**2. Measuring construction productivity**

Labour productivity measurement in the construction industry is a difficult task; in most cases labour productivity is usually taken to mean productivity. This stems from the fact that projects in the construction industry are labourintensive using basic equipment [15]. Productivity described the quantification of how well operatives use available resources to produce outputs from inputs [15]. The American Association of Cost Engineers [5] described productivity as when associated with standard or to a recognised base as the relative measure of labour efficiency is either good or bad.

The BLS [3] opined that the increase in labour productivity during the 2000–2005 period was primarily driven by a large rise in output. Beginning in 2005, output fell through 2009 at a speedy rate than the worked hours, leading to a sharp reduction in productivity of labour during that period. The productivity of labour

#### **Figure 1.**

*Productivity of labour for single-family residential infrastructure [1].*

increased since 2009; however, in 2017 it is far below its 2005 topmost as presented in **Figure 1**. productivity of labour for single-family residential infrastructure (NAICS 236115x). The report further stated that infrastructure industry experienced a decrease in productivity output and a slight fall in worked hours, resulting to decreasing productivity of labour until 2010. In 2010, the productivity output returns to normal until 2017, when output slightly declined [3].

Construction skills productivity measurement is complex and challenging when comparing productivity in the construction industry between nations [16]. Productivity indices are utilised to adjust input and output information with the goal that efficiency measurement can be differentiated after some time and among industry divisions, and countries found that these lists vary among nations [17]. For instance, output in the construction industry is complicated when compared and quantified within a nation due to complexity in comparing single-family households to transportations, colleges to bridges or clothes centres to workplace buildings.

The National Research Council [18] noted that worldwide productivity evaluations have similar encounters, such as the heterogeneity of inputs and outputs. The loss of valued information on the nature of heterogeneous building construction output is as a result of combining data to an organisational level [17]. In addition, [18] noted that "an industry productivity analyst varies on whether productivity in the construction industry is decreasing or improving." Productivity has been declining for over 30 years. However, some construction projects and construction tasks studies document investigated improved in their productivity in the US industry productivity analysis [18].

Contractor's labour performance measure is degraded by variability in building processes when the presence of variation with process of construction time can no longer be determined [19]. Construction variability inflates the construction duration and decreases the processes and the ability of the production network [20]. Rework flow in construction project is a significant cause of variability that causes procedures to be unpredictable [6]. However, in building projects, rework can be arising due to errors in construction exposed through official stage examinations or casual on-site observations. Additionally, another kind of rework is client-related rework, which is instigated by variations in project design, plan and scope by the client [21].

Construction on-site is environmental dynamic and subjected to a high level of unpredictability and outside volatility that can be caused by constraints outside the project location, such as extreme conditions of weather, while internal variability

**55**

*Measuring Infrastructure Skills Productivity DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85953*

nected in different courses.

study" but are now termed work study [27].

efficiency and quality of interaction on the infrastructure site.

**2.1 Techniques used for measuring time and motion study**

study (work study) in construction productivity [29]:

1.Visual recording method

2.Physical recording method

*2.1.1 Visual recording method*

3.Interview and questionnaire method

can be caused by various sources of unstable motivation, workflows and quality issues causing rework [22]. Construction variability presence influences the possible increase in the production rate by improving bottleneck processes [19].

Previous literatures in engineering management studies have revealed that the two major noteworthy instruments for controlling changeability work process are unpredictability caused by rework which can be limited using effective observing and quality review [23, 24]. Walsh and Sawhney [25] saw that workflow process levelling approaches deliver steady outstanding burdens for exchange of temporary workers and workflow process levelling in construction productivity can be con-

Bashford and Sawhney [26] carried out an investigation and observed that in the activity-based model, an equally spaced schedule is upheld for all activities. In order to tackle these problems of unnecessary rework and ineffective time, certain management techniques have been evolving which is known as "time and motion

Shirowzhana [28] investigated the use of a Wi-Fi-based positioning and communicating system for indoor positioning with radio communication systems called the Voice Communication and Locating System (VCLS). The VCLS was integrated with BIM and GIS for enhancing labour productivity in the construction industry. The GIS and the BIM were used for displaying the positions of mobile devices for tracking the position of a worker in a proposed site. The study revealed that VCLS has the ability of tracking the estimated locations of workers in 3D environment and GIS and VCLS are valuable software that could improve the communication

