequate nutritive value of herbage, essential for a high rate of live-weight gain and overall sheep performance. In this sense, we suggest a guidance or training programmes that should be promoted to make farmers aware of how to improve and sustain

Permanent mountain pastures are also of major importance for the conservation of floristic, faunistic and landscape biodiversity and other related ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration, soil conservation or as a factor in regulating the hydrological cycle. It is important that the traditional practices and the environmental management undertaken by farmers are not endangered by a desire of other

Due to its ecological and economic value, it is also important to ensure the maintenance and improvement of these ecosystems in order to promote or increase its biodiversity. Encouraging the development of these land use will allow activities linked to livestock production and provide different externalities and ecosystems, thus according to the environment-supporting programmatic indications of the

Furthermore, studies are necessary to fully understand the ecological and economical implications of reduction and changes in mountain grasslands in the con-

Finally, new researches should be carried out, such as the integrated processing and data analysis related to animal behavior and location, together with the analysis of the nutritional value of pasture species that will allow the creation of a decision

1 Agrarian Superior School, Polytechnic Institute of Viseu, Viseu, Portugal

Polytechnic Institute of Viseu, Polytechnic Campus, Viseu, Portugal

\*Address all correspondence to: amonteiro@esav.ipv.pt

provided the original work is properly cited.

2 CERNAS, Research Centre for Natural Resources, Environment and Society,

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

, Fernando Esteves<sup>1</sup> and Sérgio Santos<sup>1</sup>

stakeholders to transform the landscape, reducing farm capital.

text of a future rain decrease and global warming.

*Sheep Farming - An Approach to Feed, Growth and Health*

support tool in the livestock management process.

pasture productivity.

Common Agricultural Policy.

**Author details**

**28**

António Monteiro1,2\*, José Costa1

[1] Mora C, Vieira G, Alcoforado MJ, editors. Daily Minimum Air Temperatures in the Serra da Estrela. Portugal Finisterra: Revista Portuguesa de Geografia; 2001. pp. 49-60. DOI: 10.18055/Finis1647

[2] Aguiar C, Vila-Viçosa C. Trás-os-Montes and Beira Alta. In: Loidi J, editor. The Vegetation of the Iberian Peninsula. Plant and Vegetation. Vol. 12. Cham, Switzerland: Springer; 2017. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-54784-8\_9

[3] Meireles C, Mendes P, Vila-Viçosa C, Cano-Carmona E, Pinto-Gomes C. Geobotanical aspects of *Cytisus oromediterraneus* and *Genista cinerascens* in Serra da Estrela (Portugal). Plant Sociology. 2013;**50**(1):23-31. DOI: 10.7338/pls2013501/03

[4] Meireles C, Pinto-Gomes C, Cano E. Approach to climatophilous vegetation series of Serra da Estrela (Portugal). Acta Botanica Gallica: Botany Letters. 2012;**159**(3):283-287

[5] Ribeiro S, Monteiro A. Pastagens permanentes em zonas de montanha: caracterização, gestão e conservação. Revista de Ciências Agrárias. 2014; **37**(1):131-140

[6] Pereira LS, Sousa VS. Lameiros e prados de lima. In: Evaluación de los Usos del Agua en Tierras Secas de Iberoamerica. Mendoza: CYTED e Inst. Argentino de Investigaciones de las Zonas Aridas; 2006. pp. 191-202

[7] Moreira N, Aguiar C, Pires JM. Lameiros e outros prados e pastagens de elevado valor florístico. In: Pastagens de Montanha. Lisboa: Direcção Geral de Desenvolvimento Rural; 2001. ISBN: 972-8693-18-4

[8] Santos J. Relatório de Investigação: Práticas pastoris, cargas pecuárias e aspectos organizativos do pastoreio:

O monte de Pitões (Relatório final). Lisboa: Departamento de Economia Agrária e Sociologia Rural. Instituto Superior de Agronomia (ISA); 1995

[9] David S, Julie W, Alice J, Neal H, Martin P. Background report on best environmental management practice for the crop and animal production sector: Preliminary findings supporting the development of an EMAS Sectoral Reference Document. RC Science for Policy Report, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. European Commission. 2014. p. 584

[10] Pôças I, Cunha M, Pereira LS. Remote sensing based indicators of changes in a mountain rural landscape of Northeast Portugal. Applied Geography. 2011;**31**:871-880. DOI: 10.1016/j.apgeog.2011.01.014

[11] Moreira N. O Melhoramento das Pastagens de Montanha. Vila Real: Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro (UTAD); 1986. p. 73

[12] Espinha Marques J, Duarte J, Constantino A, Aguiar C, Rocha F, Marques J, et al. In situ measurement of hydraulic conductivity of mountain soils: A case study in Serra da Estrela Mountain (Central Portugal). Cadernos do Laboratorio Xeolóxico de Laxe. 2009; **34**:143-164

[13] Santos Silva J, Cruz V, Barbosa J. Estudo e desenvolvimento de estratégias para prevenção dos riscos associados ao clima quente, nas explorações de pequenos ruminantes, em portugal. Livro de Actas do 6.0 Seminário Internacional da Rede FAO-CIHEAM sobre Ovinos e Caprinos - Sub-Rede Sistemas de Produção DRAP-N *I* FAO-CIHEAM. 2008;**6**:203-209

[14] Madureira L, Magalhães P, Gabriel Silva P, Marinho C, Oliveira R. Economia dos Serviços de Ecossistema – Um guia para conhecer e valorizar serviços de

agroecossistemas em áreas protegidas de montanha. Quercus. 2013:146

[15] Vieira G, Jansen J, Ferreira N. Environmental setting of the Serra da Estrela, Portugal: A short-note. Landscape ecology and management of Atlantic mountains. International Association for Landscape Ecology. 2005;**12**:1-10

[16] Vieira GT, Mora C. General characteristics of the climate of the Serra da Estrela. In: Glacial and Periglacial Geomorphology of the Serra da Estrela. Guidebook for the Field-Trip. IGU Commission on Climate Change and Periglacial Environments. Lisboa, Portugal: University of Lisbon; 1998. pp. 26-36

[17] Pires JM, Pinto PA, Moreira NT. Lameiros de Trás-os-Montes. Perspectivas de futuro para estas pastagens de montanha. In: ESA. ISPB. Bragança Bragança: Instituto Politécnico de Bragança; 1994. ISBN: 972-745-025-3

[18] Hochberg H, Zopf D. Preservation of forage quality and biodiversity by utilization of mountain meadows. In: Grassland Farming and Land Management Systems in Mountainous Regions. Vol. 83. Gumpenstein, Austria: European Grassland Federation; 2015. p. 585. ISBN: 978-3-902559-65-4

[19] Darnhofer I, Schermer M, Steinbacher M, Gabillet M, Daugstad K. Preserving permanent mountain grasslands in Western Europe: Why are promising approaches not implemented more widely? Land Use Policy. 2017;**68**: 306-315

[20] Pykälä J. Mitigating human effects on European biodiversity through traditional animal husbandry. Conservation Biology. 2000;**14**(3): 705-712. DOI: 10.1046/ j.1523-1739.2000.99119.x

[21] Moreira N. Melhoramento das pastagens de montanha. Pastagens e Forragens. 1998;**19**:51-60

[22] Beaufoy G, Jones G, Kazakova Y, McGurn P, Poux X, Stefanova V. Permanent pastures and meadows under the CAP: The situation in 6 countries. The European Forum on Nature Conservation and Pastoralism (EFNCP). 2011:70

do Nordeste de Portugal. Pastagens e

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92649*

*Sheep Grazing Management in the Mountain Region: Serra da Estrela, Portugal*

and mycorrhizal symbiosis in high altitude grasslands of Natural Park of Estrela Mountain (PNSE). Symbiosis. 2010;**52**:113-123. DOI: 10.1007/

[37] Sales F, Dinis A, Azul M. A Conservação dos Cervunais no Desenvolvimento Local. Coimbra: Grasses, Universidade de Coimbra; 2007.

[38] ICNF-Plano Sectorial da Rede Natura 2000. Caracterização de valores naturais. 2006c. (Cited: 2019-02-03). Available from: http://www.icnf.pt/ portal/naturaclas/rn2000/resource/rnplan set/hab/hab-6220.pdf [Accessed:

[39] ICNF - Plano Sectorial da Rede Natura 2000. Caracterização de valores naturais. 2006a. Available from: http:// www.icnf.pt/portal/naturaclas/rn2000/ resource/rn-plan-set/hab/hab-6510.pdf

[Accessed: 03 January 2019]

[Accessed: 03 January 2019]

pp. 107-119

[40] ICNF-Plano Sectorial da Rede Natura 2000. Caracterização de valores naturais. 2006b. Available from: http:// www.icnf.pt/portal/naturaclas/rn2000/ resource/rn-plan-set/hab/hab-6410.pdf

[41] Griggs T, Church J, Wilson R. Pasture Plant Composition and Forage Nutritional Value. Pasture and Grazing Management in the Northwest Chapter. Vol. 11. Idaho, USA: Pacific Northwest Extension Publication University of Idaho, Oregon State University, Washington State University; 2010.

[42] Hackney B, Dear B. Cocksfoot NSW Department of Primary Industries Primefact. 2007. Available from: https:// www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/\_\_data/assets/ pdf\_file/0011/155486/cocksfoot.pdf

[43] INRA. Alimentation des bovins, ovins et caprins. Besoins des animaux valeurs des aliments. Tables Inra 2007.

s13199-010-0103-1

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p. 11

[30] Raposo J, Centeno M, Pires J, Carvalho M. Efeito da fertilização na produção de lameiros. Região Planáltica de Bragança. Pastagens e Forragens.

[31] Gonçalves D. A rega de lima no interior de Trás-os-Montes. Vila Real: Instituto Universitário de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro; 1985

[32] Pires J, Centeno M, Rego C, Raposo J, Carvalho R. Efeito da

fertilização na composição florística de lameiros. Pastagens e Forragens. 1990;

[33] Pires J, Fernandes A, Bernardo A, Pires J, Moreira N. Meadow management hay yields and nutritive value in the meditarranean mountain regions of northeast of Portugal. Sustainable grazing, nutritional utilization and quality of sheep and goat products. In: First Joint Seminar of the FAO-CIHEAM Sheep and Goat Nutrition and Mountain and Mediterranean Pastures Sub-Networks. Granada (Espanha): CIHEAM; 2003. pp. 67-73

[34] Pôças I. Os lameiros no contexto das

Monitorização por detecção remota em diferentes escalas espácio-temporais. Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto para obtenção do grau de Doutor em Ciências Agrárias; Porto,

[35] Santos J, Aguiar C. Private hay meadows and common pastures: Integrated management of two

ecosystems. In: Environmental and Land Use Issues: An Economic Perspective. Kiel: Wissenschaftsverlag Vauk; 1995.

[36] Azul A, Ramos V, Sales F. Early effects of fire on herbaceous vegetation

paisagens de montanha. In:

Portugal; 2010

pp. 491-501

**31**

Forragens. 1981;**2**:67-77

1990;**11**:41-53

**11**:69-86

[23] Aguiar C, Vila-Viçosa C. A flora e a vegetação das montanhas de Portugal continental. In: Sustentabilidade da Montanha Portuguesa: Realidades e Desafios. Vol. 3. Bragança, Portugal: Instituto Politécnico de Bragança; 2018. pp. 59-90. ISBN: 978-972-220-0

[24] Pereira LS, Sousa VS. Lameiros e prados de lima, uma paisagem das terras altas húmidas de Portugal. In: V Seminário Internacional CYTED-XVII. Un enfoque para la gestion sustentable del agua: Experiencias en zonas humedas. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Universidad de Buenos Aires; 2005. p. 12

[25] Kumm K-I. Sustainable management of Swedish seminatural pastures with high species diversity. Journal for Nature Conservation. 2003; **11**:117-125

[26] Pikälä J. Plant species responses to cattle grazing in Mesic semi-natural grassland. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 2005;**108**:109-117

[27] Dries A. The art of irrigation. The development, stagnation and redesign of farmer-managed irrigation systems in Northern Portugal [PhD Dissertation]. Wageningen Universiteit; 2002. p. 369

[28] Jansen J, Castro P, Costa L. Economic-Ecologic Interactions in the Serra da Estrela in Economy and Ecology of Heathlands: Heathland Ecology and Management. Vol. 42013. Zeist, Netherlands: KNNV Publishing; 2013. pp. 66-90. ISBN: 978-90-5011-4615

[29] Ferreira A, Dias-da-Silva A, Cruz M, Vieira R, Azevedo J, Sousa A. Os fenos

*Sheep Grazing Management in the Mountain Region: Serra da Estrela, Portugal DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92649*

do Nordeste de Portugal. Pastagens e Forragens. 1981;**2**:67-77

agroecossistemas em áreas protegidas de

*Sheep Farming - An Approach to Feed, Growth and Health*

[22] Beaufoy G, Jones G, Kazakova Y, McGurn P, Poux X, Stefanova V. Permanent pastures and meadows under the CAP: The situation in 6 countries. The European Forum on Nature Conservation and Pastoralism

[23] Aguiar C, Vila-Viçosa C. A flora e a vegetação das montanhas de Portugal continental. In: Sustentabilidade da Montanha Portuguesa: Realidades e Desafios. Vol. 3. Bragança, Portugal: Instituto Politécnico de Bragança; 2018.

pp. 59-90. ISBN: 978-972-220-0

altas húmidas de Portugal. In: V Seminário Internacional CYTED-XVII. Un enfoque para la gestion sustentable del agua: Experiencias en zonas humedas. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Universidad de Buenos Aires; 2005.

