**3. Design frameworks**

The design process can be modeled in a number of ways, with specifics that vary somewhat depending on whether engineers are designing infrastructure at the community scale (e.g. a bridge, road, power system), physical products that are owned at a household or personal level (e.g. a car, computer), or processes (e.g. computer software). Some methodologies are more congruent than others with service-learning. The human-centered design process has often been used to frame service-learning (e.g. [21, 22]), and also aligns with numerous elements in the conceive-design-implement-operate (CDIO) process [23]. Human-centered design puts the people who are the users/community members at the heart of the process, engaging them throughout all phases. Optimally, service-learning embraces the notion of designing with

*New Innovations in Engineering Education and Naval Engineering*

more detail with the theory and practice of this pedagogy.

**2. Service-learning in engineering education**

than 1100 universities as members.

deliver designs or designed and built artifacts.

It is not sufficient that engineers have a great depth of technical knowledge, socalled I-Type education. Engineering education has been moving toward a T-shaped model that adds breadth skills that cross the boundaries of a single profession, such as teamwork, communication, and global understanding [2, 3]. Perhaps we need to move beyond T-shaped engineers to envision "cluster" type engineers [1], who will sit with a broad array of stakeholders (including members of the public and those in policy, social scientists, and natural scientists) to design appropriate and sustainable processes and products that better meet an array of environmental, social, and economic objectives. It is our claim that service-learning can serve as an ideal basis for design education that strives to meet the aforementioned goals of educating global citizen engineers. In addition, the hard work invested by students and educators can yield tangible results that serve real people, as opposed to designs in AutoCAD or objects that are displayed at a design fair and then go to waste. Engaging with communities may also broaden the diversity of students interested in becoming engineers, both in terms of recruiting students into engineering majors in higher education as well as retaining students to graduate with engineering degrees and enter the engineering workforce [4].

This chapter begins by defining service-learning (SL) and community engagement and briefly describing their history in higher education and in engineering. Next, frameworks and theories of design that are particularly relevant to SL are presented, with a focus on human-centered design. This section is followed by a discussion of essential elements of SL-based design projects, as well as challenges and pitfalls of SL as a pedagogy for design education. The student knowledge, skills, attitudes, and identity that can result from SL-based design projects are presented next. Examples of SL-based design programs and courses are integrated throughout the chapter to illustrate concepts and best practices. This chapter is intended to provide the reader with an introduction to service-learning as a vehicle for design education, and to provide additional resources for readers who wish to delve into

Service-learning is defined as "a credit-bearing, educational experience in which students participate in an organized service activity that meets identified community needs and reflect on the service activity in such a way as to gain further understanding of course content, a broader appreciation of the discipline, and an enhanced sense of civic responsibility." [5] Service-learning in higher education was pioneered by Ernest Boyer [6, 7] and other scholars in non-engineering professions [8–10] and was identified by George Kuh [11] as a high impact educational practice critical to the retention of early career college students. Servicelearning, and more broadly civic engagement, which encompasses curricular and co-curricular efforts to ensure that the university is using its resources to partner with communities and other stakeholders to address complex societal issues, are a well-defined part of the higher education landscape in the USA. Campus Compact, the major professional society for civic engagement in higher education, has more

Models of service-learning were presented by Heffernan [12], and include (among others) a discipline or placement based model, in which students are situated within the community and perform community service to meet their learning objectives, as well as a problem-based or deliverable model, in which student create or co-create (with community) a product to fulfill course requirements. Servicelearning in engineering has largely used the deliverable model, in which students

**18**

communities. **Figure 1** offers a visual representation of the human-centered design process. The hexagon in the center represents the team of people working together on a particular issue (inspired by [1]), which is embedded in the complex ecosystem of the technical, social, and environmental realms. The community members (C) are "at the table" working side-by-side with engineers (E) and other experts in policy (P) and natural and/or social scientists (S). There are opportunities to harness community expertise in all phases of the design process.

An individual or the community collectively should identify a problem or situation they believe engineers might be able to contribute to solving or improving. The community should be the driving force, with a vision of partnering with engineers. In other words, problem identification should not be externally imposed. An engineer might share data with the community that she/he believes indicates an issue, but should not presume that her/his external perceptions of a 'problem' are authentic to a specific individual or community. Otherwise, there is an implication that a particular community or individual is at a 'deficit', needing charity or help from an "expert" engineering student, versus being co-equal partners in working to improve a situation.