There are three major methods used in the measurement of time and motion

Visual account is a strategy utilised in observing the execution of specialists on destinations persistently, and it may be considered as a pioneer in the use of visual chronicle method for efficiency checking determinations [29]. Parker and Oglesby [30] saw that this procedure includes the utilisation of photography time-slip with the application of a camera concentrated on a work territory and a photo is taken at precise time interims extending from 2 to 8 minutes. This strategy has a few advantages over others giving right, enduring and unquestionable records that can be valuable to teach determination of construction claims and contract contradictions, assessing workforce skills performance and evaluating the productivity of construction methods. This technique is related with a few burdens, for example, creating distress between the labourers being continually watched, lacking inadequate coverage area and the prerequisite for various cameras on huge destinations.

Another kind of visual recording approach is the utilisation of tape recording framework in estimating workforce abilities execution. It has related elements of a task yet catches all or most concurrent exercises considering less eyewitnesses

#### *Measuring Infrastructure Skills Productivity DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85953*

*Infrastructure Management and Construction*

increased since 2009; however, in 2017 it is far below its 2005 topmost as presented in **Figure 1**. productivity of labour for single-family residential infrastructure (NAICS 236115x). The report further stated that infrastructure industry experienced a decrease in productivity output and a slight fall in worked hours, resulting to decreasing productivity of labour until 2010. In 2010, the productivity output

Construction skills productivity measurement is complex and challenging when comparing productivity in the construction industry between nations [16]. Productivity indices are utilised to adjust input and output information with the goal that efficiency measurement can be differentiated after some time and among industry divisions, and countries found that these lists vary among nations [17]. For instance, output in the construction industry is complicated when compared and quantified within a nation due to complexity in comparing single-family households to transportations, colleges to bridges or clothes centres to workplace buildings. The National Research Council [18] noted that worldwide productivity evaluations have similar encounters, such as the heterogeneity of inputs and outputs. The loss of valued information on the nature of heterogeneous building construction output is as a result of combining data to an organisational level [17]. In addition, [18] noted that "an industry productivity analyst varies on whether productivity in the construction industry is decreasing or improving." Productivity has been declining for over 30 years. However, some construction projects and construction tasks studies document investigated improved in their productivity in the US industry

Contractor's labour performance measure is degraded by variability in building processes when the presence of variation with process of construction time can no longer be determined [19]. Construction variability inflates the construction duration and decreases the processes and the ability of the production network [20]. Rework flow in construction project is a significant cause of variability that causes procedures to be unpredictable [6]. However, in building projects, rework can be arising due to errors in construction exposed through official stage examinations or casual on-site observations. Additionally, another kind of rework is client-related rework, which is

Construction on-site is environmental dynamic and subjected to a high level of unpredictability and outside volatility that can be caused by constraints outside the project location, such as extreme conditions of weather, while internal variability

instigated by variations in project design, plan and scope by the client [21].

returns to normal until 2017, when output slightly declined [3].

*Productivity of labour for single-family residential infrastructure [1].*

**54**

productivity analysis [18].

**Figure 1.**

can be caused by various sources of unstable motivation, workflows and quality issues causing rework [22]. Construction variability presence influences the possible increase in the production rate by improving bottleneck processes [19].

Previous literatures in engineering management studies have revealed that the two major noteworthy instruments for controlling changeability work process are unpredictability caused by rework which can be limited using effective observing and quality review [23, 24]. Walsh and Sawhney [25] saw that workflow process levelling approaches deliver steady outstanding burdens for exchange of temporary workers and workflow process levelling in construction productivity can be connected in different courses.

Bashford and Sawhney [26] carried out an investigation and observed that in the activity-based model, an equally spaced schedule is upheld for all activities. In order to tackle these problems of unnecessary rework and ineffective time, certain management techniques have been evolving which is known as "time and motion study" but are now termed work study [27].

Shirowzhana [28] investigated the use of a Wi-Fi-based positioning and communicating system for indoor positioning with radio communication systems called the Voice Communication and Locating System (VCLS). The VCLS was integrated with BIM and GIS for enhancing labour productivity in the construction industry. The GIS and the BIM were used for displaying the positions of mobile devices for tracking the position of a worker in a proposed site. The study revealed that VCLS has the ability of tracking the estimated locations of workers in 3D environment and GIS and VCLS are valuable software that could improve the communication efficiency and quality of interaction on the infrastructure site.