[25] Kumm K-I. Sustainable

management of Swedish seminatural pastures with high species diversity. Journal for Nature Conservation. 2003;

[26] Pikälä J. Plant species responses to cattle grazing in Mesic semi-natural grassland. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 2005;**108**:109-117

[27] Dries A. The art of irrigation. The development, stagnation and redesign of farmer-managed irrigation systems in Northern Portugal [PhD Dissertation]. Wageningen Universiteit; 2002. p. 369

[29] Ferreira A, Dias-da-Silva A, Cruz M, Vieira R, Azevedo J, Sousa A. Os fenos

[28] Jansen J, Castro P, Costa L. Economic-Ecologic Interactions in the Serra da Estrela in Economy and Ecology of Heathlands: Heathland Ecology and Management. Vol. 42013. Zeist, Netherlands: KNNV Publishing; 2013. pp. 66-90. ISBN: 978-90-5011-4615

[24] Pereira LS, Sousa VS. Lameiros e prados de lima, uma paisagem das terras

(EFNCP). 2011:70

p. 12

**11**:117-125

montanha. Quercus. 2013:146

[15] Vieira G, Jansen J, Ferreira N. Environmental setting of the Serra da Estrela, Portugal: A short-note. Landscape ecology and management of Atlantic mountains. International Association for Landscape Ecology. 2005;**12**:1-10

[16] Vieira GT, Mora C. General characteristics of the climate of the Serra da Estrela. In: Glacial and

1998. pp. 26-36

Periglacial Geomorphology of the Serra da Estrela. Guidebook for the Field-Trip. IGU Commission on Climate Change and Periglacial Environments. Lisboa, Portugal: University of Lisbon;

[17] Pires JM, Pinto PA, Moreira NT. Lameiros de Trás-os-Montes. Perspectivas de futuro para estas pastagens de montanha. In: ESA. ISPB. Bragança Bragança: Instituto Politécnico de Bragança; 1994. ISBN: 972-745-025-3

[18] Hochberg H, Zopf D. Preservation of forage quality and biodiversity by utilization of mountain meadows. In:

Management Systems in Mountainous Regions. Vol. 83. Gumpenstein, Austria: European Grassland Federation; 2015. p. 585. ISBN: 978-3-902559-65-4

Steinbacher M, Gabillet M, Daugstad K. Preserving permanent mountain grasslands in Western Europe: Why are promising approaches not implemented more widely? Land Use Policy. 2017;**68**:

[20] Pykälä J. Mitigating human effects on European biodiversity through traditional animal husbandry. Conservation Biology. 2000;**14**(3):

[21] Moreira N. Melhoramento das pastagens de montanha. Pastagens

705-712. DOI: 10.1046/ j.1523-1739.2000.99119.x

e Forragens. 1998;**19**:51-60

Grassland Farming and Land

[19] Darnhofer I, Schermer M,

306-315

**30**

[30] Raposo J, Centeno M, Pires J, Carvalho M. Efeito da fertilização na produção de lameiros. Região Planáltica de Bragança. Pastagens e Forragens. 1990;**11**:41-53

[31] Gonçalves D. A rega de lima no interior de Trás-os-Montes. Vila Real: Instituto Universitário de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro; 1985

[32] Pires J, Centeno M, Rego C, Raposo J, Carvalho R. Efeito da fertilização na composição florística de lameiros. Pastagens e Forragens. 1990; **11**:69-86

[33] Pires J, Fernandes A, Bernardo A, Pires J, Moreira N. Meadow management hay yields and nutritive value in the meditarranean mountain regions of northeast of Portugal. Sustainable grazing, nutritional utilization and quality of sheep and goat products. In: First Joint Seminar of the FAO-CIHEAM Sheep and Goat Nutrition and Mountain and Mediterranean Pastures Sub-Networks. Granada (Espanha): CIHEAM; 2003. pp. 67-73

[34] Pôças I. Os lameiros no contexto das paisagens de montanha. In: Monitorização por detecção remota em diferentes escalas espácio-temporais. Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto para obtenção do grau de Doutor em Ciências Agrárias; Porto, Portugal; 2010

[35] Santos J, Aguiar C. Private hay meadows and common pastures: Integrated management of two ecosystems. In: Environmental and Land Use Issues: An Economic Perspective. Kiel: Wissenschaftsverlag Vauk; 1995. pp. 491-501

[36] Azul A, Ramos V, Sales F. Early effects of fire on herbaceous vegetation and mycorrhizal symbiosis in high altitude grasslands of Natural Park of Estrela Mountain (PNSE). Symbiosis. 2010;**52**:113-123. DOI: 10.1007/ s13199-010-0103-1

[37] Sales F, Dinis A, Azul M. A Conservação dos Cervunais no Desenvolvimento Local. Coimbra: Grasses, Universidade de Coimbra; 2007. p. 11

[38] ICNF-Plano Sectorial da Rede Natura 2000. Caracterização de valores naturais. 2006c. (Cited: 2019-02-03). Available from: http://www.icnf.pt/ portal/naturaclas/rn2000/resource/rnplan set/hab/hab-6220.pdf [Accessed: 03 January 2019]

[39] ICNF - Plano Sectorial da Rede Natura 2000. Caracterização de valores naturais. 2006a. Available from: http:// www.icnf.pt/portal/naturaclas/rn2000/ resource/rn-plan-set/hab/hab-6510.pdf [Accessed: 03 January 2019]

[40] ICNF-Plano Sectorial da Rede Natura 2000. Caracterização de valores naturais. 2006b. Available from: http:// www.icnf.pt/portal/naturaclas/rn2000/ resource/rn-plan-set/hab/hab-6410.pdf [Accessed: 03 January 2019]

[41] Griggs T, Church J, Wilson R. Pasture Plant Composition and Forage Nutritional Value. Pasture and Grazing Management in the Northwest Chapter. Vol. 11. Idaho, USA: Pacific Northwest Extension Publication University of Idaho, Oregon State University, Washington State University; 2010. pp. 107-119

[42] Hackney B, Dear B. Cocksfoot NSW Department of Primary Industries Primefact. 2007. Available from: https:// www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/\_\_data/assets/ pdf\_file/0011/155486/cocksfoot.pdf

[43] INRA. Alimentation des bovins, ovins et caprins. Besoins des animaux valeurs des aliments. Tables Inra 2007.

Editions Quae. Versailles [FRA]; 2007. p. 330. ISBN: 978–2–7592-0020-7

[44] Heuzé V, Tran G. Cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata). Feedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO. 2015a. Available from: https:// www.feedipedia.org/node/466 [Accessed: 11 December 2019]

[45] Trigueiros J, Abreu J, Silva D. Conceitos e Práticas em Modernas Explorações Agrícolas. Alternativas Forrageiras. Porto, Portugal: SPI – Sociedade Portuguesa de Inovação; 2005. pp. 19-28. ISBN: 972-8589-54-9

[46] Abreu JM, Bruno-Soares AM, Calouro F. Intake and Nutritive Value of Mediterranean Forages & Diets. Lisboa: ISA Press; 2000. p. 46

[47] Monteiro A, Freire J, Costa J, Falcão L, Projecto VT, PRODER PA. Melhoramento de Pastagens Permanentes de Altitude. Lisboa: Instituto Superior de Agronomia (ISA); 2015. p. 125

[48] Roberts P. Holcus lanatus (common velvet grass) CABI Invasive Species Compendium. 2013. Available from: https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/ 114824 [Accessed: 17 November 2019]

[49] Wilman D, Riley JA. Potential nutritive value of a wide range of grassland species. The Journal of Agricultural Science. 1993;**120**(1):43-49. DOI: 10.1017/S0021859600073573

[50] Heuzé V, Tran G, Giger-Reverdin S, Lebas F. *Red clover (Trifolium pratense)*. Feedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO. 2015b. Available from: https://www.feedipedia. org/node/246 [Accessed: 26 October 2015]

[51] Dewhurst RJ, Delaby L, Moloney A, Boland T, Lewis E. Nutritive value of forage legumes used for grazing and

silage. Irish Journal of Agricultural and Food Research. 2009;**48**:167-187

[58] NIAB. Grasses and Herbage Legumes Variety Leaflet. Cambridge, UK: National Institute of Agricultural

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92649*

*Sheep Grazing Management in the Mountain Region: Serra da Estrela, Portugal*

[59] Valada T, Teixeira R, Martin H, Ribeiro M, Domingos T. Grassland management options under Kyoto protocol article 3.4. The Portuguese case study. New approaches for grassland research in a context of climate and socio-economic changes. Zaragoza: CIHEAM, Options Méditerranéennes,

Botany (NIAB); 1998. p. 48

Série A. 2012;**102**:53-56

**33**

[52] FAO. Grassland Index. A Searchable Catalogue of Grass and Forage Legumes. Rome, Italy: FAO; 2011. Available from: https://web.arch ive.org/web/20170120044942/http:// www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/ GBASE/default.htm

[53] Heuzé V, Tran G, Hassoun P, Lebas F. *White clover (Trifolium repens)*. Feedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO. 2019c. Available from: https://www.feedipedia.org/node/ 245 [Accssed: 10 April 2019]

[54] Judson HG, AJE M. Benefits and uses of plantain (*Plantago lanceolata*) cv. Ceres tonic in livestock production systems in New South Wales. In: Proceedings of the 26th Annual Conference of the Grassland Society of NSW Grassland Society of new South Wales. Vol. 26. New Wales of South, New Zeland: Grassland Society of NSW; 2011. pp. 151-152. ISBN: 9781742562131

[55] Heuzé V, Tran G. *Ribwort plantain (Plantago lanceolata)*. Feedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO. 2015d. Available from: https:// www.feedipedia.org/node/114

[56] Sequeira EM. Pasture and fodder crop as part of high natural value farm systems at Mediterranean dry land agroecosystems. Sustainable Mediterranean grasslands and their multi-functions. Zaragoza: CIHEAM / FAO / ENMP / SPPF Options Méditerranéennes : Série A. 2008;**79**:17-21

[57] Bugalho MN, Abreu JMF. The multifunctional role of grasslands. Porqueddu C. (ed.). Tavares de Sousa M.M. (ed.). Sustainable Mediterranean grasslands and their multi-functions. Zaragoza: CIHEAM/ FAO/ENMP/SPPF. Options Méditerranéennes: Série A. 2008;**79**: 25-30

*Sheep Grazing Management in the Mountain Region: Serra da Estrela, Portugal DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92649*

[58] NIAB. Grasses and Herbage Legumes Variety Leaflet. Cambridge, UK: National Institute of Agricultural Botany (NIAB); 1998. p. 48

Editions Quae. Versailles [FRA]; 2007. p. 330. ISBN: 978–2–7592-0020-7

*Sheep Farming - An Approach to Feed, Growth and Health*

silage. Irish Journal of Agricultural and Food Research. 2009;**48**:167-187

[52] FAO. Grassland Index. A Searchable Catalogue of Grass and Forage Legumes. Rome, Italy: FAO; 2011. Available from: https://web.arch ive.org/web/20170120044942/http:// www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/

[53] Heuzé V, Tran G, Hassoun P, Lebas F. *White clover (Trifolium repens)*. Feedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO. 2019c. Available from: https://www.feedipedia.org/node/

245 [Accssed: 10 April 2019]

[54] Judson HG, AJE M. Benefits and uses of plantain (*Plantago lanceolata*) cv. Ceres tonic in livestock production systems in New South Wales. In: Proceedings of the 26th Annual Conference of the Grassland Society of NSW Grassland Society of new South Wales. Vol. 26. New Wales of South, New Zeland: Grassland Society of NSW; 2011. pp. 151-152. ISBN: 9781742562131

[55] Heuzé V, Tran G. *Ribwort plantain (Plantago lanceolata)*. Feedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO. 2015d. Available from: https:// www.feedipedia.org/node/114

[56] Sequeira EM. Pasture and fodder crop as part of high natural value farm systems at Mediterranean dry land agroecosystems. Sustainable Mediterranean grasslands and their multi-functions. Zaragoza: CIHEAM / FAO / ENMP / SPPF Options Méditerranéennes :

[57] Bugalho MN, Abreu JMF. The multifunctional role of grasslands. Porqueddu C. (ed.). Tavares de Sousa M.M. (ed.). Sustainable Mediterranean grasslands and their multi-functions. Zaragoza: CIHEAM/

FAO/ENMP/SPPF. Options

25-30

Méditerranéennes: Série A. 2008;**79**:

Série A. 2008;**79**:17-21

GBASE/default.htm

[44] Heuzé V, Tran G. Cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata). Feedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO. 2015a. Available from: https:// www.feedipedia.org/node/466 [Accessed: 11 December 2019]

[45] Trigueiros J, Abreu J, Silva D. Conceitos e Práticas em Modernas Explorações Agrícolas. Alternativas Forrageiras. Porto, Portugal: SPI – Sociedade Portuguesa de Inovação; 2005. pp. 19-28. ISBN: 972-8589-54-9

[46] Abreu JM, Bruno-Soares AM, Calouro F. Intake and Nutritive Value of Mediterranean Forages & Diets. Lisboa:

[47] Monteiro A, Freire J, Costa J, Falcão L, Projecto VT, PRODER PA.

[48] Roberts P. Holcus lanatus (common velvet grass) CABI Invasive Species Compendium. 2013. Available from: https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/ 114824 [Accessed: 17 November 2019]

[49] Wilman D, Riley JA. Potential nutritive value of a wide range of grassland species. The Journal of

Agricultural Science. 1993;**120**(1):43-49. DOI: 10.1017/S0021859600073573

[50] Heuzé V, Tran G, Giger-Reverdin S, Lebas F. *Red clover (Trifolium pratense)*. Feedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO. 2015b. Available from: https://www.feedipedia. org/node/246 [Accessed: 26 October

[51] Dewhurst RJ, Delaby L, Moloney A, Boland T, Lewis E. Nutritive value of forage legumes used for grazing and

Melhoramento de Pastagens Permanentes de Altitude. Lisboa: Instituto Superior de Agronomia (ISA);

ISA Press; 2000. p. 46

2015. p. 125

2015]

**32**

[59] Valada T, Teixeira R, Martin H, Ribeiro M, Domingos T. Grassland management options under Kyoto protocol article 3.4. The Portuguese case study. New approaches for grassland research in a context of climate and socio-economic changes. Zaragoza: CIHEAM, Options Méditerranéennes, Série A. 2012;**102**:53-56

**Chapter 3**

**Abstract**

Sheep Feeding in the Sahel

population. According to CILSS, there will be 100 million people in the region by 2020 and 200 million by 2050, almost four times the current population. The region, frequently struck by drought and food insecurity, is one of the areas most severely affected by global climate change in the coming years. With up to 80% of its people living on less than \$2 a day, poverty is more widespread in the Sahel than in most other parts of Africa. Sheep farming is very important for the Sahel countries. It does not require a high input at its beginning, so even women and children are involved in small ruminant raising. They provide food and play important socioeconomic factors. However, productivity of livestock including the one of sheep is low. Nutrition is the most important constraint in sheep farming especially during the dry season when both availability and quality of forages are low. The most complex and limiting production factors in sheep farming for the Sahel countries are those concerning nutrition and feed supplies. The objective of this review chapter was to describe the major nutritional constraints to sheep farming systems in the Sahel countries and explore ways of overcoming the most important constraints for efficient and sustainable sheep feeding. Issues addressed in this review include causes of undernutrition and environmental implications, adaptation by sheep to it, and manipulative strategies to cope with feed scarcity in smallholder

**Keywords:** extensive, feeds and feeding, intensive, nutrition, Sahel, sheep

Sheep farming is very important for the Sahel countries. It is a popular activity in which even women and children who are the lowest income owner are involved. Besides food and essential nutrients, sheep farming plays an important socioeconomic role in the ceremonies such as baptism and religious and other feasts. Sheep are important assets to the rural poor and play a critical role in both sustainability and intensification of agricultural productivity in most farming systems. Their manure helps maintain soil fertility, and they contribute to the overall farming enterprise in terms of income and employment. Sheep farming provides poor farmers with a flexible reserve and access to markets especially with sheep fattening. However, productivity of livestock including sheep is low. The lack of animal products is not due to a lack of animals per se, because Africa has 12.7% of humans, 13.6% of cattle and buffalo, 28.9% of goats, 19.2% of sheep, and 73.4% of camel

, the Sahel has a quickly growing

Countries of Africa

With an area estimated to 3.053 million km<sup>2</sup>

*Hamidou Nantoumé*

sheep farming systems.

**1. Introduction**

**35**

## **Chapter 3**

## Sheep Feeding in the Sahel Countries of Africa

*Hamidou Nantoumé*

## **Abstract**

With an area estimated to 3.053 million km<sup>2</sup> , the Sahel has a quickly growing population. According to CILSS, there will be 100 million people in the region by 2020 and 200 million by 2050, almost four times the current population. The region, frequently struck by drought and food insecurity, is one of the areas most severely affected by global climate change in the coming years. With up to 80% of its people living on less than \$2 a day, poverty is more widespread in the Sahel than in most other parts of Africa. Sheep farming is very important for the Sahel countries. It does not require a high input at its beginning, so even women and children are involved in small ruminant raising. They provide food and play important socioeconomic factors. However, productivity of livestock including the one of sheep is low. Nutrition is the most important constraint in sheep farming especially during the dry season when both availability and quality of forages are low. The most complex and limiting production factors in sheep farming for the Sahel countries are those concerning nutrition and feed supplies. The objective of this review chapter was to describe the major nutritional constraints to sheep farming systems in the Sahel countries and explore ways of overcoming the most important constraints for efficient and sustainable sheep feeding. Issues addressed in this review include causes of undernutrition and environmental implications, adaptation by sheep to it, and manipulative strategies to cope with feed scarcity in smallholder sheep farming systems.

