**Part 2**

**Tidal and Wave Dynamics: Seas and Oceans** 

108 Hydrodynamics – Natural Water Bodies

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**6** 

Steve Brenner

*Israel* 

**Numerical Modeling of the Ocean Circulation:** 

The Earth is often referred to as the water planet, although water accounts for only 0.023% of the mass of the planet. Nevertheless, water is found mainly at or near the surface and in the atmosphere and therefore is a very prominent planetary feature when viewed from space. Water as a substance appears in all three physical phases – solid, liquid, and gas. Under the present day climatic conditions, ice is found mainly in the polar regions, at latitudes north of 60°N and south of 60°S. Liquid water is found in the hydrosphere which includes the oceans, marginal seas, lakes, and rivers. The oceans cover nearly 70% of the surface of the Earth, with an average depth of ~ 4000 m. Water vapor, the gaseous phase, appears in the atmosphere and accounts for up to 4% of the mass. The hydrologic cycle describes the continuing transfer of water among these three components. All three forms of water also play important roles in the climate system. Water vapor is the main absorber of infrared radiation and therefore is a major contributor to the greenhouse effect. Clouds and ice are the major factors that determine the albedo of the Earth and therefore are mostly responsible for the reflection of approximately 30% of the incoming solar radiation. The specific heat capacity of water is nearly four times that of air and therefore the oceans serve as a major heat reservoir and regulator of the climate system. Furthermore ocean currents are responsible for more than one third of the heat transport from the equator to the poles and therefore affect the horizontal temperature gradients in the atmosphere which are closely linked to the development of major weather systems on various temporal and spatial

The oceans also serve as a major source of food and natural resources and are important for commerce and transportation. For hundreds and perhaps even thousands of years, mariners intuitively understood some of the salient features of the surface circulation in the most highly traversed parts of the ocean. In 1770 Benjamin Franklin and Timothy Folger published the first map of the Gulf Stream, the major ocean current that flows northward along the east coast of North America and then turns northeastward and flows across the North Atlantic Ocean. The purpose of this map was to help mail ships sailing from Europe to North America to avoid this current and thereby shorten the duration of their trip. Yet despite the interest in and the importance of the oceans, oceanography as a formal science is relatively young, being only slightly more than a century old. In the early years, it was

**1. Introduction** 

scales.

**Forecasting – The Mediterranean Example** 

**From Process Studies to Operational** 

*Department of Geography and Environment, Bar Ilan University* 