Once an issue has been identified by the community, the next step is to gain a thorough understanding of the issue. It is important to realize that a particular problem is situated within a larger framework of the planet and environment at large, the society and economy in which a community or individual resides, various cultural norms and legal constraints, and interactions among these complex systems. Engineers should

#### **Figure 1.**

*Conceptual model of the human-centered design process as a collaboration among engineers (E) and community members (C) with contributions by policy makers (P) and scientists (S), situated within larger environmental, social, and technical realms.*

**21**

*Service-Learning and Civic Engagement as the Basis for Engineering Design Education*

have a strong understanding of the technical issues that are relevant to a problem, as well as community issues that they can gain perspective on through research. Critically, they also need to partner with others "on the ground" to fully understand other conditions relevant to the problem. In this stage, students should talk with and listen to their community partners. Ideally, this process includes contextual or transformational listening, which is a skill that must be thoughtfully developed [24–26]. The public and community should not be viewed as a monolith; there are sure to be an array of individuals and groups with different perspectives. Engaging an array of stakeholders early in the process can yield important benefits. The more students in their role as novice engineers can immerse themselves in the communities and with the people their engineering is designed to serve, the more likely they are to better understand and appreciate the needs of the ultimate users of the co-created design. This approach aligns with the ideas of empathic design [21, 27]. Students may also need to recruit partners or work with other disciplines to gain a thorough understanding of

The next phase in the process focuses on divergent thinking, where individuals imagine an array of potential solutions. Engineers often bring examples of solutions that have worked in similar situations. But each situation is unique, and engineers should not force fit technology to a problem. The analogy is often that engineers have a set of tools, and just because they have a "hammer" does not mean that is the right tool for the job. Students should not position themselves in roles as experts, but as learners, collaborators, and facilitators, bringing their ideas and inviting ideas from others. Interactive discussions with a broad array of stakeholders are likely to yield a diverse array of creative ideas. This step is critical to the process, in order for the best solutions to be among the array of options being considered. Next, there should be a thoughtful process of evaluating the range of ideas under the set of local constraints and criteria, to narrow in on a sub-set of potentially feasible, appropriate, and optimal solutions. This process should be conducted by the community members and engineering students working together in a participatory design process. The evaluation process should consider the larger context of the issue, including the social and environmental spheres. Engineers then create conceptual designs, which allow rough evaluation of metrics such as cost, environmental emissions, etc. Typically a number of the important criteria that determine an optimal solution are subjective. Thus, community members must be engaged in contributing to the design and evaluating these issues. The community should select the 'optimal' solution from among the sub-set of options that went through the conceptual design phase. This is a convergent phase of the design cycle, and may be challenging given that different stakeholders may have different

Engineers then typically handle the majority of the detailed design phase, which largely resides in the technical realm. Engineering students may complete this work if carefully supervised by instructors with appropriate expertise; some projects will require that licensed Professional Engineers review the designs. More forward-thinking SL programs are engaging in co-design among community members, students, and engineers. Where appropriate, prototypes of products are created, which can then go through testing by the community. In the case of infrastructure, computer models are built and subjected to expected human and natural conditions (e.g. hurricane); results are shared with stakeholders. Design changes can be made in response to the testing feedback cycle. This iterative process can often be viewed as a microcosm of the full design process (e.g. a problem might be identified in the prototype, alternative fixes are proposed and evaluated, etc.). The teams of engineering students and faculty should be completely transparent with stakeholders, explaining what they are doing and why. This approach provides an opportunity for co-equal learning among all of the

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83699*

relevant constraints and criteria.

perspectives on 'optimal.'

#### *Service-Learning and Civic Engagement as the Basis for Engineering Design Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83699*

have a strong understanding of the technical issues that are relevant to a problem, as well as community issues that they can gain perspective on through research. Critically, they also need to partner with others "on the ground" to fully understand other conditions relevant to the problem. In this stage, students should talk with and listen to their community partners. Ideally, this process includes contextual or transformational listening, which is a skill that must be thoughtfully developed [24–26]. The public and community should not be viewed as a monolith; there are sure to be an array of individuals and groups with different perspectives. Engaging an array of stakeholders early in the process can yield important benefits. The more students in their role as novice engineers can immerse themselves in the communities and with the people their engineering is designed to serve, the more likely they are to better understand and appreciate the needs of the ultimate users of the co-created design. This approach aligns with the ideas of empathic design [21, 27]. Students may also need to recruit partners or work with other disciplines to gain a thorough understanding of relevant constraints and criteria.

