A Novel Space Systems Management Methodology Based on Shortcomings and Strengths of Conventional System Engineering Tools Used in a Design Thinking Framework

*Cecilia Michelle Talancon, Josué López-Leyva, Dalia Chávez-García, Miguel Ponce-Camacho and Ariana Talamantes-Álvarez*

### **Abstract**

In this chapter, several systems engineering tools are presented and analyzed to determine shortcomings of these tools to improve the efficiency and efficacy of them working together in a modified design thinking methodology framework for space systems management. The space systems projects impose a high risk in all its stages, so that it is very important to reduce errors as possible based on activities that ensure the adequate project performance. Finally, specific systems engineering tools are used in particular stages and sub-stages of the proposal design thinking framework depending on the shortcomings and strengths of each one. This proposal framework accelerates the conventional process for a space project that usually requires a lot of resources and it is not suitable for both emerging countries and space agencies.

**Keywords:** systems engineering tools, design thinking, space projects, shortcomings-strengths, efficiency

### **1. Introduction**

From its origins, the human being has looked for ways to transform nature, for that reason his ingenuity and creativity have been the transforming force of the world. Thus, the way of taking ideas to concrete facts using scientific knowledge is called engineering. In a more technical way, engineering is a discipline that uses scientific and technical knowledge to imagine, design, create, make, operate, maintain and dismantle complex devices, machines, structures, systems and processes that support human effort [1]. On the other hand, the set of parts that interact with each other to achieve an objective is called system [2], which can also be a combination of interacting elements organized to achieve a purpose [3]. The combination of these two words is known as systems engineering and it is the structured application of scientific knowledge for the design, creation and management of a set of interacting elements to achieve an objective. The beginnings of systems engineering go back to the effects of the World War II in the 1950s and 1960s when systems engineering was named for first time in several publications as a distinct discipline. The recognition of systems engineering as a unique activity evolved for the rapid growth of technology and its application to major military and commercial operations during the second half of the 20th century [4]. In the past years, systems engineering was closely linked to the methods used in electronic communications and aerospace engineering, and that is why it obtained its place within these disciplines since it was the responsible of finding solutions to reduce levels of complexity in the situations of human-machine interaction [5]. Currently, there are several definitions about systems engineering but the most important is defined in the systems engineering manual of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), where it describes that systems engineering "is a methodical, disciplined approach for the design, realization, technical management, operations, and retirement of a system" [6]. It is important to mention that the systems engineering objective is to ensure that the system has been designed, constructed and operated in such a way that it fulfills its purpose in the most profitable way possible, contemplating performance, cost, schedule and risk [6]. The aforementioned to produce systems that satisfy the needs of customers and increase the likelihood of system success [7]. In addition, innovation is an important aspect, therefore, professional human resources are required to develop management and engineering solutions for actual and future complex space systems challenges. Thus, the systems engineer must be able to apply his work, understand and recognize a problem, problematic situation or process in his context to apply, adapt and manage technological solutions. In particular, systems engineers usually begin their studies with an Engineering in electronics, mechanics or any of their interests and then choose to look for certifications such as the International Organization of Systems Engineering (INCOSE) or even for postgraduate studies in systems engineering [8].

Unlike the Project Manager, a systems engineer has a fundamental knowledge associated with the principles of engineering management. However, it is possible that the role of a systems engineer is not fully understood or appreciated since it is less defined than a Project Manager in many organizations [8]. In fact, the perspective of a project manager on a problem is very different in comparison to the perspective of the system engineer and, based on that they do not usually work together, there is not an "optimal solution," that could be achieved using tools and techniques of both systems engineering and project management [9]. Projects related to the aerospace sector can be more successful having systems engineer at the team, since they know the technical domain: hardware and software. Systems engineering provides a framework for problem solving, if a system or problem is more complicated, the processes are more useful for systems engineers to do their job and improve the overall performance [10]. The space systems engineering is defined as the art and science of creating space systems capable of comply strict requirements, through the interdisciplinary participation of various areas of engineering, such as: electrical, mechanical, electronic and computing [11]. The mentioned is reached based on a team activity in which the people involved are aware of the relationship between specialties and their roles in development as an organizational process. It can be said that the space systems engineering consists on designing, building and managing the efforts for the administration of the mission and the space operations, i.e., helping the team to implement the necessary techniques to deliver the project on time and under the budget. Thus, the objective of

**21**

current one [6].

*A Novel Space Systems Management Methodology Based on Shortcomings and Strengths…*

to estimate, evaluate and control costs in each phase of the project.

space systems engineering is to apply the principles, methods and tools of systems engineering necessary to transform the fundamental technical, economic and social requirements into an integrated space system solution [12]. This integration includes hardware, software and human resource, integrated in a clearly articulated value proposal and in the general architecture of the system. In particular, the space systems engineers help to the design effective space missions because they are focus on overall activities (e.g., verification, validation, operations, among others). They must ensure that the cost estimation of the project/program life cycle is within the budget and current NASA policies, which establish that projects must submit sufficient budgets to guarantee a 70% probability of achieving the objectives without exceeding the budget [6]. This is the reason why it is necessary to establish processes

The "program/project life cycle" mentioned above is one of the fundamental concepts used by NASA in systems administration, which consists in the categorization of everything that must be done to achieve a program or project in different phases, separated by key decision points (KDP) [13]. The KDP refers to the moments where the leader determines the preparation of the program or project to move on to the next phase; if a program or project does not approve one of the KDPs, it is possible to try again afterwards or simply finish the project [13]. Remember that all systems begin with the recognition of a need or the discovery of an opportunity and advance through various stages of development to a final disposition [6]. This program/project life cycle is divided into two main segments (formulation and implementation) and these in turn into seven phases (conceptual studies, concept and development of technology, preliminary design and completion of technology, final design and manufacturing, system assembly, integrationtest-launch, operations and maintenance, ending) [14]. In addition, there are metrics for the evaluation of systems engineering processes generally divided into three categories. These metrics measure the progress of the systems engineering effort divided in the quality of that process and those that measure its productivity (progress in the schedule (*S*), quality (*Q* ) and productivity (*P*)). Additionally, these metrics attempt to quantify the efficiency and productivity of the process and its organization, and are often very useful for engineers in space systems [6]. According to the metrics mentioned, the quality metrics relationship should serve to indicate when a part of the systems engineering process is overloaded and/or breaking down. Also, these metrics can be defined and tracked in different ways, e.g., the metrics related with the productivity provide an indication of the systems engineering output per input unit. Although there are more sophisticated input measures and the most common being the number of hours of systems engineering devoted to a particular function or activity. Finally, the schedule-related metrics can be depicted in a table or graph of planned quantities versus actuals quantities, for example, comparing planned number of verification closure notices against the

On the other hand, innovation is defined as a process to convert opportunities into practice widely used [15]. Therefore, systems engineering and innovation have common characteristics in many aspects, among them there is a successful system [16], so innovation is also very important in the engineering of space systems. In addition, creativity and innovation are the key in most levels of engineering education, although these topics are rarely expressed, researched, and studied explicitly during the career [17]. Without training in the fundamentals of creativity, only 3% of the population associate creativity and engineering [18]. Engineering education is a paramount in providing the nation with innovative, creative, and critical thinking human capital that contributes to sustainability of the economy [19]. The need for creativity in engineering has led to the development of a lot of creativity

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83430*

#### *A Novel Space Systems Management Methodology Based on Shortcomings and Strengths… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83430*

space systems engineering is to apply the principles, methods and tools of systems engineering necessary to transform the fundamental technical, economic and social requirements into an integrated space system solution [12]. This integration includes hardware, software and human resource, integrated in a clearly articulated value proposal and in the general architecture of the system. In particular, the space systems engineers help to the design effective space missions because they are focus on overall activities (e.g., verification, validation, operations, among others). They must ensure that the cost estimation of the project/program life cycle is within the budget and current NASA policies, which establish that projects must submit sufficient budgets to guarantee a 70% probability of achieving the objectives without exceeding the budget [6]. This is the reason why it is necessary to establish processes to estimate, evaluate and control costs in each phase of the project.