**Keywords:** extensive, feeds and feeding, intensive, nutrition, Sahel, sheep

## **1. Introduction**

Sheep farming is very important for the Sahel countries. It is a popular activity in which even women and children who are the lowest income owner are involved. Besides food and essential nutrients, sheep farming plays an important socioeconomic role in the ceremonies such as baptism and religious and other feasts. Sheep are important assets to the rural poor and play a critical role in both sustainability and intensification of agricultural productivity in most farming systems. Their manure helps maintain soil fertility, and they contribute to the overall farming enterprise in terms of income and employment. Sheep farming provides poor farmers with a flexible reserve and access to markets especially with sheep fattening. However, productivity of livestock including sheep is low. The lack of animal products is not due to a lack of animals per se, because Africa has 12.7% of humans, 13.6% of cattle and buffalo, 28.9% of goats, 19.2% of sheep, and 73.4% of camel

population of the world, but due to low productivity [1]. Nutrition is the most important constraint in sheep farming. There are a number of reasons for the low productivity of which insufficient and inefficient use of feed is the major one [2].

**3. Ecological zones of the Sahel countries**

*Sheep Feeding in the Sahel Countries of Africa DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92339*

in May to 31.9°C in August.

The Sahel countries like Mali include four ecological zones, and characteristics of

• The arid (Sahara) zone in which the vegetation is scarce and made of herbaceous plants and thorny shrubs: the climate is tropical arid with two seasons, a rainy season of 1 to 2 months and a dry season of 10 to 11 months. The average annual rainfall is less than 200 mm, and there is almost no growing season. Monthly average temperatures vary from 31.1°C in January to 42.4°C in May.

• The semi-arid (Sahel) zone in which the vegetation is an herbaceous stratum composed primarily of grasses and a woody stratum composed of forbs, shrubs, and trees: the climate is tropical and semi-arid with two seasons, a rainy season, hot and humid of 4 months from June to September, and a dry season of 8 months divided into a cold period from October to February and a hot period from March to May. The average annual rainfall is 580 mm with a growing season of 18 weeks. Monthly average temperatures vary from 39.9°C

• The sub-humid (Sudanese) zone in which the vegetation is composed of woody species and herbaceous species: the climate is tropical sub-humid (savannah) with a rainy season of 6 months and a dry season of 6 months. The average rainfall is 1037 mm with a growing season of 24 weeks. Monthly average temperatures vary from 30°C in August to 37.7°C in March.

• The humid (Guinean) zone in which the vegetation is composed of woody species and herbaceous species: the climate is tropical and humid with a rainy season of 7 months and a dry season of 5 months. The average rainfall is 1300 mm with a growing season of 40 weeks. Monthly average temperatures

The population growth increases fast in the Sahel. According to CILSS, there will be 100 million people in the region by 2020 and 200 million by 2050; this is almost four times the actual population. More than half of them, 141 million, will live in the

Livestock remain one of the most important economic activities of the Sahel with a contribution of 30 to 40% of the agricultural GNP of the countries like Burkina Faso, Cap-Vert, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal, Soudan, and Chad [6]. Besides this economic contribution, pastoral livestock is one of the most important agricultural productions in the Sahel. The Sahelian countries have an important potential of meat production with livestock estimated in 2006 at 63million cattle,

Based on the natural grazing, and some fallows, the livestock of this region is based mainly on the availability of forage that depends on climatic fluctuations,

168million small ruminants, and more than 6million camels [7].

vary from 30°C in August to 37.7°C in March.

**4. Sheep production systems in the Sahel**

three countries Burkina Faso, Mali, and Niger.

**37**

the range lands fluctuate depending on four ecological zones. The quantity and quality of feedstuffs fluctuate depending on the two seasons (dry and rainy) and the length, amount, and distribution of rainfalls and soil fertility. Sivakumar et al. [5] gave a detailed description of the ecological zones of Mali, and most of them are shared with the different zones of Sahel. The four ecological zones include:

The objective of this chapter is to review the major nutritional aspects of sheep farming in the Sahel countries of Africa. It includes a deep review of the sheep farming systems, exploring ways of overcoming the most important constraints for efficient and sustainable sheep feeding based on my own experience, and the available literature. The nutrient (water, energy, protein, minerals, and vitamins) requirements of sheep that vary greatly according to the physiological stage, maintenance, growth, gestation, lactation, fattening, were reviewed. The review covers the characteristics of the common feeds in the Sahel based on their types (roughages and concentrates), their names and classes, their chemical composition, and their nutritive value.

Practical guidelines for sustainable sheep feeding including the following important recommendations are given. During the rainy season (from July to September), forages cover the nutrient requirements for extensive sheep production system except for the lactating ewes and fattening rams. Supplemental concentrate feeds are required during the cool dry season (October to February). During the hot dry season (March to June), both forage and concentrate supplements are required. Lactating ewes and fattening rams are fed using formulated rations to meet their respective nutrient requirements. Issues addressed in the review chapter will include causes of undernutrition and environmental implications, adaptation by sheep to it, and manipulative strategies to cope with feed scarcity in smallholder sheep farming systems.

## **2. Study area, Sahel defined**

The Sahel from its original Arabic name means "flat land." It includes a band of Africa indicating a floristic and climatic transition between the Sahara in the North and the Sudan savannah in the South in which rainfalls are important. Rainfalls from 200 mm in the North to 600 mm to the South are the limits of the Sahel zone in Africa [3]. This area is characterized with a monomodal distribution of rainfalls that occurs randomly in 90 to 120 days and a long dry season of 8 to 9 months [4]. This alternate of wet and dry periods rhythm and determine animal and plant productions and their modes of management.

The Sahel, in this study, not just covers the band but includes all the entire 10 countries that are Burkina Faso, Chad, Eritrea, the Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal, and Sudan as shown in **Figure 1**.

**Figure 1.** *Map of the Sahel countries.*

population of the world, but due to low productivity [1]. Nutrition is the most important constraint in sheep farming. There are a number of reasons for the low productivity of which insufficient and inefficient use of feed is the major one [2]. The objective of this chapter is to review the major nutritional aspects of sheep farming in the Sahel countries of Africa. It includes a deep review of the sheep farming systems, exploring ways of overcoming the most important constraints for efficient and sustainable sheep feeding based on my own experience, and the available literature. The nutrient (water, energy, protein, minerals, and vitamins) requirements of sheep that vary greatly according to the physiological stage, maintenance, growth, gestation, lactation, fattening, were reviewed. The review covers the characteristics of the common feeds in the Sahel based on their types (roughages and concentrates), their names and classes, their chemical composition, and their nutritive value. Practical guidelines for sustainable sheep feeding including the following important recommendations are given. During the rainy season (from July to September), forages cover the nutrient requirements for extensive sheep production system except for the lactating ewes and fattening rams. Supplemental concentrate feeds are required during the cool dry season (October to February). During the hot dry season (March to June), both forage and concentrate supplements are required. Lactating ewes and fattening rams are fed using formulated rations to meet their respective nutrient requirements. Issues addressed in the review chapter will include causes of undernutrition and environmental implications, adaptation by sheep to it, and manipulative strategies to cope with feed scarcity in smallholder

*Sheep Farming - An Approach to Feed, Growth and Health*

The Sahel from its original Arabic name means "flat land." It includes a band of Africa indicating a floristic and climatic transition between the Sahara in the North and the Sudan savannah in the South in which rainfalls are important. Rainfalls from 200 mm in the North to 600 mm to the South are the limits of the Sahel zone in Africa [3]. This area is characterized with a monomodal distribution of rainfalls that occurs randomly in 90 to 120 days and a long dry season of 8 to 9 months [4]. This alternate of wet and dry periods rhythm and determine animal and plant

The Sahel, in this study, not just covers the band but includes all the entire 10 countries that are Burkina Faso, Chad, Eritrea, the Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Mali,

sheep farming systems.

**Figure 1.**

**36**

*Map of the Sahel countries.*

**2. Study area, Sahel defined**

productions and their modes of management.

Mauritania, Niger, Senegal, and Sudan as shown in **Figure 1**.

## **3. Ecological zones of the Sahel countries**

The Sahel countries like Mali include four ecological zones, and characteristics of the range lands fluctuate depending on four ecological zones. The quantity and quality of feedstuffs fluctuate depending on the two seasons (dry and rainy) and the length, amount, and distribution of rainfalls and soil fertility. Sivakumar et al. [5] gave a detailed description of the ecological zones of Mali, and most of them are shared with the different zones of Sahel. The four ecological zones include:


## **4. Sheep production systems in the Sahel**

The population growth increases fast in the Sahel. According to CILSS, there will be 100 million people in the region by 2020 and 200 million by 2050; this is almost four times the actual population. More than half of them, 141 million, will live in the three countries Burkina Faso, Mali, and Niger.

Livestock remain one of the most important economic activities of the Sahel with a contribution of 30 to 40% of the agricultural GNP of the countries like Burkina Faso, Cap-Vert, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal, Soudan, and Chad [6]. Besides this economic contribution, pastoral livestock is one of the most important agricultural productions in the Sahel. The Sahelian countries have an important potential of meat production with livestock estimated in 2006 at 63million cattle, 168million small ruminants, and more than 6million camels [7].

Based on the natural grazing, and some fallows, the livestock of this region is based mainly on the availability of forage that depends on climatic fluctuations,

seasonal variations, and grazing intensity as have been demonstrated by the big droughts of years 1970 and 1980 [8]. Those droughts caused the loss of about 80% of the livestock of the region conducting thousands of people to move out of the region [8].

of the high cell wall content. They include pastures, hay straw, haulms, trees, silage, etc. The pastures are used in in situ feeding on the standing herbaceous or tree/ browse plants for which quality and quantity fluctuate depending on the season and agroclimatic zones. They are most important feed resources in the Sahel. The can be cut and carried to the animal especially during the dry season. Crop residues are the second most important feed resources that can be grazed in situ or cut and carried to the animals. Their quality and quantity fluctuated depending several factors such

They include feeds with less than 18% crude fiber or less than 35% cell wall on a dry matter basis [14]. They may contain less than 20% protein on a dry matter basis and be called energy feeds and contain more than 20% protein on a dry matter basis

A more complex categorization using several parameters becomes necessary for an efficient use of feeds. The parameters used very often are name, class, chemical

A name should clearly state the source of the material and describe any process, alteration, or special circumstance, which affects the nutritional value of that feed. The International Feed Vocabulary as described by Harris et al. [15] is designed to give a comprehensive name to each feed as concisely as possible. Each feed name was coined by using descriptors taken from one or more of six facets that are origin (scientific or common name), part fed to animals, process or treatment, stage of

In the Sahel countries, feed classification is derived from two mean sources. Harris [16] and Harris [17] grouped feeds into eight classes based on their composition in the way they are used for formulating diets. The groups include (1) dry forages and roughages; (2) pasture, range plants, and forages fed green; (3) silages; (4) energy feeds; (5) protein supplements; (6) mineral supplements; (7) vitamin

The second source for classification of feeds is that of Baumont et al. [18] from which feeds are divided into two groups that are roughages and concentrates; the roughage group includes five classes that are (1) dry forages; (2) silages; (3) hays; (4) stalks, straw, and haulms; and (5) roots and tuber. The concentrate group includes 10 classes that are (1) dehydrate feeds, (2) cereals, (3) coproducts of cereals, (4) grains, (5) cake and meals, (6) other plant products, (7) coproducts,

and be known as protein supplements. The concentrate feeds include agroindustrial byproduct feeds such as rice bran, cottonseed, cottonseed meal, peanut meal, molasses, cereal grains, etc. Concentrates are expensive, are highly digestible, possess a low fiber content, and are rich in proteins. Since many concentrates are used as a staple in human diets, economics usually determine whether concentrates are fed to ruminants. Certainly few of the cereal grains are fed to sheep in the Sahel, but millet grain is known to be used by women for their "mouton de case." On the basis of protein content, concentrates may be divided into carbonaceous feeds with a relatively low protein content such as the cereal grains and nitrogenous feeds that

are rich in protein such as the various oil cakes and animal byproducts.

as variety, production techniques, area planted, etc.

*Sheep Feeding in the Sahel Countries of Africa DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92339*

**5.2 Concentrates**

**5.3 Feed names**

**5.4 Feed classes**

**39**

supplements; and (8) additives.

composition, and nutritive value of feeds.

maturity or development, cutting, and grade.

However, the succession of wet years allowed a rapid numeric reconstitution of livestock [9], and in Mali, the number of small ruminants increased from 1990 to 2005 to 26% [6].

Livestock farming in general and sheep farming in particular are very important for the Sahel countries. The most complex and limiting production factors in sheep farming for the Sahel countries are those concerning nutrition and feed supplies. The traditional concept that natural pasture is free and of no value and can, therefore, be put through grazing animals at a production cost approaching zero, with all returns of net profit, is erroneous and contributes in these problems. In addition, most land is government-owned but communally utilized.

The main resources used as sheep feeds include pastures (grazing lands, crop residues, and cultivated forages), concentrate feed, household wastes, and other feed supplements. Their relative importance varies across production systems. The solution to the problem of feed supplies depends on the production system and the ecological zone [10]. Agro-ecology, seasonality, land tenure, and management practices influence feed availability. Generally, sheep are herded during the rainy season and free ranging during the dry season. Criteria as ecological zones, relationship on sheep and crop farming, and the level of importance in sheep farming activities are the basis for making typologies on the sheep farming systems. Each ecological zone and based on how sheep farming depends on it, corresponds to a standard herding practice and a dominant sheep breed. The investment done for sheep farming and the objective of production give a precision on classification within the same ecological zone.

Although there are several livestock systems [11], they can be divided into two main systems of sheep production as has been indicated by Swift et al. [12]:


Within each system, depending on the experience and investment of the farmer, there are more or less extensive sheep farming systems. Both systems (pastoral and agro-pastoral) can be divided into extensive, semi-intensive, and intensive depending on the level of input and investment as described by Sangaré [13].

## **5. Characterization of sheep feeds and feeding**

Sheep feed may be defined as any dietary substance that nourishes the sheep body for maintenance, reproduction, and productions. The usual feeds are divided into two categories with entirely different characteristics: roughages and concentrates.

## **5.1 Roughages**

They are feeds containing more than 18% of crude fiber [14] or more than 35% of cell wall on a dry matter basis. They are low in net energy per unit weight because *Sheep Feeding in the Sahel Countries of Africa DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92339*

of the high cell wall content. They include pastures, hay straw, haulms, trees, silage, etc. The pastures are used in in situ feeding on the standing herbaceous or tree/ browse plants for which quality and quantity fluctuate depending on the season and agroclimatic zones. They are most important feed resources in the Sahel. The can be cut and carried to the animal especially during the dry season. Crop residues are the second most important feed resources that can be grazed in situ or cut and carried to the animals. Their quality and quantity fluctuated depending several factors such as variety, production techniques, area planted, etc.