The next phase in the process focuses on divergent thinking, where individuals imagine an array of potential solutions. Engineers often bring examples of solutions that have worked in similar situations. But each situation is unique, and engineers should not force fit technology to a problem. The analogy is often that engineers have a set of tools, and just because they have a "hammer" does not mean that is the right tool for the job. Students should not position themselves in roles as experts, but as learners, collaborators, and facilitators, bringing their ideas and inviting ideas from others. Interactive discussions with a broad array of stakeholders are likely to yield a diverse array of creative ideas. This step is critical to the process, in order for the best solutions to be among the array of options being considered.

Next, there should be a thoughtful process of evaluating the range of ideas under the set of local constraints and criteria, to narrow in on a sub-set of potentially feasible, appropriate, and optimal solutions. This process should be conducted by the community members and engineering students working together in a participatory design process. The evaluation process should consider the larger context of the issue, including the social and environmental spheres. Engineers then create conceptual designs, which allow rough evaluation of metrics such as cost, environmental emissions, etc. Typically a number of the important criteria that determine an optimal solution are subjective. Thus, community members must be engaged in contributing to the design and evaluating these issues. The community should select the 'optimal' solution from among the sub-set of options that went through the conceptual design phase. This is a convergent phase of the design cycle, and may be challenging given that different stakeholders may have different perspectives on 'optimal.'

Engineers then typically handle the majority of the detailed design phase, which largely resides in the technical realm. Engineering students may complete this work if carefully supervised by instructors with appropriate expertise; some projects will require that licensed Professional Engineers review the designs. More forward-thinking SL programs are engaging in co-design among community members, students, and engineers. Where appropriate, prototypes of products are created, which can then go through testing by the community. In the case of infrastructure, computer models are built and subjected to expected human and natural conditions (e.g. hurricane); results are shared with stakeholders. Design changes can be made in response to the testing feedback cycle. This iterative process can often be viewed as a microcosm of the full design process (e.g. a problem might be identified in the prototype, alternative fixes are proposed and evaluated, etc.). The teams of engineering students and faculty should be completely transparent with stakeholders, explaining what they are doing and why. This approach provides an opportunity for co-equal learning among all of the

*New Innovations in Engineering Education and Naval Engineering*

expertise in all phases of the design process.

communities. **Figure 1** offers a visual representation of the human-centered design process. The hexagon in the center represents the team of people working together on a particular issue (inspired by [1]), which is embedded in the complex ecosystem of the technical, social, and environmental realms. The community members (C) are "at the table" working side-by-side with engineers (E) and other experts in policy (P) and natural and/or social scientists (S). There are opportunities to harness community

An individual or the community collectively should identify a problem or situation they believe engineers might be able to contribute to solving or improving. The community should be the driving force, with a vision of partnering with engineers. In other words, problem identification should not be externally imposed. An engineer might share data with the community that she/he believes indicates an issue, but should not presume that her/his external perceptions of a 'problem' are authentic to a specific individual or community. Otherwise, there is an implication that a particular community or individual is at a 'deficit', needing charity or help from an "expert" engineering student, versus being co-equal partners in working to improve a situation. Once an issue has been identified by the community, the next step is to gain a thorough understanding of the issue. It is important to realize that a particular problem is situated within a larger framework of the planet and environment at large, the society and economy in which a community or individual resides, various cultural norms and legal constraints, and interactions among these complex systems. Engineers should

*Conceptual model of the human-centered design process as a collaboration among engineers (E) and community members (C) with contributions by policy makers (P) and scientists (S), situated within larger* 

**20**

**Figure 1.**

*environmental, social, and technical realms.*

participants in the design process, and is inclusive of both community members and engineering students.