The "program/project life cycle" mentioned above is one of the fundamental concepts used by NASA in systems administration, which consists in the categorization of everything that must be done to achieve a program or project in different phases, separated by key decision points (KDP) [13]. The KDP refers to the moments where the leader determines the preparation of the program or project to move on to the next phase; if a program or project does not approve one of the KDPs, it is possible to try again afterwards or simply finish the project [13]. Remember that all systems begin with the recognition of a need or the discovery of an opportunity and advance through various stages of development to a final disposition [6]. This program/project life cycle is divided into two main segments (formulation and implementation) and these in turn into seven phases (conceptual studies, concept and development of technology, preliminary design and completion of technology, final design and manufacturing, system assembly, integrationtest-launch, operations and maintenance, ending) [14]. In addition, there are metrics for the evaluation of systems engineering processes generally divided into three categories. These metrics measure the progress of the systems engineering effort divided in the quality of that process and those that measure its productivity (progress in the schedule (*S*), quality (*Q* ) and productivity (*P*)). Additionally, these metrics attempt to quantify the efficiency and productivity of the process and its organization, and are often very useful for engineers in space systems [6]. According to the metrics mentioned, the quality metrics relationship should serve to indicate when a part of the systems engineering process is overloaded and/or breaking down. Also, these metrics can be defined and tracked in different ways, e.g., the metrics related with the productivity provide an indication of the systems engineering output per input unit. Although there are more sophisticated input measures and the most common being the number of hours of systems engineering devoted to a particular function or activity. Finally, the schedule-related metrics can be depicted in a table or graph of planned quantities versus actuals quantities, for example, comparing planned number of verification closure notices against the current one [6].

On the other hand, innovation is defined as a process to convert opportunities into practice widely used [15]. Therefore, systems engineering and innovation have common characteristics in many aspects, among them there is a successful system [16], so innovation is also very important in the engineering of space systems. In addition, creativity and innovation are the key in most levels of engineering education, although these topics are rarely expressed, researched, and studied explicitly during the career [17]. Without training in the fundamentals of creativity, only 3% of the population associate creativity and engineering [18]. Engineering education is a paramount in providing the nation with innovative, creative, and critical thinking human capital that contributes to sustainability of the economy [19]. The need for creativity in engineering has led to the development of a lot of creativity

*Lean Manufacturing and Six Sigma - Behind the Mask*

even for postgraduate studies in systems engineering [8].

Unlike the Project Manager, a systems engineer has a fundamental knowledge associated with the principles of engineering management. However, it is possible that the role of a systems engineer is not fully understood or appreciated since it is less defined than a Project Manager in many organizations [8]. In fact, the perspective of a project manager on a problem is very different in comparison to the perspective of the system engineer and, based on that they do not usually work together, there is not an "optimal solution," that could be achieved using tools and techniques of both systems engineering and project management [9]. Projects related to the aerospace sector can be more successful having systems engineer at the team, since they know the technical domain: hardware and software. Systems engineering provides a framework for problem solving, if a system or problem is more complicated, the processes are more useful for systems engineers to do their job and improve the overall performance [10]. The space systems engineering is defined as the art and science of creating space systems capable of comply strict requirements, through the interdisciplinary participation of various areas of engineering, such as: electrical, mechanical, electronic and computing [11]. The mentioned is reached based on a team activity in which the people involved are aware of the relationship between specialties and their roles in development as an organizational process. It can be said that the space systems engineering consists on designing, building and managing the efforts for the administration of the mission and the space operations, i.e., helping the team to implement the necessary techniques to deliver the project on time and under the budget. Thus, the objective of

interacting elements organized to achieve a purpose [3]. The combination of these two words is known as systems engineering and it is the structured application of scientific knowledge for the design, creation and management of a set of interacting elements to achieve an objective. The beginnings of systems engineering go back to the effects of the World War II in the 1950s and 1960s when systems engineering was named for first time in several publications as a distinct discipline. The recognition of systems engineering as a unique activity evolved for the rapid growth of technology and its application to major military and commercial operations during the second half of the 20th century [4]. In the past years, systems engineering was closely linked to the methods used in electronic communications and aerospace engineering, and that is why it obtained its place within these disciplines since it was the responsible of finding solutions to reduce levels of complexity in the situations of human-machine interaction [5]. Currently, there are several definitions about systems engineering but the most important is defined in the systems engineering manual of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), where it describes that systems engineering "is a methodical, disciplined approach for the design, realization, technical management, operations, and retirement of a system" [6]. It is important to mention that the systems engineering objective is to ensure that the system has been designed, constructed and operated in such a way that it fulfills its purpose in the most profitable way possible, contemplating performance, cost, schedule and risk [6]. The aforementioned to produce systems that satisfy the needs of customers and increase the likelihood of system success [7]. In addition, innovation is an important aspect, therefore, professional human resources are required to develop management and engineering solutions for actual and future complex space systems challenges. Thus, the systems engineer must be able to apply his work, understand and recognize a problem, problematic situation or process in his context to apply, adapt and manage technological solutions. In particular, systems engineers usually begin their studies with an Engineering in electronics, mechanics or any of their interests and then choose to look for certifications such as the International Organization of Systems Engineering (INCOSE) or

**20**

support tools to enhance the creative design process. In addition, these tools not only address technology for the creative process, but also include measurement for assessment [17]. Currently, there are several methods of innovation, however, the one that matters to us in this work is the method of design thinking. Design thinking is a methodology that consists of thinking as a designer, it is the way to solve problems reducing risks and increasing the chances of success, focusing on human needs to reach a humanly desirable technically viable and economically profitable solution [20]. The design-thinking ideology asserts that a hands-on, user-centric approach to problem solving can lead to innovation, and innovation can lead to differentiation and a competitive advantage [21]. The important aspect about the design thinking method is its emphasis on the understanding and commitment of the user from the start, it is also particularly useful for engineers, who often see the process of innovation from a perspective of technological push [21].

In particular, the design thinking methodology involves six stages (see **Figure 1**) [22]. This methodology is developed following a process in which five of its important characteristics are valued: the generation of empathy (knowing the people and the users, understanding the client not as a client but as a human being, as a person who moves and lives in a context), teamwork (interdependent persons that are spontaneously and naturally coordinated, with the motive of common project [23]), the generation of prototypes (execute vision since seeing and feeling a prototype has more value than an image printed on a paper), and environment that promotes playfulness and techniques with great visual content (see **Figure 1**) [24]. It should be emphasizing that innovation methodologies are part of systems engineering because they support their practice, however, systems engineering makes the tools used in innovation methodologies more effective and efficient [25]. Therefore, innovation is important in the engineering of space systems. In addition, projects in the space sector are very important and, considering that the technology used changes very quickly, the implementation of innovative techniques is essential so as not to degraded the overall performance. Finally, the studies of analysis, architecture, synthesis and compensation used in space systems engineering directly support innovation and changes management through configuration management. Also explains the evolution of data and information through data management and joining components integration, verification and validation in the innovation process [16].

**23**

**Figure 2.**

*Risk matrix. Own elaboration based on [6].*

*A Novel Space Systems Management Methodology Based on Shortcomings and Strengths…*

In this chapter, a realization of a framework for the development of space projects using the systems engineering tools and the bases of the design thinking methodology is proposed. This methodology will serve as support or guidance for countries that are beginning in the development of space projects and do not have many resources, this is because currently there are only work methodologies proposed by NASA and European Space Agency (ESA) that contemplate an important diversity of resources. The general structure of the document is as follows: Section 2 presents and analyzes the traditional qualitative and quantitative tools for space project management and their shortcomings, Section 3 shows the methodology proposed for the administration of space projects based on the design thinking methodology and analyzes the relevance and repercussions of the proposal. Finally, Section 4 presents the conclusions and future research and activities to be consid-

**2. Qualitative and quantitative tools for space project management**

tools with potential use in space project management will be described.

Qualitative tools or methods generally help to identify scenarios that contribute to potential risk, providing an input to quantitative methods and supporting quantification based on the measurement of technical performance [6]. In general, there exists a lot of qualitative tools used in project management, but only a few

**Figure 2** shows the risk matrix "N×M" that helps to manage and communicate risks, since it combines qualitative and semi-quantitative probability measures with similar consequences. A risk matrix helps to track the status and effects of risk management efforts, as well as to communicate information about the status of risks [6]. The risk matrix should contain key information about the description of the risk regarding to cost, time, quality, criticality of the risk, summary of the

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83430*

ered related to the issue and proposal.

