Theories of Cognitive Behavioral Psychology

**3**

**Chapter 1**

he behaves.

approach [1].

*Sandro Misciagna*

Introductory Chapter: Definition

of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a modern form of short-term psychotherapy based on the idea that the way an individual thinks and feels affects the way

The core premise of this treatment approach was pioneered by Albert Ellis who in 1957 introduced the term "rational emotive therapy" (RET) to emphasize its focus on emotional outcomes. Successively, Aaron Beck in 1976 created "cognitive

According to Beck's formulation, maladaptive cognitions, which consist in general beliefs or schemas about the self, the world and the future, contribute to the maintenance of emotional distress and behavioral problems. According to this model, specific therapeutic strategies that change maladaptive cognitions lead to

In 1995, Ellis created the term "rational emotive behaviour therapy" (REBT) because behavioral factors constitute a fundamental component of this treatment

More recently, practitioners and scholars started to call it rational emotive and

REBT protocols were applied in domains of clinical psychology, rational emotive

Since the late 1980s and 1990s, REBT was investigated in a series of randomized control trials that demonstrated its efficacy in many psychological conditions such as social phobia [3], obsessive–compulsive disorders [4], depression [5], psychotic

In 2013, on the bases of meta-analysis studies, REBT was included in the category of CBT [7] since its protocols are similar in structure with CBT protocols, while the main difference is that REBT specifically focuses on evaluative beliefs and

Since these early models, CBT have developed appropriate protocols to treat subjects of almost every age such as children, adolescent, adults or elderly and for

Cognitive behavioral therapy is an empirical and evidence-based psychotherapy that integrates cognitive science and behavioral theories, combined with clinical

and Its Principal Applications

therapy" (CT), which served as the bases for the development of CBT.

"cognitive behaviour therapy" to emphasize its role in CBT paradigm.

**1. Story of modern cognitive behavioral therapy**

change emotional distress and problematic behaviors.

education, organizational setting or counseling [2].

symptoms [6] and behavioral disorders.

not descriptive or inferential ones [8].

**2. Principal applications of CBT**

individual, families and couples.

#### **Chapter 1**

## Introductory Chapter: Definition of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Its Principal Applications

*Sandro Misciagna*

#### **1. Story of modern cognitive behavioral therapy**

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a modern form of short-term psychotherapy based on the idea that the way an individual thinks and feels affects the way he behaves.

The core premise of this treatment approach was pioneered by Albert Ellis who in 1957 introduced the term "rational emotive therapy" (RET) to emphasize its focus on emotional outcomes. Successively, Aaron Beck in 1976 created "cognitive therapy" (CT), which served as the bases for the development of CBT.

According to Beck's formulation, maladaptive cognitions, which consist in general beliefs or schemas about the self, the world and the future, contribute to the maintenance of emotional distress and behavioral problems. According to this model, specific therapeutic strategies that change maladaptive cognitions lead to change emotional distress and problematic behaviors.

In 1995, Ellis created the term "rational emotive behaviour therapy" (REBT) because behavioral factors constitute a fundamental component of this treatment approach [1].

More recently, practitioners and scholars started to call it rational emotive and "cognitive behaviour therapy" to emphasize its role in CBT paradigm.

REBT protocols were applied in domains of clinical psychology, rational emotive education, organizational setting or counseling [2].

Since the late 1980s and 1990s, REBT was investigated in a series of randomized control trials that demonstrated its efficacy in many psychological conditions such as social phobia [3], obsessive–compulsive disorders [4], depression [5], psychotic symptoms [6] and behavioral disorders.

In 2013, on the bases of meta-analysis studies, REBT was included in the category of CBT [7] since its protocols are similar in structure with CBT protocols, while the main difference is that REBT specifically focuses on evaluative beliefs and not descriptive or inferential ones [8].

Since these early models, CBT have developed appropriate protocols to treat subjects of almost every age such as children, adolescent, adults or elderly and for individual, families and couples.