The implementation steps, such as manufacturing a designed product, are often thought of as 'detached' from users and communities. However, in service-learning projects there are often opportunities to engage communities in this phase. For example, community participation in constructing a school playground, building a Habitat for Humanity home, community participation in building a Bridges to Prosperity (B2P) bridge, and locals producing ceramic water filters for point-of-use household treatment of drinking water in a micro-enterprise [19, 20]. Community involvement in the implementation step can be particularly impactful and contributes to the community "taking ownership" of the constructed artifact that they co-designed and helped to construct. The same is true in the operation, maintenance, and monitoring phases of a project. Community understanding of the process and ultimately their sense of ownership is fostered by their intimate involvement in all phases. The greater the participation of the community in all phases of the project, the greater the overall sustainability of a project over the long term—and across the interconnected areas of societal, environmental, and economic issues.

Done well, service-learning enacted through a model of human-centered design requires frequent engagement with the community across all stages of the design process. The more engaged community members are in the entirety of the design process, the better the outcome will fulfill project goals. Community members may not be immediately available at the discretion of a student design team, and communication processes and timelines need to be respectful of these preferences and needs. The feedback cycle among members of a design team that stretches across disciplines requires thoughtful consideration at each step. Catalano [28] advocates for a contemplative paradigm, which he combined with service-learning in a senior capstone design course. The various elements in the human-centered design process imply that a majority of significant service-learning design projects will have timelines that stretch beyond the confines of a single academic term. This "feature of the landscape" requires creative thinking to integrate community-scale design problems into higher education, adapting traditional course structures (e.g. [29] 'tyranny of the semester'). A thoughtful process to design the SL experience is encouraged. The Learning Though Service Program Model Blueprint is a tool that can facilitate this process, considering the perspectives of a wide range of stakeholders (e.g. students, community members, instructors, the university, intermediaries such as non-governmental organizations, practitioners) with respect to value propositions, relationships, and resources [30].

A sub-set of engineering service-learning design focuses on poverty alleviation, in programs such as Humanitarian Engineering and Engineering for Developing Communities. Nelson [31] described four different mental models that are commonly used to frame design processes associated with poverty alleviation: income first, needs first, rights first (including human-centered design), and local first. A well-being framework brings these four mental models together. The framework supports the importance of deeply engaging with communities and recognizing their unique expertise in their local context. Because poverty is framed as "the systematic failure to achieve wellbeing objectives", the framework lends itself to a series of metrics that can form the basis of design objectives, constraints, and criteria; for example, "material sufficiency, bodily health, social connectedness, security, and freedom to make choices around action" (p. 2). A service-learning design program at Ohio Northern University is a case example of the well-being framework [31].

Entering into service-learning design projects, instructors may want to consider servant-leadership as a framework for their teaching and as a model for students to consider when they engage with communities [32]. Design instructors will have a role as a "guide on the side", with a mindset of mentoring or serving both their

**23**

*Service-Learning and Civic Engagement as the Basis for Engineering Design Education*

**4. Essential elements and challenges of SL-based design projects**

There are several essential elements of successful service-learning-based projects. The authors strongly suggest that faculty who wish to use this pedagogy work with their university's office of civic engagement and/or service-learning to help identify community partners and to assist with planning and executing their projects within a reciprocal framework. Other groups, such as non-governmental organizations (NGOs), may be key stakeholders, particularly in international

In terms of reciprocal partnerships, an asset based model of collaboration is ideal because it acknowledges the resources and assets that the university and community "bring to the table," as well as identifies the needs that each constituent seeks to meet through partnership. For example, universities might have assets with respect to discipline-specific knowledge and monetary resources, while communities might have assets with respect to community-specific knowledge and capacity resources. Partnerships are more successful when constituents combine their strengths to address a community issue together rather than a charity model in which one constituent helps the other. Another way to frame this asset based philosophy is that each constituent will both learn something from and teach

The 2006 Community Partner Summit [35], p. 13 and Portland State University's 2008 Partnership Forum [36], p. 3 identified the following essential components for

1.Quality processes (open, honest, respectful; relationship-focused, characterized by integrity; trust-building; acknowledgement of history, commitment to

3.Transformation (at individual, institutional, organizational, and societal

These essential components are achieved by practicing the following processes

• Asset (resources, strengths, and interests) identification and recognition for all

2.Meaningful outcomes (specific and significant to all partners)

students and the community partner, and being mentored and served by these constituents. A case study of this approach was a service-learning project in a senior thermodynamics course at the Milwaukee School of Engineering [32]. The LSU Community Playground Project, which is affiliated with a first-year engineering design course, required the service-learning instructor to develop a servant leadership approach to be successful; the evolution from becoming a "traditional" engineering educator to a servant leader engineering educator is described in [33]. Stoecker [34] takes this concept further, suggesting that engaged faculty frame their