## **5.2 Concentrates**

seasonal variations, and grazing intensity as have been demonstrated by the big droughts of years 1970 and 1980 [8]. Those droughts caused the loss of about 80% of the livestock of the region conducting thousands of people to move out of the

However, the succession of wet years allowed a rapid numeric reconstitution of livestock [9], and in Mali, the number of small ruminants increased from 1990 to

Livestock farming in general and sheep farming in particular are very important for the Sahel countries. The most complex and limiting production factors in sheep farming for the Sahel countries are those concerning nutrition and feed supplies. The traditional concept that natural pasture is free and of no value and can, therefore, be put through grazing animals at a production cost approaching zero, with all returns of net profit, is erroneous and contributes in these problems. In addition,

The main resources used as sheep feeds include pastures (grazing lands, crop residues, and cultivated forages), concentrate feed, household wastes, and other feed supplements. Their relative importance varies across production systems. The solution to the problem of feed supplies depends on the production system and the ecological zone [10]. Agro-ecology, seasonality, land tenure, and management practices influence feed availability. Generally, sheep are herded during the rainy season and free ranging during the dry season. Criteria as ecological zones, relationship on sheep and crop farming, and the level of importance in sheep farming activities are the basis for making typologies on the sheep farming systems. Each ecological zone and based on how sheep farming depends on it, corresponds to a standard herding practice and a dominant sheep breed. The investment done for sheep farming and the objective of production give a precision on classification

Although there are several livestock systems [11], they can be divided into two

• A pastoral system in which sheep farming of the range lands provides more than 50% of the feeds of sheep and provided more than 50% of the income.

• An agro-pastoral system in which sheep farming depends primarily on other

Within each system, depending on the experience and investment of the farmer, there are more or less extensive sheep farming systems. Both systems (pastoral and

Sheep feed may be defined as any dietary substance that nourishes the sheep body for maintenance, reproduction, and productions. The usual feeds are divided into two

They are feeds containing more than 18% of crude fiber [14] or more than 35% of cell wall on a dry matter basis. They are low in net energy per unit weight because

main systems of sheep production as has been indicated by Swift et al. [12]:

feed resources and provides from 10 to 50% of the income.

**5. Characterization of sheep feeds and feeding**

agro-pastoral) can be divided into extensive, semi-intensive, and intensive depending on the level of input and investment as described by Sangaré [13].

categories with entirely different characteristics: roughages and concentrates.

most land is government-owned but communally utilized.

*Sheep Farming - An Approach to Feed, Growth and Health*

region [8].

2005 to 26% [6].

within the same ecological zone.

**5.1 Roughages**

**38**

They include feeds with less than 18% crude fiber or less than 35% cell wall on a dry matter basis [14]. They may contain less than 20% protein on a dry matter basis and be called energy feeds and contain more than 20% protein on a dry matter basis and be known as protein supplements. The concentrate feeds include agroindustrial byproduct feeds such as rice bran, cottonseed, cottonseed meal, peanut meal, molasses, cereal grains, etc. Concentrates are expensive, are highly digestible, possess a low fiber content, and are rich in proteins. Since many concentrates are used as a staple in human diets, economics usually determine whether concentrates are fed to ruminants. Certainly few of the cereal grains are fed to sheep in the Sahel, but millet grain is known to be used by women for their "mouton de case." On the basis of protein content, concentrates may be divided into carbonaceous feeds with a relatively low protein content such as the cereal grains and nitrogenous feeds that are rich in protein such as the various oil cakes and animal byproducts.

## **5.3 Feed names**

A more complex categorization using several parameters becomes necessary for an efficient use of feeds. The parameters used very often are name, class, chemical composition, and nutritive value of feeds.

A name should clearly state the source of the material and describe any process, alteration, or special circumstance, which affects the nutritional value of that feed. The International Feed Vocabulary as described by Harris et al. [15] is designed to give a comprehensive name to each feed as concisely as possible. Each feed name was coined by using descriptors taken from one or more of six facets that are origin (scientific or common name), part fed to animals, process or treatment, stage of maturity or development, cutting, and grade.

#### **5.4 Feed classes**

In the Sahel countries, feed classification is derived from two mean sources. Harris [16] and Harris [17] grouped feeds into eight classes based on their composition in the way they are used for formulating diets. The groups include (1) dry forages and roughages; (2) pasture, range plants, and forages fed green; (3) silages; (4) energy feeds; (5) protein supplements; (6) mineral supplements; (7) vitamin supplements; and (8) additives.

The second source for classification of feeds is that of Baumont et al. [18] from which feeds are divided into two groups that are roughages and concentrates; the roughage group includes five classes that are (1) dry forages; (2) silages; (3) hays; (4) stalks, straw, and haulms; and (5) roots and tuber. The concentrate group includes 10 classes that are (1) dehydrate feeds, (2) cereals, (3) coproducts of cereals, (4) grains, (5) cake and meals, (6) other plant products, (7) coproducts,


CP + 70 � 39. Digestible energy and metabolizable energy were determined using

DE ¼ GE � dE*=*100 dE ð Þ ¼ 1*:*055 dOM � 6*:*833 with dOM en% (6)

where DE = digestible energy; GE = gross energy; dE = digestibility of energy;

Under the actual Sahel conditions, the use of the two UF is difficult, and it is

In the Sahel countries of Africa, the digestible proteins system is still much in use. The digestible protein system accounts for the apparent digestibility of the protein fraction. To determine digestible proteins, INRA [14] has recommended the

DP gð Þ¼ *=*kg DM 9*:*1 CP � 0*:*38 OM OM and CP in%of DM ð Þ ð Þ for grass plants

DP gð Þ¼ *=*kg DM 8*:*7 CP � 0*:*41 OM OM and CP in%DM ð Þ ð Þ for legume plants

where DP = digestible protein; DM = dry matter; CP = crude protein; and

Since 1979, INRA has been using widely the protein digested in the intestine (PDI) system which accounts for the digestibility of the protein fraction in the small

The nutritive value of the common sheep feeds in the Sahel from Nantoumé

The nutrient needs of sheep vary greatly according to the physiological stage: maintenance, growth, gestation, lactation, and fattening. The daily requirements can be found in several books. **Table 2**, from Memento de l'Agronome [21], gives the nutrient requirements of the ewe for maintenance, late gestation, and milk production, while **Table 3** gives the nutrient requirements of ram for maintenance, growth, and fattening. The nutrient in consideration is energy expressed in forage unit for lactation, digestible protein (DP), digestible protein in the intestine, cal-

Of primary importance in sheep nutrition are water, energy, protein, minerals,

Water is essential for all livestock and must be planned for an adequate supply of clean water. Ordinarily, sheep consume two to three times as much water as dry

For the net energy value, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA) of France is recommending the use of forage unit for lactation (UFL) for maintenance, lactation, and animals of medium growth rate and forage unit for meat production (UFV) for fattening lambs and cattle having an average daily gain greater than 750 g/day. One feed unit corresponds to the net energy value of 1 kg

dOM = digestibility of organic matter; and ME = metabolizable energy.

ME ¼ 0*:*82 DE (7)

(8)

(9)

the following equations:

following equations:

OM = organic matter.

intestine.

barley for maintenance or production.

*Sheep Feeding in the Sahel Countries of Africa DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92339*

recommended to use UFL for all categories of sheep.

et al. [13]—unpublished data is given in Annex 1.

**6. Nutrient requirements of sheep**

cium (Ca), and phosphorus (P).

and vitamins.

**6.1 Water**

**41**

#### **Table 1.**

*Classes of feeds in Mali.*

(8) fat, (9) treated feed, and (10) diverse products. Based on the sources, the appropriate classification for the Sahel countries is as shown in **Table 1**.

## **5.5 Chemical composition and nutritive value of sheep common feeds**

From the classes of feeds (**Table 1**), the most common feeds used in most Sahelian countries are roughages (native grazing lands), agricultural byproducts (rice straw, corn, sorghum, millet stalks) and the agro-industrial byproducts like meals (cottonseed, peanut) and bran (rice, wheat, millet, and sorghum). Silages, known a long time ago, are not commonly used. Energetic feeds are used only in intensive sheep production such as in fattening sheep. Mineral supplements are used very often; vitamin supplements are less commonly used while feed additives are not used at all. Feeds are analyzed in the Animal Nutrition Lab [19, 20] of Institut d'Economie Rurale (IER). The most common analyses include dry matter, ash, crude protein, crude fiber, crude fat, gross energy, calcium, phosphorus, sodium, neutral detergent fiber (NDF), acid detergent fiber (ADF), and acid detergent lignin (ADL). Digestibility values are obtained with sheep (in vivo digestibility) or estimated from chemical composition using the following equations developed by INRA [14]:

$$\text{Grosses: dOM} = 93.2 - 0.104 \text{ CF} + 0.025 \text{ CP} \tag{1}$$

$$\text{Legumes: } \text{dOM} = 78.9 - 0.059 \text{ CF} \tag{2}$$

Cereals and coproducts: dOM ¼ 95*:*8 � 0*:*191 CF � 2*:*54 (3)

$$\text{Pearut metal: } \text{dOM} = 87.75 - 0.0314 \text{ CF} - 1.86$$

$$\text{Cottonsed metal:}\\\text{dOM} = 87.75 - 0.0314 \text{ CF} + 6.22 \tag{5}$$

where d = digestibility; OM = organic matter; CF = crude fiber; and CP = crude protein.

The chemical composition of the common sheep feeds in the Sahel from Nantoumé et al. [13]—unpublished data is given in Annex 1.

#### **5.6 Nutritive value of common sheep feeds**

The energy value of feedstuffs and the energy requirements of animals have been expressed in gross energy (GE) using the formula GE = 4516 + 1.646

CP + 70 � 39. Digestible energy and metabolizable energy were determined using the following equations:

$$\text{DE} = \text{GE} \times \text{dE} / 100 \text{ (dE} = 1.055 \,\text{dOM} - 6.833) \text{ with } \text{dOM} \text{ en} \% \tag{6}$$

$$\text{ME} = \text{0.82 DE} \tag{7}$$

where DE = digestible energy; GE = gross energy; dE = digestibility of energy; dOM = digestibility of organic matter; and ME = metabolizable energy.

For the net energy value, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA) of France is recommending the use of forage unit for lactation (UFL) for maintenance, lactation, and animals of medium growth rate and forage unit for meat production (UFV) for fattening lambs and cattle having an average daily gain greater than 750 g/day. One feed unit corresponds to the net energy value of 1 kg barley for maintenance or production.

Under the actual Sahel conditions, the use of the two UF is difficult, and it is recommended to use UFL for all categories of sheep.

In the Sahel countries of Africa, the digestible proteins system is still much in use. The digestible protein system accounts for the apparent digestibility of the protein fraction. To determine digestible proteins, INRA [14] has recommended the following equations:

$$\text{DP (g/kg DM)} = 9.1 \text{ CP} - 0.38 \text{ OM (OM and CP in\%of DM) (for grass plants)} \tag{8}$$

$$\text{DP (g/kg DM)} = 8.7 \text{ CP} - 0.41 \text{ OM (OM and CP in\%óDM) (for legume plants)} \tag{9}$$

where DP = digestible protein; DM = dry matter; CP = crude protein; and OM = organic matter.

Since 1979, INRA has been using widely the protein digested in the intestine (PDI) system which accounts for the digestibility of the protein fraction in the small intestine.

The nutritive value of the common sheep feeds in the Sahel from Nantoumé et al. [13]—unpublished data is given in Annex 1.

## **6. Nutrient requirements of sheep**

The nutrient needs of sheep vary greatly according to the physiological stage: maintenance, growth, gestation, lactation, and fattening. The daily requirements can be found in several books. **Table 2**, from Memento de l'Agronome [21], gives the nutrient requirements of the ewe for maintenance, late gestation, and milk production, while **Table 3** gives the nutrient requirements of ram for maintenance, growth, and fattening. The nutrient in consideration is energy expressed in forage unit for lactation, digestible protein (DP), digestible protein in the intestine, calcium (Ca), and phosphorus (P).

Of primary importance in sheep nutrition are water, energy, protein, minerals, and vitamins.

## **6.1 Water**

Water is essential for all livestock and must be planned for an adequate supply of clean water. Ordinarily, sheep consume two to three times as much water as dry

(8) fat, (9) treated feed, and (10) diverse products. Based on the sources, the appropriate classification for the Sahel countries is as shown in **Table 1**.

1. Roughages All the forages and rangelands, natural or cultivated and green or dry containing more than

3. Energetic feeds Products containing a small level of protein (less than 20%) and a small amount of crude

milk products containing a high level of protein (more than 20%)

18% of crude fiber or containing more than 35% of NDF on a dry matter basis: straws, stalks

Products from plant sources (cake and meal) and animal sources (blood meal, meat meal),

From the classes of feeds (**Table 1**), the most common feeds used in most Sahelian countries are roughages (native grazing lands), agricultural byproducts (rice straw, corn, sorghum, millet stalks) and the agro-industrial byproducts like meals (cottonseed, peanut) and bran (rice, wheat, millet, and sorghum). Silages, known a long time ago, are not commonly used. Energetic feeds are used only in intensive sheep production such as in fattening sheep. Mineral supplements are used very often; vitamin supplements are less commonly used while feed additives are not used at all. Feeds are analyzed in the Animal Nutrition Lab [19, 20] of Institut d'Economie Rurale (IER). The most common analyses include dry matter, ash, crude protein, crude fiber, crude fat, gross energy, calcium, phosphorus, sodium, neutral detergent fiber (NDF), acid detergent fiber (ADF), and acid detergent lignin (ADL). Digestibility values are obtained with sheep (in vivo digestibility) or estimated from chemical

Grasses: dOM ¼ 93*:*2 � 0*:*104 CF þ 0*:*025 CP (1)

Cereals and coproducts: dOM ¼ 95*:*8 � 0*:*191 CF � 2*:*54 (3) Peanut meal: dOM ¼ 87*:*75 � 0*:*0314 CF � 1*:*86 (4) Cottonseed meal: dOM ¼ 87*:*75 � 0*:*0314 CF þ 6*:*22 (5)

where d = digestibility; OM = organic matter; CF = crude fiber; and CP = crude

The chemical composition of the common sheep feeds in the Sahel from

The energy value of feedstuffs and the energy requirements of animals have

been expressed in gross energy (GE) using the formula GE = 4516 + 1.646

Nantoumé et al. [13]—unpublished data is given in Annex 1.

**5.6 Nutritive value of common sheep feeds**

Legumes: dOM ¼ 78*:*9 � 0*:*059 CF (2)

**5.5 Chemical composition and nutritive value of sheep common feeds**

7. Feed additives Hormones, antibiotics, coloring materials, medicaments, etc.

**N° Classes Criteria for classification**

2. Silages Include ensiled forages

4. Protein supplements

5. Mineral supplements

6. Vitamin supplements

*Classes of feeds in Mali.*

**Table 1.**

fiber (less than 18%)

*Sheep Farming - An Approach to Feed, Growth and Health*

Bone meal

composition using the following equations developed by INRA [14]:

protein.

**40**


### **Table 2.**

*Nutrient requirement of ewes for gestation and lactation with an average energy value of milk of 0.68 UFL/kg and a protein value of 60 g/kg.*

The energy value of feedstuffs and the energy requirements of animals have been expressed in several units such as gross energy, digestible energy, metabolized energy, and net energy using forage unit. One forage unit corresponds to the net energy value of 1 kg barley for maintenance or production. Actually, two units from INRA [26] are used: forage unit for milk production and forage unit for meat production. The major sources of energy for sheep are hay, pasture, crop residues, agro-industrial byproducts, and even grains to raise the energy level of the diet when necessary. Energy deficiencies can cause reduced growth rate, loss of weight, reduced fertility, lowered milk production, and reduced wool quantity

**Liveweight (kg) ADG (g) UFL DP (g) PDI (g) Ca (g) P (g)** 20 Maintenance 0.31 24 25 2.0 1.5

30 Maintenance 0.42 32 33 2.5 1.8

40 Maintenance 0.52 40 41 3.0 2.0

50 0.51 40 40 3.1 2.0 80 0.57 50 50 3.8 2.3 110 0.62 59 58 4.4 2.6 140 0.68 69 68 5.1 2.9 170 0.75 79 77 5.8 3.2

70 0.72 56 55 4.1 2.5 110 0.80 65 63 5.0 2.9 150 0.90 77 74 5.8 3.3

75 0.95 63 62 4.7 2.9 110 1.06 71 69 5.5 3.1 145 1.18 82 79 6.2 3.5

The energy needs of sheep and the energy value of feedstuffs are expressed in

In sheep rations, the amount of protein is much more important than the quality of protein. However, since sheep is a ruminant and mature, the naturally occurring protein and non-protein nitrogen (urea) are used effectively in their diets. Common sources of natural protein supplements include cottonseed and peanut meals that contain from 20 to 30% protein and are good sources of supplemental protein. High-quality legume hays can contain from 10 to 18% protein and provide adequate

Mature sheep can be fed low levels of non-protein nitrogen. In general, supplemental no-protein nitrogen is beneficial only when adequate energy is available. Urea should never make up more than one-third of the ruminally degradable

several energy units such as forage unit, calorie, TDN, amidon unit, etc. In balancing rations it is required to use the same unit for both the energy needs of

protein for most classes of sheep when fed as a complete ration.

and quality.