**2.1 Qualitative tools**

*2.1.1 Risk matrices*

**Figure 1.**

*Design thinking stages. Own elaboration. Information retrieved from [22].*

*A Novel Space Systems Management Methodology Based on Shortcomings and Strengths… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83430*

In this chapter, a realization of a framework for the development of space projects using the systems engineering tools and the bases of the design thinking methodology is proposed. This methodology will serve as support or guidance for countries that are beginning in the development of space projects and do not have many resources, this is because currently there are only work methodologies proposed by NASA and European Space Agency (ESA) that contemplate an important diversity of resources. The general structure of the document is as follows: Section 2 presents and analyzes the traditional qualitative and quantitative tools for space project management and their shortcomings, Section 3 shows the methodology proposed for the administration of space projects based on the design thinking methodology and analyzes the relevance and repercussions of the proposal. Finally, Section 4 presents the conclusions and future research and activities to be considered related to the issue and proposal.

### **2. Qualitative and quantitative tools for space project management**

### **2.1 Qualitative tools**

*Lean Manufacturing and Six Sigma - Behind the Mask*

support tools to enhance the creative design process. In addition, these tools not only address technology for the creative process, but also include measurement for assessment [17]. Currently, there are several methods of innovation, however, the one that matters to us in this work is the method of design thinking. Design thinking is a methodology that consists of thinking as a designer, it is the way to solve problems reducing risks and increasing the chances of success, focusing on human needs to reach a humanly desirable technically viable and economically profitable solution [20]. The design-thinking ideology asserts that a hands-on, user-centric approach to problem solving can lead to innovation, and innovation can lead to differentiation and a competitive advantage [21]. The important aspect about the design thinking method is its emphasis on the understanding and commitment of the user from the start, it is also particularly useful for engineers, who often see the

process of innovation from a perspective of technological push [21].

integration, verification and validation in the innovation process [16].

*Design thinking stages. Own elaboration. Information retrieved from [22].*

In particular, the design thinking methodology involves six stages (see **Figure 1**) [22]. This methodology is developed following a process in which five of its important characteristics are valued: the generation of empathy (knowing the people and the users, understanding the client not as a client but as a human being, as a person who moves and lives in a context), teamwork (interdependent persons that are spontaneously and naturally coordinated, with the motive of common project [23]), the generation of prototypes (execute vision since seeing and feeling a prototype has more value than an image printed on a paper), and environment that promotes playfulness and techniques with great visual content (see **Figure 1**) [24]. It should be emphasizing that innovation methodologies are part of systems engineering because they support their practice, however, systems engineering makes the tools used in innovation methodologies more effective and efficient [25]. Therefore, innovation is important in the engineering of space systems. In addition, projects in the space sector are very important and, considering that the technology used changes very quickly, the implementation of innovative techniques is essential so as not to degraded the overall performance. Finally, the studies of analysis, architecture, synthesis and compensation used in space systems engineering directly support innovation and changes management through configuration management. Also explains the evolution of data and information through data management and joining components

**22**

**Figure 1.**

Qualitative tools or methods generally help to identify scenarios that contribute to potential risk, providing an input to quantitative methods and supporting quantification based on the measurement of technical performance [6]. In general, there exists a lot of qualitative tools used in project management, but only a few tools with potential use in space project management will be described.

#### *2.1.1 Risk matrices*

**Figure 2** shows the risk matrix "N×M" that helps to manage and communicate risks, since it combines qualitative and semi-quantitative probability measures with similar consequences. A risk matrix helps to track the status and effects of risk management efforts, as well as to communicate information about the status of risks [6]. The risk matrix should contain key information about the description of the risk regarding to cost, time, quality, criticality of the risk, summary of the

**Figure 2.** *Risk matrix. Own elaboration based on [6].*

possible causes of the risk, consequences, impact on the success/costs of the project, probability of risk occurrence, evaluation of the risk effects based on predefined criteria, description of preventive technical measures, measures to control and countermeasures that should be initiated if the risk occurs. Classification level for risk matrix are shown in **Table 1**.

As each project can have its own parameters and keywords, the information used by NASA and the US government agencies will be used as a reference [6]: (a) green color (low risk): means that there is reduced or no potential for cost increase, interruption of the schedule or degradation of performance, therefore, the actions taken are important to control an acceptable risk; (b) yellow color (moderate risk): means that it may cause an increase in cost, interruption of programming or degradation of performance, it may require special action and management attention to manage the risk; (c) red color: means that a significant increase in cost, interruption of programming or degradation of performance is highly possible. Thus, important additional actions and high priority attention will be taken.

### *2.1.2 Failure modes and effects analysis*

The failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA) is used to identify the possible failures in the process, as well as the effects and causes. Using the FMEA, preventive actions for various tasks can be found and decrease the risk of making mistakes. An FMEA can be used to develop policies, specifications and controls that can avoid the negative consequences of an event. Using this method can be sufficient to prevent or mitigate failures, thus avoiding costs or irreversible damages [26]. The benefits of the FMEA when done correctly are: confidence that all risks have been identified early and appropriate countermeasures, priorities and rationales for actions to improve products or processes, reduce waste, rework and manufacturing costs have been taken, preservation of the knowledge of the product and the process, reduction of failures in the field and cost of guarantee, documentation of risks and actions for future designs or processes [27]. An example of FMEA format is shown in **Figure 3**.

The determination of the risk priority number (RPN) is done by multiplying the values of severity, occurrence and detection, using the information presented by **Tables 2**–**4**, respectively.


**25**

**Table 2.**

*Severity levels. Own elaboration based on [28].*

*A Novel Space Systems Management Methodology Based on Shortcomings and Strengths…*

Ishikawa diagram (shown in **Figure 4**) was invented by chemist Kaoru Ishikawa who noted that this diagram can be used as an analytical tool in project management and quality search [29]. This diagram is also known as a fishbone or causeeffect diagram and it presents schematically the possible causes of a problem. It can

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83430*

*2.1.3 Ishikawa diagram*

*Example of FMEA format. Own elaboration.*

**Figure 3.**

**Table 1.** *Levels of classification for risk matrix.*

*A Novel Space Systems Management Methodology Based on Shortcomings and Strengths… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83430*



### *2.1.3 Ishikawa diagram*

*Lean Manufacturing and Six Sigma - Behind the Mask*

additional actions and high priority attention will be taken.

risk matrix are shown in **Table 1**.

*2.1.2 Failure modes and effects analysis*

**Tables 2**–**4**, respectively.

possible causes of the risk, consequences, impact on the success/costs of the project, probability of risk occurrence, evaluation of the risk effects based on predefined criteria, description of preventive technical measures, measures to control and countermeasures that should be initiated if the risk occurs. Classification level for

As each project can have its own parameters and keywords, the information used by NASA and the US government agencies will be used as a reference [6]: (a) green color (low risk): means that there is reduced or no potential for cost increase, interruption of the schedule or degradation of performance, therefore, the actions taken are important to control an acceptable risk; (b) yellow color (moderate risk): means that it may cause an increase in cost, interruption of programming or degradation of performance, it may require special action and management attention to manage the risk; (c) red color: means that a significant increase in cost, interruption of programming or degradation of performance is highly possible. Thus, important

The failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA) is used to identify the possible failures in the process, as well as the effects and causes. Using the FMEA, preventive actions for various tasks can be found and decrease the risk of making mistakes. An FMEA can be used to develop policies, specifications and controls that can avoid the negative consequences of an event. Using this method can be sufficient to prevent or mitigate failures, thus avoiding costs or irreversible damages [26]. The benefits of the FMEA when done correctly are: confidence that all risks have been identified early and appropriate countermeasures, priorities and rationales for actions to improve products or processes, reduce waste, rework and manufacturing costs have been taken, preservation of the knowledge of the product and the process, reduction of failures in the field and cost of guarantee, documentation of risks and actions for future designs or processes [27]. An example of FMEA format is shown in **Figure 3**. The determination of the risk priority number (RPN) is done by multiplying the values of severity, occurrence and detection, using the information presented by

**24**

**Table 1.**

*Levels of classification for risk matrix.*

Ishikawa diagram (shown in **Figure 4**) was invented by chemist Kaoru Ishikawa who noted that this diagram can be used as an analytical tool in project management and quality search [29]. This diagram is also known as a fishbone or causeeffect diagram and it presents schematically the possible causes of a problem. It can


**Table 2.** *Severity levels. Own elaboration based on [28].*


### **Table 3.**

*Levels of occurrence. Own elaboration based on [28].*

be said that the Ishikawa diagram does not have specific rules for its elaboration, the only important aspect is the way in which the causes can be found. They are divided into 5 categories that are defined and known as the "5M" (Men, Machines, Methods, Measurements, Materials). Each branch of the diagram represents a category


**27**

*A Novel Space Systems Management Methodology Based on Shortcomings and Strengths…*

and these in turn have sub-branches that represent the causes. The categories are

• Methods: from how the process is carried out to the specific requirements.

