**2. Analysis of the commercial sponge fishery in Cuba**

Sponge fishery in Cuba has shown two extraction procedures, in accordance with the characteristics of the extraction zone, fishermen's age and regional traditions [17–19]: (1) by means of hooking implements for sponge recollection from auxiliary (small) boats that are towed by a sponsor, so fisherman immersion is not needed, or (2) by diving in apnoea for detaching or cutting the sponges from the closest part to the fixation substrate. Practically, no evolution in the fishing form has taken place throughout the years. The shallowness of the area where sponges inhabit has determined the fishing system that has followed the traditional method, using a glass bottom bucket and a stick with a double hook or trident to detach the sponge from the substrate (**Figure 1**).

Cuba reached an important commercial sponge production with an average of 166 t in the period from 1910 to 1919; 505 t for 1920–1929 and 391 t for 1930–1939 [20]. From 1939 to 1943, the fungus (blight) disease decimated the populations jointly with the hurricane at the end of 1944, generating lower production levels until 1947 [16, 21]. During the period after 1960, fishery activity was reorganised in Cuba; the fleet was modernised, which decreased the number of sponge boats and fishermen; fishing areas were divided into zones by territories, establishing

#### **Figure 1.**

*Traditional technique for sponge capture or recollection in Cuba, sponge boat, auxiliary boat and glass bottom bucket. Photography: La Empresa Pesquera Industrial de Caibarien (EPICAI).*

two fishing regions (**Figure 2**) in terms of abundance [22, 23]. Currently, commercial sponge fishery in Cuba is regulated by catch quota, and minimum legal sizes have been established for perimetric length: 35.6 cm for *H. lachne* ('Hembra de ojo'), 30.6 cm for *S. obscura* ('Macho cueva') and 20.8 cm for other species, such as *S. pertusa*, *S. barbara* and *S. graminea* [24].

Although current statistics have shown a tendency to increase sponge extractive activities since 1960, Cuba has not been able to reach the production levels previous to 1940. This tendency could have been due to a greater fishing effort. Almost all the fleets of Batabanó and Caibarién ports dedicated themselves to the capture of this resource and utilised boats type 'Balandro' and 'Goleta' with a crew from 14 to 16 fishermen. Before 1944 the fleets operated around 350 boats in the Gulf of Batabanó, which belonged to the Cuban ports of Batabanó, Coloma and Gerona [13, 14]. Production increased from 1960 with the proper fluctuations of a fishery that depended on different natural and human factors. Nonetheless, the average annual capture (40.15 ± 12.8 t) from 1960 to 2017 (58 years) did not go beyond 50 t (**Figure 3**).

Sponge fishery production decreased in southwest Cuba (Gulf of Batabanó) by fishing region from the beginning of the 2000 decade. Production reported by the enterprise PESCAHABANA (Batabanó) fell from 28.2 ± 3.1 t (2000–2004) to 19.6 ± 1.6 t (2013–2017). A similar pattern was registered for the northeast region (Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago). Production from the industrial fishery (EPICAI) decreased from 25.4 ± 1.6 t (2000–2004) to 14.1 ± 3.0 t (2013–2017). In the case of Caibarién, a greater stability was observed in sponge production during the period 1990–2009 (23 ± 3.8 t). Nevertheless, average capture from the period 2010–2017 was 19.1 ± 9.0 t with a maximum capture (>33 t) in 2010 and 2011, much higher than the historic average (23.5 t) from the period 1972–2017 (47 years). All these data suggested that overfishing occurred during 2010 and 2011 whose consequence was observed several years later with a lower extraction of 15 t, which affected national sponge production. The situation of this region got worse in 2017 (10.4 t) due to the impact of Hurricane 'Irma'.

#### **2.1 Abundance by species and regions**

Population density studies developed in the 2000 decade [13] showed a greater sample density in the region of the Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago (Caibarién) with respect to sample data for the region of the Gulf of Batabanó (**Figure 4**).

In both Cuban regions, northeast (Caibarién) and southwest (Batabanó), commercial extraction of the sponges locally known as 'Machos', which belong to the genus *Spongia sp*, was higher than those known as 'Hembras' (*Hippospongia lachne*).