#### **2. Principal applications of CBT**

Cognitive behavioral therapy is an empirical and evidence-based psychotherapy that integrates cognitive science and behavioral theories, combined with clinical

psychology, to conclude that the way people perceive a situation determines their reaction more than the actual reality of the situation does [9].

CBT provides useful tools that can be used to induce or facilitate belief revision such as cognitive restructuring or exposure/response prevention; these protocols have been applied both in groups and in individuals, even if the individual format is used more frequently than the group format.

This treatment plan uses patients' collaboration as a motivating factor, in order to generate changes in their behaviour, beliefs and habits that can be self-reinforced. In fact, CBT gets patients actively involved in their treatment so that they understand that the way to improve their lives is to adjust their thinking and their approach to everyday situations.

The overall goal of this treatment is symptom reduction, improvement in functioning and remission of the disorder. The initial sessions of CBT illustrate the close relationship between cognition and emotions. Each typical therapy session begins establishing an agenda of current problems, followed by cognitive restructuring of maladaptive cognitions. At the end of the session, the therapist assigns homework to help the patient to apply specific skills in his real life. Every step of CBT is reasoned and transparent. If the patient suffers from psychomotor retardation, behavioral strategies are implemented with cognitive interventions. The therapist can also use a series of questions to help the patients evaluate the utility and validity of their cognitions [10].

CBT consists in different protocols that are effective in the treatment of a vast variety of mental disorders, such as generalized anxiety disorders, panic disorders (in particular with agoraphobia or social phobia) and obsessive–compulsive disorders [11].

The session content varies for each specific disorder based on the empirically proven cognitive and behavioral model of each disorder. For example, cognitive themes concern about consequences of a panic attack (in phobia disorders), concern about social embarrassment (in social anxiety disorders), concern about dangers of worrying (in generalized anxiety disorders) and concern about consequences of intrusive thoughts (in obsessive–compulsive disorders).

CBT can be used to treat mood and emotional disorders such as depression or dysthymia [12]. With depressive disorders, the general therapeutic process of CBT is to split up into different steps, with an insistence on distinct therapeutic mechanisms, establishing a therapeutic relationship and managing maladaptive behaviors and cognitions.

CBT has been extensively tested for a wide range of neurotic and stress-related disorders such as general stress, post-traumatic stress disorders and somatoform disorders (such as hypochondriasis and body dysmorphic disorder) or medical problems with psychological components.

Several studies have demonstrated CBT utility in problematic gambling, substance use disorder (as nicotine, cannabis, opioid or alcohol dependence), eating disorders (as bulimia nervosa, binge eating disorders) [13] and sleep dysfunction (in particular insomnia) [14] or to approach fatigue, chronic pain conditions [15, 16] and inflammation pathologies [17], especially if associated with distress [18].

CBT is probably effective also for psychotic disorders associated with positive symptoms (i.e. delusions and/or hallucinations) in schizophrenia, personality disorders (including antisocial personality disorder) [19], anger expression (anger, verbal and physical aggression, driving anger, anger suppression and anger difficulties) and bipolar disorders. CBT is particularly promising for schizophrenia in patients who suffer from acute episode of psychosis rather than a more chronic condition [20].

**5**

**Author details**

Sandro Misciagna

*Introductory Chapter: Definition of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Its Principal Applications*

Neurofunctional studies have demonstrated that CBT induces brain activation and functional changes in the amygdala, insula and anterior corticolimbic brain circuits that control cognitive, motivational and emotional aspects of physiology

CBT should be used by a health professional with experience and training in cognitive and behavioral therapies, especially when used for the treatment of

This book, written by authors that are expertice in CBT, is useful both for clinicians and psychotherapists who wants to understand modern cognitive psychology and develop specific personalized treatment plans of cognitive behavioral therapy.

Neurology Department and Stroke Unit, Belcolle Hospital, Viterbo, Italy

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

\*Address all correspondence to: sandromisciagna@yahoo.it

provided the original work is properly cited.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90139*

and behaviour [21].

anxiety and mood disorders.

*Introductory Chapter: Definition of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Its Principal Applications DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90139*

Neurofunctional studies have demonstrated that CBT induces brain activation and functional changes in the amygdala, insula and anterior corticolimbic brain circuits that control cognitive, motivational and emotional aspects of physiology and behaviour [21].