• Measurements: all the generated data that are used to evaluate the quality.

Ishikawa diagram provides a methodology which may include all possible considerations and although it looks slightly different from the form it takes, it is very similar to the mental map where all ideas are puts together based on a group

A fault tree is a model that represents graphically and logically the various combinations of possible events, both defective and normal, that occur in a system that leads to the unwanted future event. The main advantage of the method is its systematization, since it allows determining the multiple factors that contribute to the failures. It is used for the qualitative analysis to determine the situation of risk, and for the quantitative analysis, which allows to determine the probabilities of event sequences. Generally, its elaboration is a complicated and slow task, since the first step is to determine the individual superior event, then to analyze the subevents enough data [31, 32]. **Figure 5** shows the basic symbols used for the fault tree

Next, a brief description for each basic symbol is given. In addition, **Figure 6**

*Basic event*: represents the origin (commonly called root) of the fault or error,

*Intermediate event*: represents the negative event and it is commonly located at the top of the tree, although it can also be found throughout the tree to indicate

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83430*

described as follows:

*Ishikawa diagram. Own elaboration.*

**Figure 4.**

brainstorming [30].

*2.1.4 Fault tree*

elaboration.

other events [32, 33].

shows a basic fault tree example.

generally found in the lower part of the fault tree [33].

• Men: anyone involved in the project.

• Machines: all equipment or tools used.

• Materials: raw materials used to produce.

### **Table 4.**

*Detection levels. Own elaboration based on [28].*

*A Novel Space Systems Management Methodology Based on Shortcomings and Strengths… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83430*

**Figure 4.** *Ishikawa diagram. Own elaboration.*

*Lean Manufacturing and Six Sigma - Behind the Mask*

*Levels of occurrence. Own elaboration based on [28].*

be said that the Ishikawa diagram does not have specific rules for its elaboration, the only important aspect is the way in which the causes can be found. They are divided into 5 categories that are defined and known as the "5M" (Men, Machines, Methods, Measurements, Materials). Each branch of the diagram represents a category

**26**

**Table 4.**

*Detection levels. Own elaboration based on [28].*

**Table 3.**

and these in turn have sub-branches that represent the causes. The categories are described as follows:


Ishikawa diagram provides a methodology which may include all possible considerations and although it looks slightly different from the form it takes, it is very similar to the mental map where all ideas are puts together based on a group brainstorming [30].

#### *2.1.4 Fault tree*

A fault tree is a model that represents graphically and logically the various combinations of possible events, both defective and normal, that occur in a system that leads to the unwanted future event. The main advantage of the method is its systematization, since it allows determining the multiple factors that contribute to the failures. It is used for the qualitative analysis to determine the situation of risk, and for the quantitative analysis, which allows to determine the probabilities of event sequences. Generally, its elaboration is a complicated and slow task, since the first step is to determine the individual superior event, then to analyze the subevents enough data [31, 32]. **Figure 5** shows the basic symbols used for the fault tree elaboration.

Next, a brief description for each basic symbol is given. In addition, **Figure 6** shows a basic fault tree example.

*Basic event*: represents the origin (commonly called root) of the fault or error, generally found in the lower part of the fault tree [33].

*Intermediate event*: represents the negative event and it is commonly located at the top of the tree, although it can also be found throughout the tree to indicate other events [32, 33].

#### **Figure 5.** *Fault tree symbols. Own elaboration.*

*¨AND¨ logical symbol*: represents a condition where the output occurs only if all the inputs occur in the result event, i.e., it will only occur if all the input events exist simultaneously [32, 33].

*¨OR¨ logical symbol*: condition where the event will occur only if one or any combination of the input events occurs [32].

### **2.2 Quantitative tools**

Quantitative tools help to obtain a measureable prediction of the probability of occurrence of a failure or risk in such a way that they can be prevented [6]. These tools are usually from the field of statistics.

### *2.2.1 Gantt chart*

The Gantt chart is a very simple time charting tool that is quite effective for planning and evaluating the progress of projects [34]. **Figure 7** shows a custom Gantt chart. Basically, the Gantt chart is a bar graph placed on its side, where the horizontal axis corresponds to time and the vertical axis to related activities [35]. Among the advantages of the Gantt chart is that it clearly shows which activities are advanced or delayed, so it becomes an excellent communication tool, and almost everyone can read or build it [36]. Consequently, the Gantt chart can be used as a controller for project planning as it can ensure that all problems are addressed as required [37].

#### *2.2.2 Critical path method*

The critical path method (CPM) is a technique based on a network diagram, similar to PERT, except for the handling of uncertainty in the context of activities, i.e., it is also used with a property, in addition to a unique time estimate for each activity [38]. This method is widely used in project management as it serves to

**29**

**Figure 6.**

*Fault tree example. Own elaboration.*

*A Novel Space Systems Management Methodology Based on Shortcomings and Strengths…*

develop strategies and schedules using a one-time estimate for each activity that comprises the project [39]. An important benefit of this method is that it summarizes in a single document the general image of the entire project, which helps to avoid omissions, quickly identify contradictions in the planning of activities, achieving that the project is carried out with a minimum of stumbling. In particular, the method consists in the following stages: identify all the involved activities, establish relationships between the activities, decide which one should start before and which one later, construct a diagram connecting the different activities to their precedence relationships, define costs and estimated time for each activity, identify the critical path and slack activities, and finally, use the diagram to help planning,

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83430*

*A Novel Space Systems Management Methodology Based on Shortcomings and Strengths… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83430*

**Figure 6.** *Fault tree example. Own elaboration.*

develop strategies and schedules using a one-time estimate for each activity that comprises the project [39]. An important benefit of this method is that it summarizes in a single document the general image of the entire project, which helps to avoid omissions, quickly identify contradictions in the planning of activities, achieving that the project is carried out with a minimum of stumbling. In particular, the method consists in the following stages: identify all the involved activities, establish relationships between the activities, decide which one should start before and which one later, construct a diagram connecting the different activities to their precedence relationships, define costs and estimated time for each activity, identify the critical path and slack activities, and finally, use the diagram to help planning,

*Lean Manufacturing and Six Sigma - Behind the Mask*

simultaneously [32, 33].

*Fault tree symbols. Own elaboration.*

**Figure 5.**

**2.2 Quantitative tools**

*2.2.1 Gantt chart*

required [37].

*2.2.2 Critical path method*

combination of the input events occurs [32].

tools are usually from the field of statistics.

*¨AND¨ logical symbol*: represents a condition where the output occurs only if all the inputs occur in the result event, i.e., it will only occur if all the input events exist

*¨OR¨ logical symbol*: condition where the event will occur only if one or any

Quantitative tools help to obtain a measureable prediction of the probability of occurrence of a failure or risk in such a way that they can be prevented [6]. These

The Gantt chart is a very simple time charting tool that is quite effective for planning and evaluating the progress of projects [34]. **Figure 7** shows a custom Gantt chart. Basically, the Gantt chart is a bar graph placed on its side, where the horizontal axis corresponds to time and the vertical axis to related activities [35]. Among the advantages of the Gantt chart is that it clearly shows which activities are advanced or delayed, so it becomes an excellent communication tool, and almost everyone can read or build it [36]. Consequently, the Gantt chart can be used as a controller for project planning as it can ensure that all problems are addressed as

The critical path method (CPM) is a technique based on a network diagram, similar to PERT, except for the handling of uncertainty in the context of activities, i.e., it is also used with a property, in addition to a unique time estimate for each activity [38]. This method is widely used in project management as it serves to

**28**


**Figure 7.**

*Gantt chart example. Own elaboration.*

monitoring and controlling the project. The elaboration of the critical path method consists of the following two cycles:

*Cycle 1***:** consists of the definition of the project, creation of a list of activities, matrix of sequences, time matrix, network of activities, costs and pending activities, understanding of the network, time constraints, economic resources and elasticity matrix [40].

