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## Meet the editor

Dr. Kırmusaoğlu, PhD, is an Assistant Professor of microbiology at the Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, T.C. Haliç University, where she had previously held an administrative position as vice head of the same department. She specialized in microbiology at Abant Izzet Baysal University (Biology Department), Turkey. Her previous experience includes the position of laboratory manager at microbiology laboratories in several

research and private hospitals. Throughout her career, she collaborated with academicians/researchers from AIBU, METU and Istanbul University Cerrahpaşa Faculty of Medicine, and participated in various research projects. She also worked as a lecturer in the Medical Laboratory Techniques Program held at the Department of Medical Services and Techniques, T.C. Istanbul Kavram Vocational Training School, before transitioning to T.C. Haliç University as an Assist.Prof. Dr. Kırmusaoğlu's research interests include pathogenic bacteria, bacterial biofilms, antibiofilm and antimicrobial agents, antibacterial resistance, synergistic activities of antimicrobials in combination with new agents such as chemical and natural bioactive compounds against pathogenic bacteria such as antibiotic-resistant and biofilm-producing microorganisms, regulation of antibiotic resistance, and virulence genes. She is also interested in research on antibiofilm medical devices for preventing biofilm infections associated with indwelling devices that could lead to systemic infections. She has published several international research articles, book chapters, and congress proceedings. More specifically, Dr. Kırmusaoğlu participated as an author in several books, e.g. *Microbial Biofilms: Importance and Applications and The Rise of Virulence and Antibiotic Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus* with her chapters "Staphylococcal biofilms: pathogenicity, mechanism and regulation of biofilm formation by quorum sensing system and antibiotic resistance mechanisms of biofilm embedded microorganisms" and "The mechanism of methicillin resistance and the influence of methicillin resistance on biofilm phenotype of Staphylococcus aureus." The chapter entitled "The methods for detection of biofilm and screening antibiofilm activity of agents" was written by Dr. Kırmusaoğlu. She is also the editor of *Disinfection* and *Bacterial Pathogenesis and Antibacterial Control*. In addition to these, she wrote a book *Genel Biyoloji Laboratuvar Kılavuzu (General Biology Laboratory Manual)* published by Hipokrat Publisher. She has been also contributing to an ongoing book project titled *Staphylococcus and Streptococcus* as an editor, and has contributed to a chapter translation of the book *Sherris Medical Microbiology by Ryan et al*. as one of the translation authors of *Sherris Tıbbi Mikrobiyoloji*, which is a Turkish translated book edited by Prof. Dr. Dürdal Us and Prof. Dr. Ahmet Başustaoğlu.

**Preface III**

Antimicrobials and Antimicrobial Resistance **1**

**Chapter 1 3** Introductory Chapter: The Action Mechanisms of Antibiotics and Antibiotic

**Chapter 2 13**

Control Strategies of Microbial Biofilm **27**

**Chapter 3 29**

**Chapter 4 51**

**Chapter 5 75**

**Chapter 6 99**

Alternative Approaches to Combat Medicinally Important Biofilm-Forming

*by Mansab Ali Saleemi, Navindra Kumari Palanisamy and Eng Hwa Wong*

Origin and Control Strategies of Biofilms in the Cultural Heritage

Antimicrobial Agents: Antibacterial Agents, Anti-biofilm Agents, Antibacterial Natural Compounds, and Antibacterial Chemicals *by Yaw Duah Boakye, Newman Osafo, Cynthia Amaning Danquah,* 

The Methods for Detection of Biofilm and Screening Antibiofilm

*by Laura E. Castrillón Rivera, Alejandro Palma Ramos, Jorge I. Castañeda Sánchez and María Elisa Drago Serrano*

*by Sahra Kırmusaoğlu, Nesrin Gareayaghi and Bekir S. Kocazeybek*

*by Muhammad Usman Qamar, Muhammad Hidayat Rasool, Shah Jahan,* 

**Section 1**

Contents

Resistance

**Section 2**

Pathogens

Antimicrobial Resistance

*Muhammad Shafique and Bilal Aslam*

*Francis Adu and Christian Agyare*

Activity of Agents *by Sahra Kırmusaoğlu*

## Contents



Preface

To prevent bacterial adherence caused by virulence factors such as biofilms, invasion, and infection, newly developed antimicrobials in combination with certain agents or bioactive compounds present in natural products, such as pharmacological nutrients and plant extracts as well as certain novel technologies, are being used

Several factors such as natural selection, mutations in genes, the presence of efflux pumps, impermeability of the cell wall, structural changes in enzymes and receptors, biofilm formation, and quorum sensing cause microorganisms to develop resistance against antimicrobials. Multidrug-resistant pathogens that are the main causes of morbidity and mortality in the worldwide have the ability to synthesize a number of enzymes such as extended spectrum-βlactamases, induced β-lactamases, carbapenamases, metallo-β-lactamases, New Delhi metallo-β-lactamases, and many others. Due to the wide range of antimicrobial resistance multidrug-resistant pathogens such as methicillin-resistant *Staphylococcus aureus* (MRSA), *Escherichia coli*, *Klebsiella pneumoniae*, *Enterobacter cloacae*, and *Pseudomonas aureginosa* have emerged throughout the worldwide, and mechanisms of resistance must be further investigated to treat untreatable infections caused by resistant pathogens. To overcome antimicrobial resistance, new strategies must be developed, and minimum doses of antimicrobials in combination with other agents such as synergistic compounds and nutrient extracts can

Determining virulence factors such as biofilms and the level of antimicrobial activities of antimicrobial agents alone and in combination with appropriate doses against microorganisms is very important for the diagnosis, inhibition, and preven-

This book contains seven chapters from valued experts in Turkey, Mexico, Spain, Netherlands, Pakistan, Malaysia, and Kumasi-Ghana. The goal of this book is to provide information on all the topics mentioned. It can be useful for researchers who are interested in the study of microbial responses against antimicrobials, and the development of new strategies for the treatment of infections caused by MDR

I would like to thank all the authors who contributed to this book with their chapters. Especially, I would like to express my special thanks to Prof. Dr. Bekir Kocazeybek for his valued support. Finally, I would also like to thank Ms. Maja Bozicevic who

tion of microbial infection, especially for recurrent ones.

and biofilm producer microorganisms.

and vastly researched nowadays.

be used.