**Table 3.**

**6.3 Protein**

protein in the diet.

**43**

sheep and the energy value of feedstuffs.

*Nutrient requirement of ewes for growth and fattening.*

*Sheep Feeding in the Sahel Countries of Africa DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92339*

matter. A generally applied estimate for water requirement is 2 ml per gram of dry matter consumed [10]. The voluntary intake of water is affected by a number of factors such as ambient temperature, amount of activity, amount of dry matter eaten, level of salt intake, physiological state of animal, availability of water, stage of lactation, and composition of the ration (moisture content) and drinking interval. The needs increase at the end of gestation, during lactation, and during hot dry season. An ewe can drink up to 7 l per day while in gestation and up to 15 during lactation [22]. Water supply, if limited, restricts voluntary feed intake and feed utilization of livestock depending on various factors and mechanisms [23, 24]. An excessive salt intake will increase the amount of water drunk. A safe limit of salts in drinking water is given as 1.5%.

## **6.2 Energy**

The energy needs of sheep vary greatly according to the physiological stage: maintenance, gestation, lactation, or growth. At a given physiological stage, the needs are the same but can be expressed in a different unit. The needs for maintenance correspond to the amount of feed necessary to maintain the weight of the animal. They are estimated in relation to the live weight of the animal. In complete confinement, the maintenance needs are usually stated as 95 kcal metabolizable energy/kg0.75 [22] and 1 to 1.2 forage unit for a 100 kg liveweight sheep [25].

*Sheep Feeding in the Sahel Countries of Africa DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92339*


#### **Table 3.**

matter. A generally applied estimate for water requirement is 2 ml per gram of dry matter consumed [10]. The voluntary intake of water is affected by a number of factors such as ambient temperature, amount of activity, amount of dry matter eaten, level of salt intake, physiological state of animal, availability of water, stage of lactation, and composition of the ration (moisture content) and drinking interval. The needs increase at the end of gestation, during lactation, and during hot dry season. An ewe can drink up to 7 l per day while in gestation and up to 15 during lactation [22]. Water supply, if limited, restricts voluntary feed intake and feed utilization of livestock depending on various factors and mechanisms [23, 24]. An excessive salt intake will increase the amount of water drunk. A safe limit of salts in

*Nutrient requirement of ewes for gestation and lactation with an average energy value of milk of 0.68 UFL/kg*

**Liveweight (kg) Performances UF DP (g) PDI (g) Ca (g) P (g)** 20 Maintenance 0.31 24 25 2.0 1.5

30 Maintenance 0.42 32 33 2.5 1.8

40 Maintenance 0.52 40 41 4.0 2.0

Lactation Milk produced/day

Lactation Milk produced/day

Lactation Milk produced/day

0.38 36 38 2.8 1.9

0.53 48 50 3.4 2.3

0.66 60 62 4.1 2.5

300 g 0.51 53 50 3.5 2.2 600 g 0.72 82 74 5.0 2.8 900 g 0.92 111 99 6.5 3.5

400 g 0.69 71 66 4.5 2.5 800 g 0.96 110 99 6.5 3.6 1200 g 1.24 148 131 8.5 4.4

500 g 0.86 89 82 5.5 3.1 1000 g 1.20 137 123 8.0 4.2 1500 g 1.54 186 164 10.5 5.3

5th month of gestation

*Sheep Farming - An Approach to Feed, Growth and Health*

5th month of gestation

5th month of gestation

The energy needs of sheep vary greatly according to the physiological stage: maintenance, gestation, lactation, or growth. At a given physiological stage, the needs are the same but can be expressed in a different unit. The needs for maintenance correspond to the amount of feed necessary to maintain the weight of the animal. They are estimated in relation to the live weight of the animal. In complete confinement, the maintenance needs are usually stated as 95 kcal metabolizable energy/kg0.75 [22] and 1 to 1.2 forage unit for a 100 kg liveweight sheep [25].

drinking water is given as 1.5%.

**6.2 Energy**

**42**

**Table 2.**

*and a protein value of 60 g/kg.*

*Nutrient requirement of ewes for growth and fattening.*

The energy value of feedstuffs and the energy requirements of animals have been expressed in several units such as gross energy, digestible energy, metabolized energy, and net energy using forage unit. One forage unit corresponds to the net energy value of 1 kg barley for maintenance or production. Actually, two units from INRA [26] are used: forage unit for milk production and forage unit for meat production. The major sources of energy for sheep are hay, pasture, crop residues, agro-industrial byproducts, and even grains to raise the energy level of the diet when necessary. Energy deficiencies can cause reduced growth rate, loss of weight, reduced fertility, lowered milk production, and reduced wool quantity and quality.

The energy needs of sheep and the energy value of feedstuffs are expressed in several energy units such as forage unit, calorie, TDN, amidon unit, etc. In balancing rations it is required to use the same unit for both the energy needs of sheep and the energy value of feedstuffs.

#### **6.3 Protein**

In sheep rations, the amount of protein is much more important than the quality of protein. However, since sheep is a ruminant and mature, the naturally occurring protein and non-protein nitrogen (urea) are used effectively in their diets. Common sources of natural protein supplements include cottonseed and peanut meals that contain from 20 to 30% protein and are good sources of supplemental protein. High-quality legume hays can contain from 10 to 18% protein and provide adequate protein for most classes of sheep when fed as a complete ration.

Mature sheep can be fed low levels of non-protein nitrogen. In general, supplemental no-protein nitrogen is beneficial only when adequate energy is available. Urea should never make up more than one-third of the ruminally degradable protein in the diet.

Sheep daily protein requirement is estimated to be 0.6 g/kg body weight [25, 26]. Similarly, the protein content of feedstuffs that can be expressed in several units can be found in the literature [14, 25].

**6.7 Range grazing**

*Sheep Feeding in the Sahel Countries of Africa DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92339*

**6.8 Crop residues**

groundnut).

for about 3 months.

with legume hays [33].

**45**

**6.9 Forage preservation and storage**

Sheep are natural grazers, and they are easy to control through herding on natural range. In consequence, small children very often are herders. Sheep prefer short grass and have difficulty eating coarse feedstuffs [10]. Sheep frequently obtain critical protein and vitamins from browsing on leaves and fallen pods of different tree species. Grazing on natural ranges and marginal wasteland provides most of the annual feed intake of Sahel sheep. The fact that most grazing land is

The second most important feed resource for Sahel sheep is crop residues [31]. The usual practice is to permit free access to cropland after harvest is completed. This practice is used only partially, and part of the forage is used in other forms of feed. The kind and nature of residues depend on the crops grown. They include cereals (rice, sorghum, millet, corn, barley, wheat) and legumes (cowpea,

Forage may be used as feed in five forms: pasture, hay, silage, cut and fed in the fresh or green state, and chemically treated. Silage and cut and fed in the fresh or green state are well known and applied in the Sahel countries. Although hay and silage making and forage treatment may have a considerable potential for bridging

**Hay** is the most important of all harvested roughages. The legume hays (e.g., cowpea and groundnut) are especially valuable, since they are high in protein, calcium, and other nutrients and are both palatable and highly digestible.

**Silage** results from the preservation of green forage under anaerobic conditions. The best grass silage can be made when the material contains 60 to 75% of moisture. The concept of silage making is very old but rather less practiced. A pit of 3 m diameter and 2 m depth holds 6 to 8 tons of silage that is sufficient to feed 20 sheep

The practice of leaving the **straw and stover** of harvested cereal crops in the

A third most important feed resource for Sahel sheep includes residues from the

processing of the various agricultural products that are cottonseeds, cottonseed

In the Sahel countries, mixed crop-livestock farming and pastoralism are the dominant forms of agricultural production. In these farming systems, sheep feeding depends mostly on rangeland, fallows, and cropland grazing. Nutritional constraints to grazing sheep are ecological zone variations, feed scarcity, and seasonal fluctuations in feed supply associated with low rainfall and poor soil fertility. The options to improve sheep nutrition vary seasonally in the Sahel countries. Due to seasonal fluctuations in the availability and quality of the feed resources, the intake

meal, groundnut meal, brans of cereals, molasses, etc.

**6.10 Seasonal consideration in Sahel feed supplies**

fields to be grazed over by livestock may not be desired. The collection and stacking of these materials where they could be rationed out to livestock would increase the value of the feed several times. Other ways of increasing the feeding value of straws are through urea treatment [32] and proper supplementation

the dry season feed gap, their use needs further promotion in the Sahel.

owned communally complicates improvement efforts.

## **6.4 Minerals**

Some minerals are essential in sheep nutrition. Minerals essential for ruminants include macro minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, potassium, chlorine, and sulfur and trace minerals such as copper, molybdenum, iron, manganese, zinc, selenium, cobalt, and iodine [27]. Most of these requirements are met under normal grazing and feeding habits in the Sahel countries. The necessity for the addition of minerals to the ration is determined by the character of the feed eaten, including the water consumed [10]. Maintaining optimum rumen fermentation with straw-based rations requires a minimum mineral supply as given by Moss et al. [28]. Those that are most deficient are salt (sodium chloride), phosphorus, and calcium.

Salt is essential for many body functions. When sheep are deprived of salt, they generally consume less feed and water, produce less milk, and grow slowly. Inadequate salt intake may cause decreased feed consumption and decreased efficiency of nutrient use [10]. In general, supplemental salt should be provided to range ewes at a level of 8 to 11 g of salt per head per day. For mixed feeds, an addition of 0.3% to the complete diet or 1% to the concentrate portion is recommended [27].

Pastures and hay are generally low in phosphorus; however, in grains the amount of phosphorous is moderate to high. Since any efficient sheep operation uses a high percentage of roughage or pasture, it is assumed that the sheep need phosphorus supplementation. Phosphorus deficiency causes slow growth, reduced appetite, abnormal bone development, and poor reproductive performance. It may be beneficial to provide phosphorus supplements year-round for the breeding flock.

#### **6.5 Vitamins**

Mature sheep require all the fat-soluble vitamins: A, D, E, and K. They do not require supplemental B vitamins, which can be synthesized in the rumen. Normally, the forage and feed supply contain all essential vitamins in adequate amounts, except vitamin A, which is sometimes deficient. Vitamin A does not occur in plant tissue but is synthetized by the animal from chemical precursors in plants, mainly beta carotene [29]. However, sheep can store vitamin A for a considerable time. If ewes have pastured on green forage or have had access to high-quality legume hay, vitamin A is not usually deficient.

#### **6.6 Strategies of feeding sheep**

The main resources used as sheep feed in the Sahel include pastures (herbaceous plants, fodder trees/shrubs), crop residues, cultivated forages, concentrate feed (agro-industrial byproducts, grains, feed supplements, etc.), and household wastes. The relative importance of these resources varies across production systems. Agroecology, seasonality, land tenure, and management practices at the farm level, among other factors, influence their availability [30]. In the agro-pastoral system, improvement of nutrition is based on the definition of a supplemental feeding strategy and on the improvement of the quality of low-quality forage [22].

## **6.7 Range grazing**

Sheep daily protein requirement is estimated to be 0.6 g/kg body weight [25, 26]. Similarly, the protein content of feedstuffs that can be expressed in several units

Some minerals are essential in sheep nutrition. Minerals essential for ruminants include macro minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, potassium, chlorine, and sulfur and trace minerals such as copper, molybdenum, iron, manganese, zinc, selenium, cobalt, and iodine [27]. Most of these requirements are met under normal grazing and feeding habits in the Sahel countries. The necessity for the addition of minerals to the ration is determined by the character of the feed eaten, including the water consumed [10]. Maintaining optimum rumen fermentation with straw-based rations requires a minimum mineral supply as given by Moss et al. [28]. Those that are most deficient are salt (sodium chloride), phosphorus, and

Salt is essential for many body functions. When sheep are deprived of salt, they generally consume less feed and water, produce less milk, and grow slowly. Inadequate salt intake may cause decreased feed consumption and decreased efficiency of nutrient use [10]. In general, supplemental salt should be provided to range ewes at a level of 8 to 11 g of salt per head per day. For mixed feeds, an addition of 0.3% to the complete diet or 1% to the concentrate portion is

Pastures and hay are generally low in phosphorus; however, in grains the amount of phosphorous is moderate to high. Since any efficient sheep operation uses a high percentage of roughage or pasture, it is assumed that the sheep need phosphorus supplementation. Phosphorus deficiency causes slow growth, reduced appetite, abnormal bone development, and poor reproductive performance. It may be beneficial to provide phosphorus supplements year-round for the breeding flock.

Mature sheep require all the fat-soluble vitamins: A, D, E, and K. They do not require supplemental B vitamins, which can be synthesized in the rumen. Normally, the forage and feed supply contain all essential vitamins in adequate amounts, except vitamin A, which is sometimes deficient. Vitamin A does not occur in plant tissue but is synthetized by the animal from chemical precursors in plants, mainly beta carotene [29]. However, sheep can store vitamin A for a considerable time. If ewes have pastured on green forage or have had access to high-quality legume hay,

The main resources used as sheep feed in the Sahel include pastures (herbaceous plants, fodder trees/shrubs), crop residues, cultivated forages, concentrate feed (agro-industrial byproducts, grains, feed supplements, etc.), and household wastes. The relative importance of these resources varies across production systems. Agroecology, seasonality, land tenure, and management practices at the farm level, among other factors, influence their availability [30]. In the agro-pastoral system, improvement of nutrition is based on the definition of a supplemental feeding strategy and on the improvement of the quality of low-quality forage [22].

can be found in the literature [14, 25].

*Sheep Farming - An Approach to Feed, Growth and Health*

**6.4 Minerals**

calcium.

recommended [27].

**6.5 Vitamins**

**44**

vitamin A is not usually deficient.

**6.6 Strategies of feeding sheep**

Sheep are natural grazers, and they are easy to control through herding on natural range. In consequence, small children very often are herders. Sheep prefer short grass and have difficulty eating coarse feedstuffs [10]. Sheep frequently obtain critical protein and vitamins from browsing on leaves and fallen pods of different tree species. Grazing on natural ranges and marginal wasteland provides most of the annual feed intake of Sahel sheep. The fact that most grazing land is owned communally complicates improvement efforts.

## **6.8 Crop residues**

The second most important feed resource for Sahel sheep is crop residues [31]. The usual practice is to permit free access to cropland after harvest is completed. This practice is used only partially, and part of the forage is used in other forms of feed. The kind and nature of residues depend on the crops grown. They include cereals (rice, sorghum, millet, corn, barley, wheat) and legumes (cowpea, groundnut).