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83699*

work as community organizing.

service-learning projects.

something to the other.

levels)

([36], pp. 3–4):

partners

successful community-university partnerships:

• Dialog within partners and between partners

learning and sharing credit)

• Creation of common language

*Service-Learning and Civic Engagement as the Basis for Engineering Design Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83699*

students and the community partner, and being mentored and served by these constituents. A case study of this approach was a service-learning project in a senior thermodynamics course at the Milwaukee School of Engineering [32]. The LSU Community Playground Project, which is affiliated with a first-year engineering design course, required the service-learning instructor to develop a servant leadership approach to be successful; the evolution from becoming a "traditional" engineering educator to a servant leader engineering educator is described in [33]. Stoecker [34] takes this concept further, suggesting that engaged faculty frame their work as community organizing.

## **4. Essential elements and challenges of SL-based design projects**

There are several essential elements of successful service-learning-based projects. The authors strongly suggest that faculty who wish to use this pedagogy work with their university's office of civic engagement and/or service-learning to help identify community partners and to assist with planning and executing their projects within a reciprocal framework. Other groups, such as non-governmental organizations (NGOs), may be key stakeholders, particularly in international service-learning projects.

In terms of reciprocal partnerships, an asset based model of collaboration is ideal because it acknowledges the resources and assets that the university and community "bring to the table," as well as identifies the needs that each constituent seeks to meet through partnership. For example, universities might have assets with respect to discipline-specific knowledge and monetary resources, while communities might have assets with respect to community-specific knowledge and capacity resources. Partnerships are more successful when constituents combine their strengths to address a community issue together rather than a charity model in which one constituent helps the other. Another way to frame this asset based philosophy is that each constituent will both learn something from and teach something to the other.

The 2006 Community Partner Summit [35], p. 13 and Portland State University's 2008 Partnership Forum [36], p. 3 identified the following essential components for successful community-university partnerships:


These essential components are achieved by practicing the following processes ([36], pp. 3–4):


*New Innovations in Engineering Education and Naval Engineering*

engineering students.

participants in the design process, and is inclusive of both community members and

interconnected areas of societal, environmental, and economic issues.

respect to value propositions, relationships, and resources [30].

Done well, service-learning enacted through a model of human-centered design requires frequent engagement with the community across all stages of the design process. The more engaged community members are in the entirety of the design process, the better the outcome will fulfill project goals. Community members may not be immediately available at the discretion of a student design team, and communication processes and timelines need to be respectful of these preferences and needs. The feedback cycle among members of a design team that stretches across disciplines requires thoughtful consideration at each step. Catalano [28] advocates for a contemplative paradigm, which he combined with service-learning in a senior capstone design course. The various elements in the human-centered design process imply that a majority of significant service-learning design projects will have timelines that stretch beyond the confines of a single academic term. This "feature of the landscape" requires creative thinking to integrate community-scale design problems into higher education, adapting traditional course structures (e.g. [29] 'tyranny of the semester'). A thoughtful process to design the SL experience is encouraged. The Learning Though Service Program Model Blueprint is a tool that can facilitate this process, considering the perspectives of a wide range of stakeholders (e.g. students, community members, instructors, the university, intermediaries such as non-governmental organizations, practitioners) with

A sub-set of engineering service-learning design focuses on poverty alleviation, in programs such as Humanitarian Engineering and Engineering for Developing Communities. Nelson [31] described four different mental models that are commonly used to frame design processes associated with poverty alleviation: income first, needs first, rights first (including human-centered design), and local first. A well-being framework brings these four mental models together. The framework supports the importance of deeply engaging with communities and recognizing their unique expertise in their local context. Because poverty is framed as "the systematic failure to achieve wellbeing objectives", the framework lends itself to a series of metrics that can form the basis of design objectives, constraints, and criteria; for example, "material sufficiency, bodily health, social connectedness, security, and freedom to make choices around action" (p. 2). A service-learning design program at Ohio Northern University is a case example of the well-being framework [31].