#### **Figure 2.**

*Distribution of the fishing areas according to zones of major commercial sponge abundance: northeast zone (Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago) and southwest zone (Gulf of Batabanó) Cuba.*

**107**

*Sponge Fishery and Aquaculture in Cuba: Impacts and Challenges*

On the other hand, regardless of the fishing effort applied in each region, a tendency to decrease was observed in sponge production, which was lower for *H. lachne* species both in extraction data and abundance parameters in both regions [13]. Species extraction of the genus *Spongia* sp. in the northcentral or northeast regions of Cuba was relatively constant during the 2000 decade. A different pattern was found for the same genus in the southern region (Gulf of Batabanó), showing a tendency to decrease, same as those of the species *H. lachne*. This situation was reflected on

*Sponge density according to southwest (Batabanó) and northeast (Caibarién) regions in Cuba. Different letters* 

*Interannual variability of commercial sponge annual average extraction for the 1960–2017 period, in Cuba.*

In subsequent studies developed in a protected northeast zone of the Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago during 2013 [25], which is under the Special Regime of Use and Protection and in which commercial sponge extraction has not been performed,

precautionary capture of 1300 specimens (30% of the total) per hectare per year [25]. Density data obtained were by far superior to those reported by Blanco and Formoso [13] for the extraction zones of the Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago. Furthermore, they were superior to those reported by these same authors for the

was recorded (4570/ind/ha), estimating a potential

sample density by species (**Figures 5** and **6**).

an average density of 0.457 ind/m2

*indicate significant differences p < 0.05 [13].*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84785*

**Figure 3.**

**Figure 4.**

*Sponge Fishery and Aquaculture in Cuba: Impacts and Challenges DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84785*

**Figure 3.** *Interannual variability of commercial sponge annual average extraction for the 1960–2017 period, in Cuba.*

#### **Figure 4.**

*Invertebrates - Ecophysiology and Management*

*S. pertusa*, *S. barbara* and *S. graminea* [24].

**2.1 Abundance by species and regions**

two fishing regions (**Figure 2**) in terms of abundance [22, 23]. Currently, commercial sponge fishery in Cuba is regulated by catch quota, and minimum legal sizes have been established for perimetric length: 35.6 cm for *H. lachne* ('Hembra de ojo'), 30.6 cm for *S. obscura* ('Macho cueva') and 20.8 cm for other species, such as

Although current statistics have shown a tendency to increase sponge extractive activities since 1960, Cuba has not been able to reach the production levels previous to 1940. This tendency could have been due to a greater fishing effort. Almost all the fleets of Batabanó and Caibarién ports dedicated themselves to the capture of this resource and utilised boats type 'Balandro' and 'Goleta' with a crew from 14 to 16 fishermen. Before 1944 the fleets operated around 350 boats in the Gulf of Batabanó, which belonged to the Cuban ports of Batabanó, Coloma and Gerona [13, 14]. Production increased from 1960 with the proper fluctuations of a fishery that depended on different natural and human factors. Nonetheless, the average annual capture (40.15 ± 12.8 t) from 1960 to 2017 (58 years) did not go beyond 50 t (**Figure 3**). Sponge fishery production decreased in southwest Cuba (Gulf of Batabanó) by fishing region from the beginning of the 2000 decade. Production reported by the enterprise PESCAHABANA (Batabanó) fell from 28.2 ± 3.1 t (2000–2004) to 19.6 ± 1.6 t

(2013–2017). A similar pattern was registered for the northeast region (Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago). Production from the industrial fishery (EPICAI) decreased from 25.4 ± 1.6 t (2000–2004) to 14.1 ± 3.0 t (2013–2017). In the case of Caibarién, a greater stability was observed in sponge production during the period 1990–2009 (23 ± 3.8 t). Nevertheless, average capture from the period 2010–2017 was 19.1 ± 9.0 t with a maximum capture (>33 t) in 2010 and 2011, much higher than the historic average (23.5 t) from the period 1972–2017 (47 years). All these data suggested that overfishing occurred during 2010 and 2011 whose consequence was observed several years later with a lower extraction of 15 t, which affected national sponge production. The situation of this region got worse in 2017 (10.4 t) due to the impact of Hurricane 'Irma'.

Population density studies developed in the 2000 decade [13] showed a greater sample density in the region of the Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago (Caibarién) with

In both Cuban regions, northeast (Caibarién) and southwest (Batabanó), commercial extraction of the sponges locally known as 'Machos', which belong to the genus *Spongia sp*, was higher than those known as 'Hembras' (*Hippospongia lachne*).

*Distribution of the fishing areas according to zones of major commercial sponge abundance: northeast zone* 

*(Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago) and southwest zone (Gulf of Batabanó) Cuba.*

respect to sample data for the region of the Gulf of Batabanó (**Figure 4**).

**106**

**Figure 2.**

*Sponge density according to southwest (Batabanó) and northeast (Caibarién) regions in Cuba. Different letters indicate significant differences p < 0.05 [13].*

On the other hand, regardless of the fishing effort applied in each region, a tendency to decrease was observed in sponge production, which was lower for *H. lachne* species both in extraction data and abundance parameters in both regions [13]. Species extraction of the genus *Spongia* sp. in the northcentral or northeast regions of Cuba was relatively constant during the 2000 decade. A different pattern was found for the same genus in the southern region (Gulf of Batabanó), showing a tendency to decrease, same as those of the species *H. lachne*. This situation was reflected on sample density by species (**Figures 5** and **6**).