*Cycle 2***:** consists of the execution and control of the project, it ends when the last activity of the project is running and, meantime, it can have adjustments based on the differences between the scheduled and expected activities [40].

#### *2.2.3 Program evaluation review technique diagram*

The program evaluation review technique (PERT) is a method to plan and program a project that models the uncertainties for each activity using optimistic, probable and pessimistic time estimation [41]. A PERT diagram can be as simple or complex as needed, but it always involves three basic elements for its elaboration: circles where activities are written, lines that represent the direction of progress and dates that indicate the time of completion. The steps to perform a basic PERT diagram are: define the activities, indicate the necessary requirements before starting each activity and estimate the time required for each activity [42]. **Figure 8** shows a PERT diagram example.

The PERT diagram provides a methodology that is used to estimate the probability of completing the project for a specific duration. This methodology is based on calculating the standard deviation (difference between pessimistic and optimistic time, divided by 6, see Eq. (1)), variance for each activity and variance for critical activities to obtain the standard deviation of the complete project and finally the probability of success [38].

## 1bability of success [38].

$$\text{standard deviation} = \frac{\text{presimtic time - optimistic time}}{6} \tag{1}$$

The standard deviation for the project is the square root of the sum of the variances of the critical activities. Once obtained this value, the probability is determined by calculating the z value and using a probability table for multiple z values as Eq. (2) shows.

Eq. (2) shows.

$$Z = \frac{D - t\_\epsilon}{\text{standard deviation for the project}}\tag{2}$$

**31**

**Figure 9.**

*A Novel Space Systems Management Methodology Based on Shortcomings and Strengths…*

where *D* is the date on which the project must be completed and *te* is the estimated termination in accordance with the critical path (maximum time required to

The tools used in project management, despite being widely used, sometimes can omit important aspects of the project, i.e., they have important deficiencies and particular trade-off during their application. Occasionally, these shortcomings are not mentioned or known by the project team, so, the probability of success is decreased drastically. However, these tools are still very useful in project management because they can be applied to any type of project to have an orientation of what and how should be achieved. **Figure 9** shows some shortcomings of space

*Shortcomings of space systems management tools. Own elaboration. Information retrieved from [6, 27, 35, 43, 44].*

**2.3 Shortcomings of space systems management tools**

systems management tools mentioned.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83430*

complete the project).

*PERT diagram example. Own elaboration.*

**Figure 8.**

*A Novel Space Systems Management Methodology Based on Shortcomings and Strengths… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83430*

**Figure 8.** *PERT diagram example. Own elaboration.*

*Lean Manufacturing and Six Sigma - Behind the Mask*

**30**

**Figure 7.**

*Gantt chart example. Own elaboration.*

elasticity matrix [40].

PERT diagram example.

probability of success [38].

as Eq. (2) shows.

consists of the following two cycles:

monitoring and controlling the project. The elaboration of the critical path method

*Cycle 1***:** consists of the definition of the project, creation of a list of activities, matrix of sequences, time matrix, network of activities, costs and pending activities, understanding of the network, time constraints, economic resources and

*Cycle 2***:** consists of the execution and control of the project, it ends when the last activity of the project is running and, meantime, it can have adjustments based

The program evaluation review technique (PERT) is a method to plan and program a project that models the uncertainties for each activity using optimistic, probable and pessimistic time estimation [41]. A PERT diagram can be as simple or complex as needed, but it always involves three basic elements for its elaboration: circles where activities are written, lines that represent the direction of progress and dates that indicate the time of completion. The steps to perform a basic PERT diagram are: define the activities, indicate the necessary requirements before starting each activity and estimate the time required for each activity [42]. **Figure 8** shows a

The PERT diagram provides a methodology that is used to estimate the probability of completing the project for a specific duration. This methodology is based on calculating the standard deviation (difference between pessimistic and optimistic time, divided by 6, see Eq. (1)), variance for each activity and variance for critical activities to obtain the standard deviation of the complete project and finally the

standard deviation <sup>=</sup> pessimitic time <sup>−</sup> optimistic time \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ 6 (1)

The standard deviation for the project is the square root of the sum of the variances of the critical activities. Once obtained this value, the probability is determined by calculating the z value and using a probability table for multiple z values

*<sup>z</sup>* <sup>=</sup> *<sup>D</sup>* <sup>−</sup> *te* \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ standard deviation for the project (2)

on the differences between the scheduled and expected activities [40].

*2.2.3 Program evaluation review technique diagram*

where *D* is the date on which the project must be completed and *te* is the estimated termination in accordance with the critical path (maximum time required to complete the project).

### **2.3 Shortcomings of space systems management tools**

The tools used in project management, despite being widely used, sometimes can omit important aspects of the project, i.e., they have important deficiencies and particular trade-off during their application. Occasionally, these shortcomings are not mentioned or known by the project team, so, the probability of success is decreased drastically. However, these tools are still very useful in project management because they can be applied to any type of project to have an orientation of what and how should be achieved. **Figure 9** shows some shortcomings of space systems management tools mentioned.

#### **Figure 9.**

*Shortcomings of space systems management tools. Own elaboration. Information retrieved from [6, 27, 35, 43, 44].*

Thus, if the shortcomings of these tools are found in a space project, they could cause great economic losses, since some parts of the project may be too important for an adequate development and performance. For example, when an Ishikawa diagram is applied for space projects, it is very important to consider all the possible causes of failures without exception to identify clearly critic activities. Thus, the previous analysis permits the team to act in case of any occurrence. Hence, it is necessary not to limit oneself to the moment in which it is being carried out and to dedicate the necessary time. In particular, the shortcomings of these tools are sometimes considered and a countermeasure to reduce them is to have a wider selection criterion on the personal who will be responsible for implementing the tool in the project. Otherwise, when these shortcomings are not considered, the results of the project may not be as expected or may simply be incorrect, even if the leader and personal believe that the project performance is adequate.

### **3. Proposed methodology**

The methodology for the management of space projects proposed in this document is based on design thinking framework and it uses the tools mentioned in Section 2 (see **Figure 10**). To increase the performance of the proposal, the tools mentioned will work together using the brainstorming technique in different stages of the design thinking framework according to the shortcomings described. In addition, this methodology proposes the use of meetings that will serve as reviews between each stage of the design thinking method to prevent the progress to the next stage if something is unusual, i.e., review meetings will serve as filters based on a continuous feedback.

In particular, the methodology is described as follow:


**33**

*A Novel Space Systems Management Methodology Based on Shortcomings and Strengths…*

• The final revision meeting it is essential because is necessary to ensure that everything that was done is correct. In addition, a feedback of the whole

The brainstorming technique could be used in all stages because it is a support tool. However, other tools can be used to complement or support all stages of the project. Finally, the conventional design thinking methodology presents an important disadvantage; unclear rules and statements were considered to determine the particular stage and future stage of a project. Therefore, our proposal uses management tools in different stages of the methodology proposed. In addition, it is possible to use Markov chain theory to determine the transition probability among

Conventional systems engineering tools were analyzed to be used in a design thinking framework for space project management. Each tool analyzed presents inherent shortcomings. In fact, although these tools are widely used in many engineering sectors, their trade-offs have not been investigated in deep to improve the overall project management using innovative countermeasures. Thus, the use of methodology proposed will help to make the conventional space systems projects management more efficient, because it will reduce the shortcomings of existing tools and to improve the prevention of possible failures causes as well as their effects. Although many high-end methodologies regarding the space project management are used around the world, our proposal is suitable for emerging countries and space agencies that require to optimize their resources to accelerate the aerospace industrial sector based on the academic and scientific regional contributions. In this context, the present proposal is being analyzed to be applied in a real space project, either for particular space products (e.g., antenna systems, attitude actuators and sensors, payloads, structures, solar panels and power systems, among

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83430*

project is given.

*Proposed methodology stages. RM: Review meeting.*

**Figure 10.**

the stages of the project.

**4. Conclusions and future research**

others) or small satellites missions.