## **6.9 Forage preservation and storage**

Forage may be used as feed in five forms: pasture, hay, silage, cut and fed in the fresh or green state, and chemically treated. Silage and cut and fed in the fresh or green state are well known and applied in the Sahel countries. Although hay and silage making and forage treatment may have a considerable potential for bridging the dry season feed gap, their use needs further promotion in the Sahel.

**Hay** is the most important of all harvested roughages. The legume hays (e.g., cowpea and groundnut) are especially valuable, since they are high in protein, calcium, and other nutrients and are both palatable and highly digestible.

**Silage** results from the preservation of green forage under anaerobic conditions. The best grass silage can be made when the material contains 60 to 75% of moisture.

The concept of silage making is very old but rather less practiced. A pit of 3 m diameter and 2 m depth holds 6 to 8 tons of silage that is sufficient to feed 20 sheep for about 3 months.

The practice of leaving the **straw and stover** of harvested cereal crops in the fields to be grazed over by livestock may not be desired. The collection and stacking of these materials where they could be rationed out to livestock would increase the value of the feed several times. Other ways of increasing the feeding value of straws are through urea treatment [32] and proper supplementation with legume hays [33].

A third most important feed resource for Sahel sheep includes residues from the processing of the various agricultural products that are cottonseeds, cottonseed meal, groundnut meal, brans of cereals, molasses, etc.

## **6.10 Seasonal consideration in Sahel feed supplies**

In the Sahel countries, mixed crop-livestock farming and pastoralism are the dominant forms of agricultural production. In these farming systems, sheep feeding depends mostly on rangeland, fallows, and cropland grazing. Nutritional constraints to grazing sheep are ecological zone variations, feed scarcity, and seasonal fluctuations in feed supply associated with low rainfall and poor soil fertility. The options to improve sheep nutrition vary seasonally in the Sahel countries. Due to seasonal fluctuations in the availability and quality of the feed resources, the intake

of energy, protein, and some essential minerals by most ruminant species fall below their maintenance requirements resulting in undernutrition and low productivity in most production systems [34].

During the rainy season, the forage grows and the crops develop. At this stage the quality of the forage available is very high, and the main constraint is herd mobility. Grazing and moving herds to watering points may lead to conflicts between herders and farmers. Transhumance is a common practice in the West African Sahel based on regular seasonal migration from a permanent homestead to access to better range resources in terms of quality and plant species diversity and protection of crops from damage by grazing animals. The wet season grazing areas are also the location of sites for the "cure salé" to cover certain mineral deficiencies [3].

At the end of the rainy season, in the early dry season, all range forages including trees and crop residues are available in large amounts although their quality is relatively low because of lignification. Conserving crop residues and bush hay under cut-and-carry strategies may reduce spoilage and provide feed late in the dry season. Legume (groundnut and cowpea) hays are harvested and highly priced in local markets. They can be used to feed animals with higher protein requirement, such as lactating ewes and fattening sheep.

enough to cover maintenance requirements and even part of the production needs of the grazing sheep. However, the high producing sheep (lactating and fattening

**Categories Rainy season Dry and cold season Dry and hot season**

Young 0 100 g cottonseed meal 100 g straw + 100 g cottonseed meal Adult 0 200 g cottonseed meal 200 g hay + 200 g cottonseed meal

> 400 g cottonseed meal

*Quantities (g/animal/d) of supplements used for different categories depending on the season.*

200 g cottonseed meal 200 g hay + 200 g cottonseed meal

200 g de grossier + 400 g cottonseed meal

As the rainy season ends, aboveground forage mass decreases in quality because of lignification while the biomass is still available. At first, improving the feeding value of forages through proper preservation and storage may be enough to cover the deficit in nutrient requirements of the animal. High producing sheep may need

When the dry season progresses from the cool season to the hot season, both quality and quantity of forages decrease. Therefore, both forages and concentrates may be used as feed supplements. An example of supplemental feeding of sheep in Mali is given in **Table 4**. A 2-year study conducted by Nantoumé et al. [35] using this supplemental feeding gave interesting results. Fertility, birth rate and numeric productivity were improved in ewes receiving supplemental feed. The times of kidding and of kids born per pregnancy were higher in supplemented animals. Feed supplements increased milk production per lactation from 26.1 to 43.2 l

The rational feeding of ewes is economically valid only if the farmer knows with

The level of nutrition at the end of gestation has an important effect on the development of the lambs and thus their survival after birth, on the building of body reserves and on the maternal performances of the ewes, which will affect the

The growth of the fetus is especially important during the last third of gestation: 70 to 80% of the total weight gain occurs during this period. The last 6 to 8 weeks of gestation are thus critical in terms of nutrition because the nutrient requirements of the ewe increase tremendously. Supplementation of the ewe with a feed high in energy is extremely desirable. However, the supplementation is difficult to achieve because of the decrease of the ewe's appetite due to a reduction of the rumen capacity and the high cost of the high-energy feed. A low level of nutrition at the

animals) may need supplemental feeds.

Ram 100 g cottonseed

Lactating 200 g cottonseed

meal

*Sheep Feeding in the Sahel Countries of Africa DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92339*

meal

*6.11.1.1 Supplementation*

**Table 4.**

for sheep [35].

*6.11.1.2 Intensive feeding*

*6.11.1.2.1.1 Gestation*

**47**

post-natal growth of the lamb.

precision the physiological stage of the ewes.

*6.11.1.2.1 Feeding ewes for gestation and milk production*

concentrate supplement feeds.

As the dry season progresses, aboveground forage mass decreases. Animals require longer grazing time and spend more energy walking. At this stage, it is advantageous to restrict walking by keeping animals on fields and feed them with the store feeds.

Late in the dry season, the lack of feed and low protein content limits the efficient use of the feed available. The main option during the late dry season and early rains consists in providing supplementary feeding with crop residues, bush hay, and/or grain byproducts and agro-industrial byproducts. Supplementary feeding with roughages will be determined by the availability of labor and cost of transport, whereas the use of concentrates will be a function of availability and cost of grain and agro-industrial byproducts.

Supplements are defined as special concentrate feeds that are fed to supply nutrients which are deficient in a ration to balance the ration for essential nutrients. Among the most relevant supplements most often needed in the Sahel are minerals, such as calcium and phosphorus and protein from byproducts feeds (oil cakes and cereal milling residues). Molasses can be used to increase energy and palatability and as carrier of non-protein nitrogenous substances such as urea.

## **6.11 Practical guidelines for feeding**

Two types of feed resources available to the farmers can be considered: the onfarm feed resources such as range, fallow, and crop residues and the purchasable resources such as agro-industrial byproducts. The quality and quantity of grass are variable depending on the year, the season, and the ecological zone. However, in the Sahel, there are two main seasons within a year; for animal feeding purposes, the year can be divided into three seasons in the Sahel that are the rainy season from July to September, the dry cool season from October to February, and the dry hot season from March to mid-June. The season associated with the agroclimatic zone is the most important factor that drives feed supply in the Sahel.

#### *6.11.1 Coping with feed scarcity in the Sahel*

In the Sahel, aboveground forage is the major or sometimes the sole sheep feed resource. During the rainy season, feed supplies from grazing lands and fallow are


**Table 4.**

of energy, protein, and some essential minerals by most ruminant species fall below their maintenance requirements resulting in undernutrition and low

During the rainy season, the forage grows and the crops develop. At this stage the quality of the forage available is very high, and the main constraint is herd mobility. Grazing and moving herds to watering points may lead to conflicts between herders and farmers. Transhumance is a common practice in the West African Sahel based on regular seasonal migration from a permanent homestead to access to better range resources in terms of quality and plant species diversity and protection of crops from damage by grazing animals. The wet season grazing areas are also the location of sites for the "cure salé" to cover certain mineral

At the end of the rainy season, in the early dry season, all range forages including

trees and crop residues are available in large amounts although their quality is relatively low because of lignification. Conserving crop residues and bush hay under cut-and-carry strategies may reduce spoilage and provide feed late in the dry season. Legume (groundnut and cowpea) hays are harvested and highly priced in local markets. They can be used to feed animals with higher protein requirement, such as

As the dry season progresses, aboveground forage mass decreases. Animals require longer grazing time and spend more energy walking. At this stage, it is advantageous to restrict walking by keeping animals on fields and feed them with

Late in the dry season, the lack of feed and low protein content limits the efficient use of the feed available. The main option during the late dry season and early rains consists in providing supplementary feeding with crop residues, bush hay, and/or grain byproducts and agro-industrial byproducts. Supplementary feeding with roughages will be determined by the availability of labor and cost of transport, whereas the use of concentrates will be a function of availability and cost

Supplements are defined as special concentrate feeds that are fed to supply nutrients which are deficient in a ration to balance the ration for essential nutrients. Among the most relevant supplements most often needed in the Sahel are minerals, such as calcium and phosphorus and protein from byproducts feeds (oil cakes and cereal milling residues). Molasses can be used to increase energy and palatability

Two types of feed resources available to the farmers can be considered: the onfarm feed resources such as range, fallow, and crop residues and the purchasable resources such as agro-industrial byproducts. The quality and quantity of grass are variable depending on the year, the season, and the ecological zone. However, in the Sahel, there are two main seasons within a year; for animal feeding purposes, the year can be divided into three seasons in the Sahel that are the rainy season from July to September, the dry cool season from October to February, and the dry hot season from March to mid-June. The season associated with the agroclimatic zone is

In the Sahel, aboveground forage is the major or sometimes the sole sheep feed resource. During the rainy season, feed supplies from grazing lands and fallow are

and as carrier of non-protein nitrogenous substances such as urea.

the most important factor that drives feed supply in the Sahel.

productivity in most production systems [34].

*Sheep Farming - An Approach to Feed, Growth and Health*

deficiencies [3].

the store feeds.

lactating ewes and fattening sheep.

of grain and agro-industrial byproducts.

**6.11 Practical guidelines for feeding**

*6.11.1 Coping with feed scarcity in the Sahel*

**46**

*Quantities (g/animal/d) of supplements used for different categories depending on the season.*

enough to cover maintenance requirements and even part of the production needs of the grazing sheep. However, the high producing sheep (lactating and fattening animals) may need supplemental feeds.

## *6.11.1.1 Supplementation*

As the rainy season ends, aboveground forage mass decreases in quality because of lignification while the biomass is still available. At first, improving the feeding value of forages through proper preservation and storage may be enough to cover the deficit in nutrient requirements of the animal. High producing sheep may need concentrate supplement feeds.

When the dry season progresses from the cool season to the hot season, both quality and quantity of forages decrease. Therefore, both forages and concentrates may be used as feed supplements. An example of supplemental feeding of sheep in Mali is given in **Table 4**. A 2-year study conducted by Nantoumé et al. [35] using this supplemental feeding gave interesting results. Fertility, birth rate and numeric productivity were improved in ewes receiving supplemental feed. The times of kidding and of kids born per pregnancy were higher in supplemented animals. Feed supplements increased milk production per lactation from 26.1 to 43.2 l for sheep [35].

## *6.11.1.2 Intensive feeding*

The rational feeding of ewes is economically valid only if the farmer knows with precision the physiological stage of the ewes.

## *6.11.1.2.1 Feeding ewes for gestation and milk production*

## *6.11.1.2.1.1 Gestation*

The level of nutrition at the end of gestation has an important effect on the development of the lambs and thus their survival after birth, on the building of body reserves and on the maternal performances of the ewes, which will affect the post-natal growth of the lamb.

The growth of the fetus is especially important during the last third of gestation: 70 to 80% of the total weight gain occurs during this period. The last 6 to 8 weeks of gestation are thus critical in terms of nutrition because the nutrient requirements of the ewe increase tremendously. Supplementation of the ewe with a feed high in energy is extremely desirable. However, the supplementation is difficult to achieve because of the decrease of the ewe's appetite due to a reduction of the rumen capacity and the high cost of the high-energy feed. A low level of nutrition at the


**7. Conclusion**

*Sheep Feeding in the Sahel Countries of Africa DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92339*

sheep are.

**Annex 1**

**49**

The overall results of our study showed that sheep farming is an important economic activity of most of the population. This review shows that seasonal fluctuations of feed resources in the Sahel follow the pattern of vegetation growth that is modified by the availability of rainfall. This resulted in a seasonal pattern of wet season gain and dry season loss of liveweight. Seasonal fluctuation in availability and poor quality of feeds were considered to be the main constraints on sheep farming in the Sahel. Appropriate supplemental feeding improved productivity of

ewes. The times of kidding and of kids born per pregnancy were higher in

supplemented animals. Feed supplements increased milk production per lactation from 26.1 l to 43.2 l for sheep [35]. For intensive meat production, several rations economically sound were also developed. For health care, the recommendations are known. For infectious diseases such as pasterollesis and peste des petits ruminants, it is mandatory to vaccinate them regularly twice a year for the first and once a year for the second disease. Deworming is also recommended twice, three times, or four times a year depending on the zones (Sahel, soudanian and preguinean) where the

*CSM = cottonseed meal; PH = peanut haulm; BH = bush hay; DH = dolichos haulm; SS = sorghum straw; NH = niébé haulm; CS = corn straw; and MS = millet straw.*

#### **Table 5.**

*Characteristics of the best fattening rations of a series of sheep fattening experiments.*

end of gestation will have negative effects not only on the reproduction performance of the ewe but also on its health.

Normal growth of the fetus allows the lambs to be born with adequate weight. The weight at birth directly influences the vigor of the lamb and its resistance to stress.

#### *6.11.1.2.1.2 Milk production*

The mammary tissue grows rapidly at the end of gestation; 95% of the development occurs during the last 6 weeks of gestation. Without adequate nutrition, the udder develops less; as a consequence, it will lower milk production. Good nutrition of the ewe at the end of gestation increases milk production by 20 to 30% in the ewe carrying a single lamb. Besides, the nutrient requirements of the ewe for gestation and milk increase depending on the level of milk production (**Table 3**). Moreover, a good level of nutrition at the end of gestation favors the constitution of reserves that the ewe will utilize during the high-energy requirements of lactation.

Milk production generally increases during the first 3 weeks, reaches a plateau, and starts decreasing rapidly. The form of the curve varies according the breed, the level of nutrition, and the number of lambs suckling. The voluntary intake of most forages in early lactation is generally insufficient to meet the nutrient requirements. A supplementation of 400 to 600 g per day of a high-quality concentrate is needed.

#### *6.11.1.2.1.3 Sheep fattening*

In most countries of the Sahel, sheep fattening is a common operation especially during the Muslim's feast. It consists in feeding rams for a rapid weight gain during a short period of time. Fattening rations should be formulated from local supplies at the least cost as far as possible. Several fattening rations were developed throughout the Sahel countries. In the Malian context, 11 fattening rations were developed. Average daily gain (ADG) varied from 124 to 200 g with benefit fluctuating from 4395 to 11,020 FCFA (**Table 5**). After the successful on-station trial, the two best rations have been tested on-farm condition.

## **7. Conclusion**

The overall results of our study showed that sheep farming is an important economic activity of most of the population. This review shows that seasonal fluctuations of feed resources in the Sahel follow the pattern of vegetation growth that is modified by the availability of rainfall. This resulted in a seasonal pattern of wet season gain and dry season loss of liveweight. Seasonal fluctuation in availability and poor quality of feeds were considered to be the main constraints on sheep farming in the Sahel. Appropriate supplemental feeding improved productivity of ewes. The times of kidding and of kids born per pregnancy were higher in supplemented animals. Feed supplements increased milk production per lactation from 26.1 l to 43.2 l for sheep [35]. For intensive meat production, several rations economically sound were also developed. For health care, the recommendations are known. For infectious diseases such as pasterollesis and peste des petits ruminants, it is mandatory to vaccinate them regularly twice a year for the first and once a year for the second disease. Deworming is also recommended twice, three times, or four times a year depending on the zones (Sahel, soudanian and preguinean) where the sheep are.