Entering into service-learning design projects, instructors may want to consider servant-leadership as a framework for their teaching and as a model for students to consider when they engage with communities [32]. Design instructors will have a role as a "guide on the side", with a mindset of mentoring or serving both their

The implementation steps, such as manufacturing a designed product, are often thought of as 'detached' from users and communities. However, in service-learning projects there are often opportunities to engage communities in this phase. For example, community participation in constructing a school playground, building a Habitat for Humanity home, community participation in building a Bridges to Prosperity (B2P) bridge, and locals producing ceramic water filters for point-of-use household treatment of drinking water in a micro-enterprise [19, 20]. Community involvement in the implementation step can be particularly impactful and contributes to the community "taking ownership" of the constructed artifact that they co-designed and helped to construct. The same is true in the operation, maintenance, and monitoring phases of a project. Community understanding of the process and ultimately their sense of ownership is fostered by their intimate involvement in all phases. The greater the participation of the community in all phases of the project, the greater the overall sustainability of a project over the long term—and across the

**22**


Another important component of a successful service-learning partnership is reflection, or metacognition. Professionals constantly reflect on what they are doing, why they are doing it, and next steps; students need to develop this skill that professionals may forget that they practice, because this practice is so embedded in their daily work. There are many models of reflection ranging from the simplest (what, so what, now what) to those that are more complex [37, 38]. Lima and Oakes [39] have a list of reflection questions in Chapter 2 of their textbook on service-learning in engineering. Reflection can be used to catalyze and assess student learning.

A thoughtful assessment plan should be developed, to help ensure that the outcomes desired for both communities and students are achieved. This plan should include formative assessment to enable during-course adjustments, as well as summative assessment to provide 'lessons learned' for the future. Assessment methods for student outcomes are well documented (see examples in [40]). Community outcomes have been rigorously studied in fewer instances, and are an area where additional scholarship is needed.

Even when adhering to all essential components and processes for successful partnerships, there can still be challenges and pitfalls. For example, as mentioned previously, it can be difficult to manage partnerships within the time constraints of a semester: most community issues involve people working on them throughout the year, not in 15-week blocks. This constraint may require some thought in terms of deploying a design and maintaining it once it is built. Repeating courses with the same community partner is one way to address this issue; others have created infrastructure to complete and maintain projects [39, 41]. Such considerations ensure that a design effectively serves the community, instead of being dumped on the community. Student resistance to participating in service-learning classes is also possible [32]; explicitly and repeatedly connecting the service activities to the learning objectives in class allays most student concerns. Finally, communication can be an issue, particularly where media is concerned. University media tend to focus on the students and faculty involved in a service-learning project and typically portray the community-university relationships as the university helping the community [42]. An explicit conversation among constituents about uniform talking points for media, and if at all possible, media interaction with all constituents present, is recommended. See [42], for more details.

**25**

**Table 1.**

*Service-Learning and Civic Engagement as the Basis for Engineering Design Education*

Across all disciplines, service-learning has been shown to be an impactful pedagogy. A recent meta-analysis of SL across 62 studies (all included a control group, elementary through postsecondary level students with 68% college undergraduates) determined that SL resulted in "significant gains in five outcome areas": academic achievement (grades or test performance; highest mean effect size, ES, 0.43), social skills (leadership, cultural competence, social problem solving; ES 0.30), attitudes toward self (self-esteem, self-efficacy, personal abilities, feelings of control; ES 0.28), attitudes toward school and learning (academic engagement, enjoyment of course; ES 0.28), and civic engagement (civic responsibility, altruism; 0.27) [43]. It is unclear whether or not any of the studies included in the meta-analysis included engineering

Within engineering, previous research has identified a number of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and identity (KSAI) outcomes that could result from engineering student engagement in project-based service-learning (PBSL); [40] presented a literature review from numerous published sources. While that study extended beyond SL in design settings, SL-based design should have the capacity to yield the same array of outcomes. SL-based engineering design education can achieve all of the core technical outcomes one would expect from engineering design in general (aligned with the academic achievement outcome in the meta study), while also realizing a number of additional outcomes. The potential outcomes of SL-based design education that map to the technical and professional knowledge and skills expected of engineers interna-

A greater complexity and range of design constraints are typical in SL-based projects compared to other design experiences. Service-learning executed through human-centered design may be superior to standard design pedagogy in developing

tionally and by U.S. accreditation are summarized in **Table 1** [44, 45].

*Knowledge and skill outcomes achievable via SL-based design and PBSL.*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83699*

**5. Potential student outcomes of SL-based design**

students, but the results are nevertheless compelling.