*A Novel Space Systems Management Methodology Based on Shortcomings and Strengths… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83430*

**Figure 10.**

*Lean Manufacturing and Six Sigma - Behind the Mask*

**3. Proposed methodology**

systems engineering tools.

what will be its end.

Thus, if the shortcomings of these tools are found in a space project, they could cause great economic losses, since some parts of the project may be too important for an adequate development and performance. For example, when an Ishikawa diagram is applied for space projects, it is very important to consider all the possible causes of failures without exception to identify clearly critic activities. Thus, the previous analysis permits the team to act in case of any occurrence. Hence, it is necessary not to limit oneself to the moment in which it is being carried out and to dedicate the necessary time. In particular, the shortcomings of these tools are sometimes considered and a countermeasure to reduce them is to have a wider selection criterion on the personal who will be responsible for implementing the tool in the project. Otherwise, when these shortcomings are not considered, the results of the project may not be as expected or may simply be incorrect, even if

The methodology for the management of space projects proposed in this document is based on design thinking framework and it uses the tools mentioned in Section 2 (see **Figure 10**). To increase the performance of the proposal, the tools mentioned will work together using the brainstorming technique in different stages of the design thinking framework according to the shortcomings described. In addition, this methodology proposes the use of meetings that will serve as reviews between each stage of the design thinking method to prevent the progress to the next stage if something is unusual, i.e., review meetings will serve as filters based on a continuous feedback.

• At stage 1 (definition) the Gantt chart is used to plan the overall project, from the activities order and time required until to define the person carries out such activity. Also, the Ishikawa diagram and FMEA can be used to contemplate critical activities. The purpose of the review meeting after stage 1 is to clarify the objectives to be achieved, so as not to move on to the next stages without having a unique specific definition. This stage is one of the most critical

• At stage 2 (research) the risk matrices, the fault tree and the Ishikawa diagram are used, since they will help from the first stages to identify possible causes of failure risk for the project. After stage 2, another revision meeting follows since it is important to verify that all possible failure causes have been considered by

• At stage 3 (interpretation) the PERT diagram and CPM are used to recognize the critical path of our project. At the end of stage 3, another review meeting is held since this is the intermediate stage of the project and making the meeting at this point helps us to follow the rest of the project along the best path.

• At stage 4 and 5 (ideation and prototyping) all tools could be used. Between stages 4 and 5 as well as after stage 5, review meetings are important because at these points the project is already taking shape and it is completely close to

• At stage 6 (evaluation) the FMEA can also be used to evaluate the possible causes of problems and identify how to control or eliminate them.

because the success of the project depends to a great extent on it.

the leader and personal believe that the project performance is adequate.

In particular, the methodology is described as follow:

**32**

*Proposed methodology stages. RM: Review meeting.*

• The final revision meeting it is essential because is necessary to ensure that everything that was done is correct. In addition, a feedback of the whole project is given.

The brainstorming technique could be used in all stages because it is a support tool. However, other tools can be used to complement or support all stages of the project. Finally, the conventional design thinking methodology presents an important disadvantage; unclear rules and statements were considered to determine the particular stage and future stage of a project. Therefore, our proposal uses management tools in different stages of the methodology proposed. In addition, it is possible to use Markov chain theory to determine the transition probability among the stages of the project.

## **4. Conclusions and future research**

Conventional systems engineering tools were analyzed to be used in a design thinking framework for space project management. Each tool analyzed presents inherent shortcomings. In fact, although these tools are widely used in many engineering sectors, their trade-offs have not been investigated in deep to improve the overall project management using innovative countermeasures. Thus, the use of methodology proposed will help to make the conventional space systems projects management more efficient, because it will reduce the shortcomings of existing tools and to improve the prevention of possible failures causes as well as their effects. Although many high-end methodologies regarding the space project management are used around the world, our proposal is suitable for emerging countries and space agencies that require to optimize their resources to accelerate the aerospace industrial sector based on the academic and scientific regional contributions. In this context, the present proposal is being analyzed to be applied in a real space project, either for particular space products (e.g., antenna systems, attitude actuators and sensors, payloads, structures, solar panels and power systems, among others) or small satellites missions.

## **Acknowledgements**

Thanks a lot to CETYS University for the administrative and technical support. In addition, thanks to the Center of Innovation and Design (CEID) of Baja California for the important discussion on improving quality of the chapter.

## **Author details**

Cecilia Michelle Talancon, Josué López-Leyva\*, Dalia Chávez-García, Miguel Ponce-Camacho and Ariana Talamantes-Álvarez CETYS University, Ensenada, Mexico

\*Address all correspondence to: josue.lopez@cetys.mx

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**35**

*A Novel Space Systems Management Methodology Based on Shortcomings and Strengths…*

gap between program management and systems engineering. Insight. 2011;**14**: 4-8. DOI: 10.1002/inst.20111434

[10] Larson WJ, Kirkpatrick D, Sellers J, Thomas L, Verma D. Applied Space Systems Engineering. Boston: McGraw-

[11] Kossiakoff A, Sweet WN. Systems Engineering Principles and Practice. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons; 2005. p. 409. DOI: 10.1002/0471723630.ch14

[12] Wasson CS. System Engineering Analysis, Design, and Development: Concepts, Principles, and Practices. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons; 2017.

[14] Webster J. NASA's new space flight project requirements: Earlier definition for later cost stability. In: Aerospace Conference; 1-8 March 2014; Big Sky, MT, USA: IEEE. 2014. pp. 1-6. DOI: 10.1109/AERO.2014.6836436

p. 1. DOI: 10.1002/inst.12170

[13] Ryschkewitsch M. NASA Space Flight Program and Project Management Handbook. Washington: National Aeronautics and Space Administration; 2014. 5 p

[15] Jabri M. Understanding and managing organizational resistance. Managing Organizational

Change. 2017:241-258. DOI: 10.1057/978-1-137-46858-1\_10

DOI: 10.1002/inst.201013356

10.1007/978-1-4471-6624-5

creativity support for future research and development. Balkan

[17] Charyton C. Creativity and Innovation among Science and Art. New York: Springer; 2015. 135 p. DOI:

[18] Dușe DM, Dușe CS. Engineering

[16] Andersson J. Systems engineering and innovation. Insight. 2010;**13**:56-58.

Hill Education; 2009. p. 2

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83430*

[1] Blockley DI. Engineering: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford Press; 2012. 1 p. DOI: 10.1093/actr ade/9780199578696.001.0001

**References**

[2] Pichler F. General systems theory requirements for the engineering of complex models. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. 1992;**585**:132-141.

[3] Walden DD, Roedler GJ, Forsberg KJ, Hamelin RD, Shortell TM. INCOSE Systems Engineering Handbook: A Guide for System Life Cycle Processes and Activities. INCOSE; 2016. 145 p

[4] Kossiakoff A, Sweet WN, Seymour SJ, Biemer SM. Systems Engineering: Principles and Practice. 2nd ed. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; 2011. 31

p. DOI: 10.1002/9781118001028

intcom.2010.07.003

Administration; 2007

tb02045.x

[6] Garrett S. NASA Systems Engineering Handbook. Systems Engineering. Vol. 17. Washington: National Aeronautics and Space

[7] Bahill AT, Dean FF. What is systems engineering? A consensus of senior systems engineers. INCOSE International Symposium. 1996;**6**: 500-505. DOI: 10.1002/j.2334-5837.1996.

[8] Rebentisch ES. Integrating Program Management and Systems Engineering: Methods, Tools, and Organizational Systems for Improving Performance. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons; 2017. p. 51. DOI: 10.1002/9781119363941

[9] Langley M, Robitaille S, Thomas J. Toward a new mindset: Bridging the

[5] Baxter G, Sommerville I. Sociotechnical systems: From design methods to systems engineering. Interacting with Computers. 2011;**23**:4-17. DOI: 10.1016/j.

DOI: 10.1007/BFb0021010

*A Novel Space Systems Management Methodology Based on Shortcomings and Strengths… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83430*

### **References**

*Lean Manufacturing and Six Sigma - Behind the Mask*

Thanks a lot to CETYS University for the administrative and technical support. In addition, thanks to the Center of Innovation and Design (CEID) of Baja California for the important discussion on improving quality of the chapter.

**Acknowledgements**

**34**

**Author details**

provided the original work is properly cited.