**Annex 1**

end of gestation will have negative effects not only on the reproduction

*Characteristics of the best fattening rations of a series of sheep fattening experiments.*

**Ration ADG (g) Benefit (F.CFA) References** 60% CSM + 40% PH 200 11,020 Nantoumé et al. [36] 45% CSM + 47% PH + 8% Millet 192 9415 Nantoumé et al. [37] 35% BH + 35% NH + 30% ABH 172 6285 Ballo et al. [38] 70% CSM + 30% DH 140 6065 Nantoumé et al. [36] 61% CSM + 39% SS 124 5850 Nantoumé et al. [39] 65% CSM + 25% NH + 10% CS 126 5310 Nantoumé et al. [40] 52% CSM+ 36% PH + 12% SS 142 5065 Nantoumé et al. [40] 51% CSM + 28% SS + 21% Millet 132 5135 Nantoumé et al. [40] 60% CSM + 20% PB + 20% NH 146 4785 Nantoumé et al. [37] 50% CSM+ 39% BH + 11% Millet 142 4395 Nantoumé et al. [40] 57% CSM + 30% PH + 13% MS 135 4220 Nantoumé et al. [37] *CSM = cottonseed meal; PH = peanut haulm; BH = bush hay; DH = dolichos haulm; SS = sorghum straw; NH = niébé*

*Sheep Farming - An Approach to Feed, Growth and Health*

the ewe will utilize during the high-energy requirements of lactation.

Normal growth of the fetus allows the lambs to be born with adequate weight. The weight at birth directly influences the vigor of the lamb and its resistance to stress.

The mammary tissue grows rapidly at the end of gestation; 95% of the development occurs during the last 6 weeks of gestation. Without adequate nutrition, the udder develops less; as a consequence, it will lower milk production. Good nutrition of the ewe at the end of gestation increases milk production by 20 to 30% in the ewe carrying a single lamb. Besides, the nutrient requirements of the ewe for gestation and milk increase depending on the level of milk production (**Table 3**). Moreover, a good level of nutrition at the end of gestation favors the constitution of reserves that

Milk production generally increases during the first 3 weeks, reaches a plateau, and starts decreasing rapidly. The form of the curve varies according the breed, the level of nutrition, and the number of lambs suckling. The voluntary intake of most forages in early lactation is generally insufficient to meet the nutrient requirements. A supplementation of 400 to 600 g per day of a high-quality concentrate is needed.

In most countries of the Sahel, sheep fattening is a common operation especially during the Muslim's feast. It consists in feeding rams for a rapid weight gain during a short period of time. Fattening rations should be formulated from local supplies at the least cost as far as possible. Several fattening rations were developed throughout the Sahel countries. In the Malian context, 11 fattening rations were developed. Average daily gain (ADG) varied from 124 to 200 g with benefit fluctuating from 4395 to 11,020 FCFA (**Table 5**). After the successful on-station trial, the two best

performance of the ewe but also on its health.

*haulm; CS = corn straw; and MS = millet straw.*

*6.11.1.2.1.2 Milk production*

**Table 5.**

*6.11.1.2.1.3 Sheep fattening*

**48**

rations have been tested on-farm condition.


**Classes**

**51**

 **SClasse**

**Identification**

**Name**

3. Protein

supplements

• Fish meal Standard error

> •

Cottonseed

 meal Standard error *SClasse = sub-classes; DM = dry matter; OM = organic matter; CF = crude fiber; CP = crude protein; CF = crude fat; NFE = nitrogen-free*

*DE = digestible energy; ME =* 

*metabolizable*

 *energy; UFL = forage unit milk; UFV = forage unit meat; and DP = digestible protein.*

 1.64

 0.98

 5.2

 5.26

 2.65

 7.92

 0.98

 0.03

 0.16

 202.21

 0.79

 *extract; Ca = calcium; P = phosphorus;*

 128.3

 105.2

 0.11 0.12

 *GE = gross energy;*

 46

 94.18

 95.1 33.94 24.28 10.61 26.27

 1.08

 7.43

 0.12

 5.81

 7.66

 7.77

 7.43

 4.9

 0.09

 0.86

 4475.63

 69.42

 2972

 2437 0.76 0.64

 0.91

 0.75

 971.18

 0.02 696.7

 571.3 0.09 0.09

95.14 79.82

 0.37 57.77 17.31

 4.52

 20.18

 2.58

 1.84

 3793.42

 74.55

 2724

 2234

 1.49 1.48

 495

 51

 172

*Sheep Feeding in the Sahel Countries of Africa DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92339*

> **DM**

 **OM**

 **CF**

 **CP**

 **CF**

 **NFE**

 **Ash**

 **Ca**

 **P**

 **GE**

 **dOM**

 **DE**

 **ME UFL UFV**

 **DP**

**Organic** 

**constituents**

**Mineral** 

**constituents**

**Energy value**

**Protein value**


*Sheep Feeding in the Sahel Countries of Africa DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92339*

**Classes**

**50**

 **SClasse**

**Identification**

**Name**

1. Roughages

• Cereal straws Standard error

• Legume haulms

Standard error 34.95

> • Bush hay

Standard error

• Fodder trees Standard error

> •

Cultivated grasses

 4.56

 29.46 93.43

> Standard error

> > •

Cultivated legumes

 5.95

 27.71 92.45 35.74 11.97

> Standard error

> > 2. Energetic feeds

• Cereal grains Standard error

• Cereal bran Standard error

 1.51

 0.57

 2.91

 3.07

 5.42

 5.05

 0.57

 0.24

 0.33

 438.61

 0.44 324.2

 265.8

 0.11 0.12

 28

 0.86

92.97 91.16

 11.35 13.36

 7.1 59.36

 8.84

 0.17

 1.07 4074.95

 72.87

 2856

 2342

 1.12 1.09

 87

 0.24

 1.19

 1.49

 0.07

 1.7

 0.24

 0.03

 0.08

 1099.2

 0.18

 792.2 649.6 0.02 0.03

92.95 98.56

 3.98 10.61

 5.57 78.39

 1.44

 0.06

 0.17 4134.03

 74

 2945

 2415

 1.23 1.23

 59

 14

 6.6

 2.01

 7.8

 2.72

 0.67

 7.42

 2.01

 0.27

 0.12

 237.52

 1.19

 162.2

 133 0.14 0.17

 0.98

 3.54

 0.74

 0.41

 2.69 42.05

 7.55

 0.89

 0.25 3909.88

 69.15

 2585

 2120

 0.62

 0.5

 66

 24

 3.69

 0.98

 0.08

 0.13

 158.24

 0.54 99.88

 81.9 0.07 0.08

 37.32

 5.22

 2.26 48.64

 6.57

 0.11

 0.22

 3751.21

 68.91

 2470

 2026

 0.58 0.45

 12

 6

 4.18

 4.94

 2.37

 0.23

 7.31

 4.18

 0.29

 0.37

 393.76

 0.76 248.8

 204 0.09 0.11

 0.58 35.48 92.06 32.92 13.16

 2.7

 4.85

 0.35

 0.73

 2.32 43.66

 7.94

 1.06

 0.42

 4108.8

 69.58

 2734

 2242 0.67 0.55

 1.97

 2.7

 0.03

 0.09

 167.58

 0.74 84.48

 69.27 0.09 0.11

 2.71 95 90.76

 36

 3.77

 1.86 49.13

 9.24

 0.07

 0.22

 3822.9

 69.11

 2525

 2071

 0.59 0.47

 1

 2

 85

 21

 5.77

 0.71

 0.35

 5.43

 2.71

 0.19

 0.07

 78.7

 0.88

 69.27

 56.8

 0.1 0.12

 7

*Sheep Farming - An Approach to Feed, Growth and Health*

 0.38 65.37 91.08 29.94 12.21

 3.54

 6.51

 1.57

 0.48

 1.48 47.46

 8.92

 0.64

 0.17

 3846.77

 70.03

 2579

 2115

 0.71 0.61

 69

 6.86

 3.54

 0.1

 0.26

 209.3

 1

 130.1 106.7 0.12 0.14

94.69 92.54 39.48

 4.65

 1.54 46.87

 7.46

 0.14

 0.31

 3975.35

 68.58

 2604

 2135

 0.53 0.39

 10

 10

 **DM**

 **OM**

 **CF**

 **CP**

 **CF**

 **NFE**

 **Ash**

 **Ca**

 **P**

 **GE**

 **dOM**

 **DE**

 **ME UFL UFV**

 **DP**

**Organic** 

**constituents**

**Mineral** 

**constituents**

**Energy value**

**Protein value** *Sheep Farming - An Approach to Feed, Growth and Health*

**References**

(KICC); 1996. pp. 1-13

[2] Kreuzer M. Coping with

in Thailand. Proceedings of the symposium held in Chiang Mia

[4] Sangaré M. Opportunities of available feed resource utilization for animal feeding and nutrient cycling in the Sahel [PhD thesis in Tropical Animal

Production]. Antwerp, Belgium: Department of Tropical Animal Production and Health, Institute of Tropical Medicine Prince Léopold;

Arid Tropics—ICRISAT; 1984

tions/40279092.pdf

**53**

[6] Mulumba JBK, Somda J, Sanon Y, Kagoné H. Élevage et marché régional au Sahel et en Afrique de l'Ouest. Potentialités et défis. CSAO-OCDE/ CEDEAO. 2008. 182 p. Available from: https://www.oecd.org/fr/csao/publica

[7] Dicko MS, Djitèye MA, Sangaré M. Les systèmes de production animale au Sahel. Sécheresse. 2006;**17**:83-97

[5] Sivakumar MVK, Konaté M, Virmani SM. Agroclimatologiy of West Africa: Mali. Information Bulletin No. 19. Andhara Pradesh, India: International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-

2002. 202 p

[1] Qureshi AW. Animal production: An African perspective? Summaries. In: 6th All Africa Conference on Animal Agriculture. Nairobi, Kenya: Kenyatta International Convention Center

*Sheep Feeding in the Sahel Countries of Africa DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92339*

> [8] Toulmin C. Livestock Losses and Post-Drought Rehabilitation in Sub-Saharan Africa. LPU Working Paper No. 9. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: International Livestock Centre for Africa; 1985

[9] Pradère J. Performances and

Hub Rural; 2007. 73 p

176 p

307 p

Constraints of Livestock in Mali. Project for African Agricultural development: Improvement of Agricultural Policies in the West and Central African Countries. France, Dakar: FIDA, France OCDE,

[10] Devendra C, McLeroy GB. Goat and sheep production in the Tropics. In: Payne WJA, editor. International Tropical Agriculture series. London, New York: Longman; 1982. 271 p

[11] Sangaré M. Synthèse des résultats acquis sur l'élevage des petits ruminants dans les systèmes de production animale d'Afrique de l'Ouest PROCORDEL, CIRDES URPAN, CIRDES 01 BP 454 Bobo-Dioulasso 01. Burkina: Faso; 2005.

[12] Swift JJ, Wilson RT, Hamsworth J. Les systèmes de production animale en Afrique de l'Ouest. In: Wilson RT, de Leeuw PN, de Haan C, editors. Recherches sur les systèmes de production des zones arides du Mali (Résultats Préliminaires). Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: CIPEA; 1983. pp. 19-23

[13] Nantoumé H, Cissé S, Sow PS, Sidibé S, Kouriba A, Olivier A, et al. Impact des rations comportant des fourrages de *Pterocarpus lucens* et *Ficus gnaphalocarpa* sur l'embouche ovine au Mali. Tropicultura. 2018;**36**:1-11

[14] INRA. Alimentation des bovins, ovins et caprins. Besoins des animaux. Valeurs des aliments. Tables INRA 2007. Edition Quae. Versailles: Cedex; 2007.

[15] Harris LE, Haendler H, Rivière R, Réchaussat L. International Feed

Undernutrition in ruminants: Strategies to minimize adverse metabolic and environmental effect. In: Jarurasitha S, editor. Trends in Livestock Production

University, Thailand; 1997. pp. 210-228

[3] de Leeuw PN, Hiernaux P. Pluviosité. In: Wilson RT, de Leeuw PN, de Haan C, editors. Recherches sur les systèmes de production des zones arides du Mali (Résultats préliminaires). Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: CIPEA. 1983. pp. 19-23

## **Author details**

Hamidou Nantoumé Institut d'Économie Rurale (IER), Bamako, Mali

\*Address all correspondence to: hamidou.nantoume@yahoo.fr

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

## **References**

[1] Qureshi AW. Animal production: An African perspective? Summaries. In: 6th All Africa Conference on Animal Agriculture. Nairobi, Kenya: Kenyatta International Convention Center (KICC); 1996. pp. 1-13

[2] Kreuzer M. Coping with Undernutrition in ruminants: Strategies to minimize adverse metabolic and environmental effect. In: Jarurasitha S, editor. Trends in Livestock Production in Thailand. Proceedings of the symposium held in Chiang Mia University, Thailand; 1997. pp. 210-228

[3] de Leeuw PN, Hiernaux P. Pluviosité. In: Wilson RT, de Leeuw PN, de Haan C, editors. Recherches sur les systèmes de production des zones arides du Mali (Résultats préliminaires). Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: CIPEA. 1983. pp. 19-23

[4] Sangaré M. Opportunities of available feed resource utilization for animal feeding and nutrient cycling in the Sahel [PhD thesis in Tropical Animal Production]. Antwerp, Belgium: Department of Tropical Animal Production and Health, Institute of Tropical Medicine Prince Léopold; 2002. 202 p

[5] Sivakumar MVK, Konaté M, Virmani SM. Agroclimatologiy of West Africa: Mali. Information Bulletin No. 19. Andhara Pradesh, India: International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics—ICRISAT; 1984

[6] Mulumba JBK, Somda J, Sanon Y, Kagoné H. Élevage et marché régional au Sahel et en Afrique de l'Ouest. Potentialités et défis. CSAO-OCDE/ CEDEAO. 2008. 182 p. Available from: https://www.oecd.org/fr/csao/publica tions/40279092.pdf

[7] Dicko MS, Djitèye MA, Sangaré M. Les systèmes de production animale au Sahel. Sécheresse. 2006;**17**:83-97

[8] Toulmin C. Livestock Losses and Post-Drought Rehabilitation in Sub-Saharan Africa. LPU Working Paper No. 9. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: International Livestock Centre for Africa; 1985

[9] Pradère J. Performances and Constraints of Livestock in Mali. Project for African Agricultural development: Improvement of Agricultural Policies in the West and Central African Countries. France, Dakar: FIDA, France OCDE, Hub Rural; 2007. 73 p

[10] Devendra C, McLeroy GB. Goat and sheep production in the Tropics. In: Payne WJA, editor. International Tropical Agriculture series. London, New York: Longman; 1982. 271 p

[11] Sangaré M. Synthèse des résultats acquis sur l'élevage des petits ruminants dans les systèmes de production animale d'Afrique de l'Ouest PROCORDEL, CIRDES URPAN, CIRDES 01 BP 454 Bobo-Dioulasso 01. Burkina: Faso; 2005. 176 p

[12] Swift JJ, Wilson RT, Hamsworth J. Les systèmes de production animale en Afrique de l'Ouest. In: Wilson RT, de Leeuw PN, de Haan C, editors. Recherches sur les systèmes de production des zones arides du Mali (Résultats Préliminaires). Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: CIPEA; 1983. pp. 19-23