In subsequent studies developed in a protected northeast zone of the Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago during 2013 [25], which is under the Special Regime of Use and Protection and in which commercial sponge extraction has not been performed, an average density of 0.457 ind/m2 was recorded (4570/ind/ha), estimating a potential precautionary capture of 1300 specimens (30% of the total) per hectare per year [25].

Density data obtained were by far superior to those reported by Blanco and Formoso [13] for the extraction zones of the Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago. Furthermore, they were superior to those reported by these same authors for the

#### **Figure 5.**

*Commercial sponge density by species on the natural banks of northeast Cuba (Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago). Different letters indicate significant differences p < 0.05 [13].*

#### **Figure 6.**

*Commercial sponge density by species found on natural banks of southwestern Cuba (Gulf of Batabanó). Different letters indicate significant differences p < 0.05 [13].*

Gulf of Batabanó in the 2000 decade, which evidenced, among other causes, that fishery was also an impact factor.

What is more transcendental data from recent studies is that the 'Hembra' sponge *H. lachne* showed greater abundance in the zone assessed from the protected area in 2013. Just because of its greater economic value, it is one of the first species to decrease in abundance, and it also evidenced that a decrease in production is expected due to commercial exploitation and improvement of extractive methods [25].

## **3. Main impact factors in sponge populations in Cuba**

As previously mentioned, one of the main causes of abrupt decrease in sponge populations in Cuba was related to the disease known locally as 'Tizón' (smut or

**109**

Archipelago [34].

*Sponge Fishery and Aquaculture in Cuba: Impacts and Challenges*

blight) caused by the fungus *Spoingiophaga communis* during the period 1939–1945 [17, 20, 21]. After 1945, no significant outbreaks of this disease were reported. Because of the capture decrease in the Gulf of Batabanó, studies were performed in 2005, but no proofs of the existence of pathogenic organisms (fungi and bacteria), which could cause sponge death and subsequent decrease in production, were

Solar radiation, illumination and temperature are factors that regulate sponge distribution, colonisation and success in their natural reproductive processes. Although they can withstand extreme temperature (10–36°C) values in short periods, the optimum values for their sexual proliferation is from 23 to 29°C [27, 28]. In Cuba the southern sponge zones of the Gulf of Batabanó showed water temperature average of 28.03°C, while in the northern zone of Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago,

Blanco [23] pointed out hurricanes as a cause of impact on sponge populations, above all on those that inhabited the Gulf of Batabanó due to a greater frequency and intensity of cyclonic disturbances after 1996. Hurricanes generate strong currents and surge of great height and intensity that provoke sediment in suspension besides the fracture and dragging of fragments or complete organisms. It occurs to sponges themselves due to their sessile condition that makes it impossible for them to escape from the energetic movement that occurs in waters, which makes the effect greater on the genera *Spongia* and *Hippospongia* because they are very suscep-

The increase of anthropogenic activities, such as tourism development in keys and islands, above all in the Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago, adds contamination and increase in water turbidity; dragging and landfill for construction and repairing roads that link the coast of Cuba to these keys have led to periodical turbidity events that have affected seawater quality [33]. The excess of small particle solids suspended in the water column has caused clogging of the inhaling pores in commercial and noncommercial species, more so in those that have fine pores, causing them inadequate development, including death [1, 26]. The increase of siltation due to coastal erosion has been another impact additional to hurricanes, which has been derived from logging bordering mangroves, maritime construction and increase of average seawater level, as it has occurred in several coastal segments in the south-

On the contrary, organic contamination at intermediate degrees seemed to have caused certain stimulation to sponge development and diversification, but it also reduced species diversity in reefs dramatically and, in extreme cases, has a greater decrease of their biomass [34]. Contamination has also brought as a consequence the disappearance of marine grass rich in commercial sponges and its substitution for muddy bottoms with turbid water loaded with sediments that do not favour *Porifera*. This situation has occurred in wide zones of the Sabana-Camagüey

Finally, fishing activity itself could constitute an additional impact when resource exploitation goes beyond its recovery capacity since uncontrolled extraction levels lead to overfishing patterns. Blanco [23] points out a tendency of sponges

average temperature was 27.33°C in Sabana and 28.32°C in Camagüey [29]. Even though these values are permissible for commercial sponges in Cuba, high temperatures (>30°C) can also favour the proliferation of bacteria and fungi. In coastal water bodies and bays in the inner part of the Camagüey Archipelago, extreme maximum temperatures up to 35°C could occur due to shallowness and limited water renovation [29]. Because of the shallowness from 3 to 7 m in the Gulf of Batabanó and from 2 to 8 m in the Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago, in which the greatest abundance of Cuban commercial sponges inhabit, they are very vulnerable

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84785*

detected that year [26].

to natural physical impacts.

tible due to their high tissue density [30–32].

west region of the Gulf of Batabanó.