CETYS University, Ensenada, Mexico

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

Cecilia Michelle Talancon, Josué López-Leyva\*, Dalia Chávez-García,

Miguel Ponce-Camacho and Ariana Talamantes-Álvarez

\*Address all correspondence to: josue.lopez@cetys.mx

[1] Blockley DI. Engineering: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford Press; 2012. 1 p. DOI: 10.1093/actr ade/9780199578696.001.0001

[2] Pichler F. General systems theory requirements for the engineering of complex models. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. 1992;**585**:132-141. DOI: 10.1007/BFb0021010

[3] Walden DD, Roedler GJ, Forsberg KJ, Hamelin RD, Shortell TM. INCOSE Systems Engineering Handbook: A Guide for System Life Cycle Processes and Activities. INCOSE; 2016. 145 p

[4] Kossiakoff A, Sweet WN, Seymour SJ, Biemer SM. Systems Engineering: Principles and Practice. 2nd ed. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; 2011. 31 p. DOI: 10.1002/9781118001028

[5] Baxter G, Sommerville I. Sociotechnical systems: From design methods to systems engineering. Interacting with Computers. 2011;**23**:4-17. DOI: 10.1016/j. intcom.2010.07.003

[6] Garrett S. NASA Systems Engineering Handbook. Systems Engineering. Vol. 17. Washington: National Aeronautics and Space Administration; 2007

[7] Bahill AT, Dean FF. What is systems engineering? A consensus of senior systems engineers. INCOSE International Symposium. 1996;**6**: 500-505. DOI: 10.1002/j.2334-5837.1996. tb02045.x

[8] Rebentisch ES. Integrating Program Management and Systems Engineering: Methods, Tools, and Organizational Systems for Improving Performance. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons; 2017. p. 51. DOI: 10.1002/9781119363941

[9] Langley M, Robitaille S, Thomas J. Toward a new mindset: Bridging the

gap between program management and systems engineering. Insight. 2011;**14**: 4-8. DOI: 10.1002/inst.20111434

[10] Larson WJ, Kirkpatrick D, Sellers J, Thomas L, Verma D. Applied Space Systems Engineering. Boston: McGraw-Hill Education; 2009. p. 2

[11] Kossiakoff A, Sweet WN. Systems Engineering Principles and Practice. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons; 2005. p. 409. DOI: 10.1002/0471723630.ch14

[12] Wasson CS. System Engineering Analysis, Design, and Development: Concepts, Principles, and Practices. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons; 2017. p. 1. DOI: 10.1002/inst.12170

[13] Ryschkewitsch M. NASA Space Flight Program and Project Management Handbook. Washington: National Aeronautics and Space Administration; 2014. 5 p

[14] Webster J. NASA's new space flight project requirements: Earlier definition for later cost stability. In: Aerospace Conference; 1-8 March 2014; Big Sky, MT, USA: IEEE. 2014. pp. 1-6. DOI: 10.1109/AERO.2014.6836436

[15] Jabri M. Understanding and managing organizational resistance. Managing Organizational Change. 2017:241-258. DOI: 10.1057/978-1-137-46858-1\_10

[16] Andersson J. Systems engineering and innovation. Insight. 2010;**13**:56-58. DOI: 10.1002/inst.201013356

[17] Charyton C. Creativity and Innovation among Science and Art. New York: Springer; 2015. 135 p. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4471-6624-5

[18] Dușe DM, Dușe CS. Engineering creativity support for future research and development. Balkan

Region Conference on Engineering and Business Education. Sciendo. 2017;**3**:371-382. DOI: 10.1515/ cplbu-2017-0049

[19] Zhou C. Integrating creativity training into problem and project-based learning curriculum in engineering education. European Journal of Engineering Education. 2012;**37**:488-499. DOI: 10.1080/03043797.2012.714357

[20] Stewart SC. Design thinking: Understanding how designers think and work. Design Studies. 2011;**32**:608-609. DOI: 10.1016/j.destud.2011.07.009

[21] Wong WK, Cheung HM, Venuvinod PK. Individual entrepreneurial characteristics and entrepreneurial success potential. International Journal of Innovation and Technology Management. 2005;**02**:277-292. DOI: 10.1142/s0219877005000502

[22] Oxman R. Thinking difference: Theories and models of parametric design thinking. Design Studies. 2017;**52**:4-39. DOI: 10.1016/j. destud.2017.06.001

[23] Coit C, Franzen M, Hughes J. Build staff trust and teamwork for best results. Opflow. 2018;**44**:6. DOI: 10.1002/opfl.1047

[24] Kim J, Ryu H. A design thinking rationality framework: Framing and solving design problems in early concept generation. Human–Computer Interaction. 2014;**29**:516-553. DOI: 10.1080/07370024.2014.896706

[25] Li Y, Nan F, Nan F. Relationship between energy consumption and economic growth: Empirical study based on data on Hebei Province from 1980 to 2008. Systems Engineering Procedia. 2011;**1**:117-123. DOI: 10.1016/j. sepro.2011.08.020

[26] Rutherford S. Failure mode and effects analysis (FMEAs) for small business owners and nonengineers. Quality Management Journal. 2016;**23**:55-56. DOI: 10.1080/10686967.2016.11918482

[27] Schneider H, Stamatis DH. Failure mode and effect analysis: FMEA from theory to execution. Technometrics. 1996;**38**:80. DOI: 10.2307/1268911

[28] Liu H. FMEA Using Uncertainty Theories and MCDM Methods. Shanghai, China: Springer; 2016. p. 13. DOI: 10.1007/978-981-10-1466-6

[29] Newman V. Problem Solving for Results. London: Taylor & Francis Group; 2017. 140 p. DOI: 10.4324/9781315245980

[30] Kim MC, Smidts CS. Three suggestions on the definition of terms for the safety and reliability analysis of digital systems. Reliability Engineering & System Safety. 2015;**135**:81-91. DOI: 10.1016/j.ress.2014.10.022

[31] Xing L, Amari SV. Fault tree analysis. In: Misra KB, editor. Handbook of Performability Engineering. London: Springer; 2008. pp. 595-620. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-84800-131-2

[32] Lee WS, Grosh DL, Tillman FA, Lie CH. Fault tree analysis, methods, and applications ߝ a review. IEEE Transactions on Reliability. 1985;**34**: 194-203. DOI: 10.1109/TR.1985.5222114

[33] Hassani BK. Fault Trees and Variations. Scenario Analysis in Risk Management: Theory and Practice in Finance. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing; 2016. p. 123. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-25056-4

[34] Ong HY, Wang C, Zainon N. Integrated earned value Gantt chart (EV-Gantt) tool for project portfolio planning and monitoring optimization. Engineering Management Journal. 2016;**28**:39-53. DOI: 10.1080/10429247.2015.1135033

**37**

*A Novel Space Systems Management Methodology Based on Shortcomings and Strengths…*

[43] Salvendy G. Handbook of

[44] Haughton D, Robbert MA, Senne LP. Graphical tools for assessing information quality: Loan application decisions. International Journal of Technology, Policy and Management. 2005;**5**:330. DOI: 10.1504/

10.1002/9780470172339

ijtpm.2005.008634

Industrial Engineering: Technology and Operations Management. 3rd ed. USA: John Wiley & Sons; 2007. 324 p. DOI:

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83430*

[35] Wilson JM. Gantt charts: A centenary appreciation. European Journal of Operational Research. 2003;**149**:430-437. DOI: 10.1016/

[36] Sholarin EA, Awange JL. Project Management toolbox. In: Ulrich F, Wim HR, Wim S, editors. Environmental Project Management: Principles, Methodology, and Processes. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing; 2015. pp. 295-333. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-27651-9\_15

[37] Bobbitt BL, Beardsley SD. Quality improvement and population behavioral health. In: O'Donohue W, Maragakis A, editors. Quality Improvement in Behavioral Health. Cham: Springer; 2016, 2016. pp. 303-316. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-26209-3\_20

[38] Dalcher D. Mastering IT project management: Best practices, tools and techniques. Project Management Journal. 2014;**45**:e2-e2. DOI: 10.1002/

[39] Moghayedi A. Improving critical path method (CPM) by applying safety factor to manage delays.