[13] Nantoumé H, Cissé S, Sow PS, Sidibé S, Kouriba A, Olivier A, et al. Impact des rations comportant des fourrages de *Pterocarpus lucens* et *Ficus gnaphalocarpa* sur l'embouche ovine au Mali. Tropicultura. 2018;**36**:1-11

[14] INRA. Alimentation des bovins, ovins et caprins. Besoins des animaux. Valeurs des aliments. Tables INRA 2007. Edition Quae. Versailles: Cedex; 2007. 307 p

[15] Harris LE, Haendler H, Rivière R, Réchaussat L. International Feed

**Author details**

**52**

Hamidou Nantoumé

Institut d'Économie Rurale (IER), Bamako, Mali

*Sheep Farming - An Approach to Feed, Growth and Health*

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*Address all correspondence to: hamidou.nantoume@yahoo.fr

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

Databank System: An Introduction into the System with Instructions for Describing Feeds and Recording Data. International Network of Feed Information Centers. Logan, Utah, USA: Prepared on Behalf of INFIC by the International Feedstuffs Institute, Utah Agricultural Experiment Station, Utah State University; 1980. 127 p

[16] Harris LE. Symposium on feeds and meat terminology: III. A system for naming and describing feeds, energy terminology and the use of such information in calculating diets. Journal of Animal Science. 1963;**22**:535

[17] Harris LE, Kearl LC, Fonnesbeck PV. A Rationale for Naming Feeds. Bulletin 501. Logan, Utah, USA: International Feedstuffs Institute, Utah Agricultural Experiment Station, Utah State University; 1981. 309 p

[18] Baumont R, Dulphy JP, Sauvant D, Tran G, Meschy F, Aufrère J, et al. Les tables de la valeur des aliments. In: Alimentation des bovins, ovns et caprins. Besoins des animaux. Valeurs des aliments. Table INRA 2007 Editions Quae c/o Inra. RD. 10 78026. Versailles: Cedex; 2007. 307 p

[19] Nantoumé H, Kouriba A, Togola D. Evaluation de la valeur alimentaire des chaumes de céréales et des fanes de légumineuses. World Review of Animal Production. 1995;**30**:107-112

[20] Nantoumé H, Kouriba A, Togola D, Ouologuem B. Mesure de la valeur alimentaire de fourrages et de sousproduits utilisés dans l'alimentation des petits ruminants. Revue d'Elevage et de Médecine Véterinaire des Pays tropicaux. 2000;**53**:279-284

[21] Memento de l'Agronome. Ministère des Affaires Etrangères. Centre de la Coopération Internationale et de recherche agronomique pour le développement (CIRAD). Groupe de recherche et d'échange technologique

(GRET). Jane. 11 bd de Sébastopol 75001. Paris. 2002. 1691 p

cereal straws on digestibility and methane production by sheep. Animal Feed Science and Technology. 1994;**49**:

*Sheep Feeding in the Sahel Countries of Africa DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92339*

> l'atelier tenu du; 5–9 December 1994; Kampala, Uganda; 1994. pp. 205-207

[34] Larbi A, Olaloku EA. Influence of plane of nutrition on productivity of ruminants in the sub-humid zone of West Africa. In: Ayantunde AA, Fernandez-Rivera S, McCrabb G, editors. Coping with Feed Scarcity in Smallholder Livestock Systems in Developing Countries. Nairobi, Kenya/ Wageningen, the Netherlands/Zurich, Switzerland: ILRI/Animal Sciences Group, Wageningen University & Research/University of Reading, UK, ETH (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology); 2005. 306 p

[35] Nantoumé H, Kouriba A, Diarra CHT, Coulibaly D. Amélioration de la productivité des petits ruminants: Moyen de diversification des revenus et de lutte contre l'insécurité alimentaire.

Development. 2011;**23**:5. Available from:

[36] Nantoumé H, Diarra CHT, Traoré D, Kouriba A, Maïga H. Performances de l'engraissement des moutons Maures avec des rations à base de tourteau de coton dans la région de Kayes au Mali. Les cahiers de l'économie rurale. 2005;**1**:

[37] Nantoumé H, Diarra CHT, Traoré D. Performance et rentabilité économique de l'incorporation des quatre fourrages de qualité pauvre dans des rations d'engraissement des moutons Maures.

Livestock Research for Rural Development. 2006;**18**(01):2006

[38] Ballo A, Nantoumé H, Kouriba A, Kodio A, Touré SA. Performances économique et bouchère de l'embouche ovine avec des rations à base du foin de bourgou (*Echinochloa stagnina*) ou de la paille de sorgho (Sorghum vulgare). Les cahiers de l'économie rurale. 2003;**0**:19-27

[39] Nantoumé H, Diarra CHT, Traoré

D. Performance et rentabilité

Livestock Research for Rural

nt23110.htm

28-36

http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd23/5/na

[29] Huston JE, Pinchak WE. Range animal nutrition. In: Heitschmidt RK,

Management: An Ecology Perspective. Portland, Oregon: Timber Press; 1993.

[30] Williams TO, Fernandez-Rivera S, Kelly TG. The influence of socioeconomic factors on the availability and utilization of crop residues as animal feeds. In: Renard C, editor. Crop Residues in Sustainable Mixed Crop/

Wallingford, UK: CAB (Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux) International;

[31] Kebreab ET, Tanner SJ, Osuji P. Review of undernutrition in smallholder ruminant production systems in the tropics. In: Ayantunde AA, Fernandez-Rivera S, McCrabb G, editors. Coping with Feed Scarcity in Smallholder Livestock Systems in Developing Countries. Wageningen, the Netherlands/Zurich, Switzerland/ Nairobi, Kenya: Animal Sciences Group, Wageningen University & Research/ University of Reading, UK, ETH (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology)/ILRI;

Stuth JW, editors. Grazing

Livestock Farming Systems.

1997. pp. 25-39

2005. 306 p

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[32] Nantoumé H, Kouriba A, Ouologuem B. Effets de la durée de conservation et du séchage sur la teneur en azote des fourrages pauvres traités à l'urée. Revue d'Elevage et de Médecine Véterinaire des Pays Tropicaux. 2001;

Coulibaly BS. Effets de la

[33] Nantoumé H, Kouriba A, Togola D,

supplémentation de la paille de brousse avec différentes proportions de fane de dolique sur la production de viande ovine. In: Small Ruminant Research and Development in Africa: Proceedings de

245-259

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[22] Small Ruminant CRSP. Sheep Production and Management in a Mediterranean Climate. The Agro Pastoral System of Marocco. Office of Agriculture. Bureau for Research and Development. United States Agency for International Development, under grant N° DAN-1328-G-00-0046-00. 1993

[23] ARC. The Nutrient Requirement of Ruminant Livestock. Wallingford, Oxon, UK: CAB (Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux) International; 1980. 118 p

[24] Langhans W, Rossi R, Scharrer E. Relationship between feed and water intake in ruminants. In: van Engelhandt W, Leonhard W, Leonhard-Mareck S, Breves G, Giesecke D, editors. Ruminant Physiology Digestion Metabolism, Growth, and Reproduction. Proceedings of the VIII International Symposium on Ruminant Physiology Held at Wellington, Germany, 10–14 September 1994; Stuttgart, Germany: Ferdinand Enke Verlag, D-70443; 1995. pp. 199-216

[25] Rivière R. Manuel d'alimentation des ruminants domestiques en milieu tropical. Institut d'Elevage et de Médecine vétérinaire des pays tropicaux. 2nd ed. Paris: Imprimerie JOUVE; 1978. 527 p

[26] INRA. Alimentation des bovins, ovins et caprins. Besoins des animaux, Valeurs des aliments. Tables Inra 2007. Edition Quae. 2017. 307 p

[27] McDowell LR, Conrad JH, Ellis GL. Mineral deficiencies and imbalances and their diagnois. In: Gilchrist FMC, Mackie RI, editors. Herbivore Nutrition in the Subtropics and Tropics. Craighall South Africa: The Science Press; 1984. pp. 67-88

[28] Moss AR, Given DI, Garnsworthy PC. The effect of alkali treatment of

*Sheep Feeding in the Sahel Countries of Africa DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92339*

cereal straws on digestibility and methane production by sheep. Animal Feed Science and Technology. 1994;**49**: 245-259

Databank System: An Introduction into the System with Instructions for Describing Feeds and Recording Data.

*Sheep Farming - An Approach to Feed, Growth and Health*

(GRET). Jane. 11 bd de Sébastopol

[22] Small Ruminant CRSP. Sheep Production and Management in a Mediterranean Climate. The Agro Pastoral System of Marocco. Office of Agriculture. Bureau for Research and Development. United States Agency for International Development, under grant N° DAN-1328-G-00-0046-00. 1993

[23] ARC. The Nutrient Requirement of Ruminant Livestock. Wallingford, Oxon, UK: CAB (Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux) International;

[24] Langhans W, Rossi R, Scharrer E. Relationship between feed and water intake in ruminants. In: van Engelhandt W, Leonhard W, Leonhard-Mareck S,

Reproduction. Proceedings of the VIII International Symposium on Ruminant

[25] Rivière R. Manuel d'alimentation des ruminants domestiques en milieu tropical. Institut d'Elevage et de Médecine vétérinaire des pays tropicaux. 2nd ed. Paris: Imprimerie

[26] INRA. Alimentation des bovins, ovins et caprins. Besoins des animaux, Valeurs des aliments. Tables Inra 2007.

[27] McDowell LR, Conrad JH, Ellis GL. Mineral deficiencies and imbalances and their diagnois. In: Gilchrist FMC, Mackie RI, editors. Herbivore Nutrition in the Subtropics and Tropics. Craighall South Africa: The Science Press; 1984.

[28] Moss AR, Given DI, Garnsworthy PC. The effect of alkali treatment of

Breves G, Giesecke D, editors. Ruminant Physiology Digestion Metabolism, Growth, and

Physiology Held at Wellington, Germany, 10–14 September 1994; Stuttgart, Germany: Ferdinand Enke Verlag, D-70443; 1995. pp. 199-216

JOUVE; 1978. 527 p

pp. 67-88

Edition Quae. 2017. 307 p

75001. Paris. 2002. 1691 p

1980. 118 p

Information Centers. Logan, Utah, USA: Prepared on Behalf of INFIC by the International Feedstuffs Institute, Utah Agricultural Experiment Station, Utah

[16] Harris LE. Symposium on feeds and meat terminology: III. A system for naming and describing feeds, energy terminology and the use of such

information in calculating diets. Journal

[17] Harris LE, Kearl LC, Fonnesbeck PV. A Rationale for Naming Feeds. Bulletin 501. Logan, Utah, USA:

International Feedstuffs Institute, Utah Agricultural Experiment Station, Utah

[18] Baumont R, Dulphy JP, Sauvant D, Tran G, Meschy F, Aufrère J, et al. Les tables de la valeur des aliments. In: Alimentation des bovins, ovns et caprins. Besoins des animaux. Valeurs des aliments. Table INRA 2007 Editions Quae c/o Inra. RD. 10 78026. Versailles:

[19] Nantoumé H, Kouriba A, Togola D. Evaluation de la valeur alimentaire des chaumes de céréales et des fanes de légumineuses. World Review of Animal

[20] Nantoumé H, Kouriba A, Togola D, Ouologuem B. Mesure de la valeur alimentaire de fourrages et de sousproduits utilisés dans l'alimentation des petits ruminants. Revue d'Elevage et de

[21] Memento de l'Agronome. Ministère des Affaires Etrangères. Centre de la Coopération Internationale et de recherche agronomique pour le développement (CIRAD). Groupe de recherche et d'échange technologique

International Network of Feed

State University; 1980. 127 p

of Animal Science. 1963;**22**:535

State University; 1981. 309 p

Cedex; 2007. 307 p

Production. 1995;**30**:107-112

Médecine Véterinaire des Pays tropicaux. 2000;**53**:279-284

**54**

[29] Huston JE, Pinchak WE. Range animal nutrition. In: Heitschmidt RK, Stuth JW, editors. Grazing Management: An Ecology Perspective. Portland, Oregon: Timber Press; 1993. pp. 27-63

[30] Williams TO, Fernandez-Rivera S, Kelly TG. The influence of socioeconomic factors on the availability and utilization of crop residues as animal feeds. In: Renard C, editor. Crop Residues in Sustainable Mixed Crop/ Livestock Farming Systems. Wallingford, UK: CAB (Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux) International; 1997. pp. 25-39

[31] Kebreab ET, Tanner SJ, Osuji P. Review of undernutrition in smallholder ruminant production systems in the tropics. In: Ayantunde AA, Fernandez-Rivera S, McCrabb G, editors. Coping with Feed Scarcity in Smallholder Livestock Systems in Developing Countries. Wageningen, the Netherlands/Zurich, Switzerland/ Nairobi, Kenya: Animal Sciences Group, Wageningen University & Research/ University of Reading, UK, ETH (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology)/ILRI; 2005. 306 p

[32] Nantoumé H, Kouriba A, Ouologuem B. Effets de la durée de conservation et du séchage sur la teneur en azote des fourrages pauvres traités à l'urée. Revue d'Elevage et de Médecine Véterinaire des Pays Tropicaux. 2001; **54**:43-46

[33] Nantoumé H, Kouriba A, Togola D, Coulibaly BS. Effets de la supplémentation de la paille de brousse avec différentes proportions de fane de dolique sur la production de viande ovine. In: Small Ruminant Research and Development in Africa: Proceedings de

l'atelier tenu du; 5–9 December 1994; Kampala, Uganda; 1994. pp. 205-207

[34] Larbi A, Olaloku EA. Influence of plane of nutrition on productivity of ruminants in the sub-humid zone of West Africa. In: Ayantunde AA, Fernandez-Rivera S, McCrabb G, editors. Coping with Feed Scarcity in Smallholder Livestock Systems in Developing Countries. Nairobi, Kenya/ Wageningen, the Netherlands/Zurich, Switzerland: ILRI/Animal Sciences Group, Wageningen University & Research/University of Reading, UK, ETH (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology); 2005. 306 p

[35] Nantoumé H, Kouriba A, Diarra CHT, Coulibaly D. Amélioration de la productivité des petits ruminants: Moyen de diversification des revenus et de lutte contre l'insécurité alimentaire. Livestock Research for Rural Development. 2011;**23**:5. Available from: http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd23/5/na nt23110.htm

[36] Nantoumé H, Diarra CHT, Traoré D, Kouriba A, Maïga H. Performances de l'engraissement des moutons Maures avec des rations à base de tourteau de coton dans la région de Kayes au Mali. Les cahiers de l'économie rurale. 2005;**1**: 28-36

[37] Nantoumé H, Diarra CHT, Traoré D. Performance et rentabilité économique de l'incorporation des quatre fourrages de qualité pauvre dans des rations d'engraissement des moutons Maures. Livestock Research for Rural Development. 2006;**18**(01):2006

[38] Ballo A, Nantoumé H, Kouriba A, Kodio A, Touré SA. Performances économique et bouchère de l'embouche ovine avec des rations à base du foin de bourgou (*Echinochloa stagnina*) ou de la paille de sorgho (Sorghum vulgare). Les cahiers de l'économie rurale. 2003;**0**:19-27

[39] Nantoumé H, Diarra CHT, Traoré D. Performance et rentabilité

économique de la valorisation des fourrages pauvres par le tourteau de coton dans l'engraissement des moutons Maures au Mali. Livestock Research for Rural Development. 2009;**21**:12. Available from: http://www.lrrd.org/ lrrd23/5/nant23110.htm

[40] Nantoumé H, Ballo A, Kouriba A. Techniques d'embouche ovine. Bamako, Rue Mohamed V: IER; 2007. 21 p

Section 2

Sheep Growth and Health

**57**

Section 2
