**9. Venous stenting**

Stents can be used in any venous distribution from peripheral to central veins. Covered and uncovered metal stents can be used for recurrent stenosis. Central venous stenosis as in the SVC and IVC require the largest available stents. Covered stents and the newest Flair covered stent (CR Bard, Tempe, AZ) are now available for dialysis fistula anastomoses where by a smaller fistula graft enters into the larger native venous outflow resulting in a smooth transition and improve flow dynamics. Venous stenting can also be performed following suboptimal balloon venoplasty result. Venous stenting is not performed on thrombus alone but is used as an adjunct to suboptimal venoplasty and venous thrombolysis.