#### *Sponge Fishery and Aquaculture in Cuba: Impacts and Challenges DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84785*

*Invertebrates - Ecophysiology and Management*

Gulf of Batabanó in the 2000 decade, which evidenced, among other causes, that

*Commercial sponge density by species found on natural banks of southwestern Cuba (Gulf of Batabanó).* 

*Commercial sponge density by species on the natural banks of northeast Cuba (Sabana-Camagüey* 

*Archipelago). Different letters indicate significant differences p < 0.05 [13].*

due to commercial exploitation and improvement of extractive methods [25].

**3. Main impact factors in sponge populations in Cuba**

What is more transcendental data from recent studies is that the 'Hembra' sponge *H. lachne* showed greater abundance in the zone assessed from the protected area in 2013. Just because of its greater economic value, it is one of the first species to decrease in abundance, and it also evidenced that a decrease in production is expected

As previously mentioned, one of the main causes of abrupt decrease in sponge populations in Cuba was related to the disease known locally as 'Tizón' (smut or

**108**

**Figure 5.**

**Figure 6.**

fishery was also an impact factor.

*Different letters indicate significant differences p < 0.05 [13].*

blight) caused by the fungus *Spoingiophaga communis* during the period 1939–1945 [17, 20, 21]. After 1945, no significant outbreaks of this disease were reported. Because of the capture decrease in the Gulf of Batabanó, studies were performed in 2005, but no proofs of the existence of pathogenic organisms (fungi and bacteria), which could cause sponge death and subsequent decrease in production, were detected that year [26].

Solar radiation, illumination and temperature are factors that regulate sponge distribution, colonisation and success in their natural reproductive processes. Although they can withstand extreme temperature (10–36°C) values in short periods, the optimum values for their sexual proliferation is from 23 to 29°C [27, 28]. In Cuba the southern sponge zones of the Gulf of Batabanó showed water temperature average of 28.03°C, while in the northern zone of Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago, average temperature was 27.33°C in Sabana and 28.32°C in Camagüey [29].

Even though these values are permissible for commercial sponges in Cuba, high temperatures (>30°C) can also favour the proliferation of bacteria and fungi. In coastal water bodies and bays in the inner part of the Camagüey Archipelago, extreme maximum temperatures up to 35°C could occur due to shallowness and limited water renovation [29]. Because of the shallowness from 3 to 7 m in the Gulf of Batabanó and from 2 to 8 m in the Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago, in which the greatest abundance of Cuban commercial sponges inhabit, they are very vulnerable to natural physical impacts.

Blanco [23] pointed out hurricanes as a cause of impact on sponge populations, above all on those that inhabited the Gulf of Batabanó due to a greater frequency and intensity of cyclonic disturbances after 1996. Hurricanes generate strong currents and surge of great height and intensity that provoke sediment in suspension besides the fracture and dragging of fragments or complete organisms. It occurs to sponges themselves due to their sessile condition that makes it impossible for them to escape from the energetic movement that occurs in waters, which makes the effect greater on the genera *Spongia* and *Hippospongia* because they are very susceptible due to their high tissue density [30–32].

The increase of anthropogenic activities, such as tourism development in keys and islands, above all in the Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago, adds contamination and increase in water turbidity; dragging and landfill for construction and repairing roads that link the coast of Cuba to these keys have led to periodical turbidity events that have affected seawater quality [33]. The excess of small particle solids suspended in the water column has caused clogging of the inhaling pores in commercial and noncommercial species, more so in those that have fine pores, causing them inadequate development, including death [1, 26]. The increase of siltation due to coastal erosion has been another impact additional to hurricanes, which has been derived from logging bordering mangroves, maritime construction and increase of average seawater level, as it has occurred in several coastal segments in the southwest region of the Gulf of Batabanó.

On the contrary, organic contamination at intermediate degrees seemed to have caused certain stimulation to sponge development and diversification, but it also reduced species diversity in reefs dramatically and, in extreme cases, has a greater decrease of their biomass [34]. Contamination has also brought as a consequence the disappearance of marine grass rich in commercial sponges and its substitution for muddy bottoms with turbid water loaded with sediments that do not favour *Porifera*. This situation has occurred in wide zones of the Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago [34].

Finally, fishing activity itself could constitute an additional impact when resource exploitation goes beyond its recovery capacity since uncontrolled extraction levels lead to overfishing patterns. Blanco [23] points out a tendency of sponges to decrease, above all, the species *Hippospongia lachne*, associated to the high exploitation rate to which it has been subjected for years, among other factors, due to its high commercial value.