Scientia Iranica. 2016;**23**:815-826. DOI:

[40] Atkinson R. Project management: Cost, time and quality, two best guesses and a phenomenon, it's time to accept other success criteria. International Journal of Project Management. 1999;**17**:337-342. DOI: 10.1016/ S0263-7863(98)00069-6

[41] Wayne DC. Simplified program evaluation and review technique (PERT). Journal of Construction Engineering and Management. 1999;**125**:16-22. DOI: 10.1061/ (ASCE)0733-9364(1999)125:1(16)

[42] Sharma SC. Operation Research: PERT, CPM & Cost Analysis. New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House; 2006. 1 p

10.24200/sci.2016.2161

pmj.21414

s0377-2217(02)00769-5

*A Novel Space Systems Management Methodology Based on Shortcomings and Strengths… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83430*

[35] Wilson JM. Gantt charts: A centenary appreciation. European Journal of Operational Research. 2003;**149**:430-437. DOI: 10.1016/ s0377-2217(02)00769-5

[36] Sholarin EA, Awange JL. Project Management toolbox. In: Ulrich F, Wim HR, Wim S, editors. Environmental Project Management: Principles, Methodology, and Processes. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing; 2015. pp. 295-333. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-27651-9\_15

[37] Bobbitt BL, Beardsley SD. Quality improvement and population behavioral health. In: O'Donohue W, Maragakis A, editors. Quality Improvement in Behavioral Health. Cham: Springer; 2016, 2016. pp. 303-316. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-26209-3\_20

[38] Dalcher D. Mastering IT project management: Best practices, tools and techniques. Project Management Journal. 2014;**45**:e2-e2. DOI: 10.1002/ pmj.21414

[39] Moghayedi A. Improving critical path method (CPM) by applying safety factor to manage delays. Scientia Iranica. 2016;**23**:815-826. DOI: 10.24200/sci.2016.2161

[40] Atkinson R. Project management: Cost, time and quality, two best guesses and a phenomenon, it's time to accept other success criteria. International Journal of Project Management. 1999;**17**:337-342. DOI: 10.1016/ S0263-7863(98)00069-6

[41] Wayne DC. Simplified program evaluation and review technique (PERT). Journal of Construction Engineering and Management. 1999;**125**:16-22. DOI: 10.1061/ (ASCE)0733-9364(1999)125:1(16)

[42] Sharma SC. Operation Research: PERT, CPM & Cost Analysis. New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House; 2006. 1 p

[43] Salvendy G. Handbook of Industrial Engineering: Technology and Operations Management. 3rd ed. USA: John Wiley & Sons; 2007. 324 p. DOI: 10.1002/9780470172339

[44] Haughton D, Robbert MA, Senne LP. Graphical tools for assessing information quality: Loan application decisions. International Journal of Technology, Policy and Management. 2005;**5**:330. DOI: 10.1504/ ijtpm.2005.008634

**36**

*Lean Manufacturing and Six Sigma - Behind the Mask*

small business owners and nonengineers. Quality Management Journal. 2016;**23**:55-56. DOI: 10.1080/10686967.2016.11918482

[27] Schneider H, Stamatis DH. Failure mode and effect analysis: FMEA from theory to execution. Technometrics. 1996;**38**:80. DOI: 10.2307/1268911

[28] Liu H. FMEA Using Uncertainty Theories and MCDM Methods. Shanghai, China: Springer; 2016. p. 13. DOI: 10.1007/978-981-10-1466-6

[29] Newman V. Problem Solving for Results. London: Taylor & Francis Group; 2017. 140 p. DOI:

[30] Kim MC, Smidts CS. Three suggestions on the definition of terms for the safety and reliability analysis of digital systems. Reliability Engineering & System Safety. 2015;**135**:81-91. DOI:

[31] Xing L, Amari SV. Fault tree

analysis. In: Misra KB, editor. Handbook of Performability Engineering. London: Springer; 2008. pp. 595-620. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-84800-131-2

[32] Lee WS, Grosh DL, Tillman FA, Lie CH. Fault tree analysis, methods, and applications ߝ a review. IEEE Transactions on Reliability. 1985;**34**: 194-203. DOI: 10.1109/TR.1985.5222114

[33] Hassani BK. Fault Trees and Variations. Scenario Analysis in Risk Management: Theory and Practice in Finance. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing; 2016. p. 123. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-25056-4

[34] Ong HY, Wang C, Zainon N. Integrated earned value Gantt chart (EV-Gantt) tool for project portfolio planning and monitoring optimization. Engineering Management

Journal. 2016;**28**:39-53. DOI: 10.1080/10429247.2015.1135033

10.4324/9781315245980

10.1016/j.ress.2014.10.022

Region Conference on Engineering and Business Education. Sciendo. 2017;**3**:371-382. DOI: 10.1515/

[19] Zhou C. Integrating creativity training into problem and project-based learning curriculum in engineering education. European Journal of

[20] Stewart SC. Design thinking: Understanding how designers think and work. Design Studies. 2011;**32**:608-609. DOI: 10.1016/j.destud.2011.07.009

PK. Individual entrepreneurial characteristics and entrepreneurial success potential. International Journal of Innovation and Technology Management. 2005;**02**:277-292. DOI:

10.1142/s0219877005000502

destud.2017.06.001

10.1002/opfl.1047

sepro.2011.08.020

[22] Oxman R. Thinking difference: Theories and models of parametric design thinking. Design Studies. 2017;**52**:4-39. DOI: 10.1016/j.

[23] Coit C, Franzen M, Hughes J. Build staff trust and teamwork for best results. Opflow. 2018;**44**:6. DOI:

[24] Kim J, Ryu H. A design thinking rationality framework: Framing and solving design problems in early concept generation. Human–Computer Interaction. 2014;**29**:516-553. DOI: 10.1080/07370024.2014.896706

[25] Li Y, Nan F, Nan F. Relationship between energy consumption and economic growth: Empirical study based on data on Hebei Province from 1980 to 2008. Systems Engineering Procedia. 2011;**1**:117-123. DOI: 10.1016/j.

[26] Rutherford S. Failure mode and effects analysis (FMEAs) for

Engineering Education. 2012;**37**:488-499. DOI: 10.1080/03043797.2012.714357

[21] Wong WK, Cheung HM, Venuvinod

cplbu-2017-0049

**39**

**Chapter 4**

**Abstract**

Process Visible

value stream mapping, waste

**1. Introduction**

Value Stream Mapping: A Method

Defining customer and value in lean thinking is crucial. All wastes that do not add value to the customer in business processes should be eliminated. In the real world and related literature, there are various methods used to eliminate waste and improve processes. One of the methods frequently used is the value stream mapping (VSM). VSM is preferred since it enables to take the picture of a process. Moreover, VSM is the identification of all activities that create and/or do not create value in the processes, from the supplier of the product or service to the customer. This chapter deals with lean philosophy, lean techniques and specifically the VSM method. In addition, some examples of VSM applications in the service and production sectors are discussed and the findings obtained from these applications are evaluated. Finally, the chapter concludes with some managerial implications as well as potential future research areas.

Originating from Toyota production system (TPS), lean production (LP) or lean manufacturing (LM) has now become a well-known and widely adopted philosophy all over the world. Its first usages were limited with the production industry and therefore its initial applications emerged in the manufacturing businesses. As time passes, the service industry has begun to utilize from the LP philosophy and/ or techniques. As the adaptation of lean expanded from production sector to service

Historical evolution of the "lean" started with TPS and continued as LP/LM, and finally became LT. No matter what anyone says, each of these terms indicates the same concept. Eliminating or at least minimizing the waste (Japanese: muda) in a system is the basic philosophy of lean and to produce the maximum output by using minimum resources is the main goal of it. Lean seeks for a system that tries to detract non-value added things from the processes and bring the value-added things into the forefront. These efforts become meaningful if the value is defined correctly and the system is designed and conducted truly. Value must be defined by the customer since he/she is the end user of the product and/or service. Thus, to give exactly what the customer wants, businesses must take into consideration the concepts of efficiency and quality. It is clear that an efficient and quality focused system uses the resources exactly as needed and produces products and/or services that satisfy the customers.

**Keywords:** lean thinking, lean techniques, production and service sector,

sector, its concept transformed from LP to lean thinking (LT).

That Makes the Waste in the

*Nuri Ozgur Dogan and Burcu Simsek Yagli*

### **Chapter 4**