CBT should be used by a health professional with experience and training in cognitive and behavioral therapies, especially when used for the treatment of anxiety and mood disorders.

This book, written by authors that are expertice in CBT, is useful both for clinicians and psychotherapists who wants to understand modern cognitive psychology and develop specific personalized treatment plans of cognitive behavioral therapy.

#### **Author details**

Sandro Misciagna Neurology Department and Stroke Unit, Belcolle Hospital, Viterbo, Italy

\*Address all correspondence to: sandromisciagna@yahoo.it

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Cognitive Behavioral Therapy - Theories and Applications*

used more frequently than the group format.

approach to everyday situations.

of their cognitions [10].

disorders [11].

and cognitions.

with distress [18].

condition [20].

problems with psychological components.

reaction more than the actual reality of the situation does [9].

psychology, to conclude that the way people perceive a situation determines their

CBT provides useful tools that can be used to induce or facilitate belief revision such as cognitive restructuring or exposure/response prevention; these protocols have been applied both in groups and in individuals, even if the individual format is

This treatment plan uses patients' collaboration as a motivating factor, in order to generate changes in their behaviour, beliefs and habits that can be self-reinforced. In fact, CBT gets patients actively involved in their treatment so that they understand that the way to improve their lives is to adjust their thinking and their

The overall goal of this treatment is symptom reduction, improvement in functioning and remission of the disorder. The initial sessions of CBT illustrate the close relationship between cognition and emotions. Each typical therapy session begins establishing an agenda of current problems, followed by cognitive restructuring of maladaptive cognitions. At the end of the session, the therapist assigns homework to help the patient to apply specific skills in his real life. Every step of CBT is reasoned and transparent. If the patient suffers from psychomotor retardation, behavioral strategies are implemented with cognitive interventions. The therapist can also use a series of questions to help the patients evaluate the utility and validity

CBT consists in different protocols that are effective in the treatment of a vast variety of mental disorders, such as generalized anxiety disorders, panic disorders (in particular with agoraphobia or social phobia) and obsessive–compulsive

The session content varies for each specific disorder based on the empirically proven cognitive and behavioral model of each disorder. For example, cognitive themes concern about consequences of a panic attack (in phobia disorders), concern about social embarrassment (in social anxiety disorders), concern about dangers of worrying (in generalized anxiety disorders) and concern about conse-

CBT can be used to treat mood and emotional disorders such as depression or dysthymia [12]. With depressive disorders, the general therapeutic process of CBT is to split up into different steps, with an insistence on distinct therapeutic mechanisms, establishing a therapeutic relationship and managing maladaptive behaviors

CBT has been extensively tested for a wide range of neurotic and stress-related disorders such as general stress, post-traumatic stress disorders and somatoform disorders (such as hypochondriasis and body dysmorphic disorder) or medical

Several studies have demonstrated CBT utility in problematic gambling, substance use disorder (as nicotine, cannabis, opioid or alcohol dependence), eating disorders (as bulimia nervosa, binge eating disorders) [13] and sleep dysfunction (in particular insomnia) [14] or to approach fatigue, chronic pain conditions [15, 16] and inflammation pathologies [17], especially if associated

CBT is probably effective also for psychotic disorders associated with positive symptoms (i.e. delusions and/or hallucinations) in schizophrenia, personality disorders (including antisocial personality disorder) [19], anger expression (anger, verbal and physical aggression, driving anger, anger suppression and anger difficulties) and bipolar disorders. CBT is particularly promising for schizophrenia in patients who suffer from acute episode of psychosis rather than a more chronic

quences of intrusive thoughts (in obsessive–compulsive disorders).

**4**

### **References**

[1] Ellis A. Changing rational-emotive therapy (RET) to rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT). Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy. 1995;**13**(2):85-89

[2] David D. Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy. New York: Oxford University Press; 2014

[3] Mersch PPA, Emmelkamp PM, Bögels SM, Van der Sleen J. Social phobia: Individual response patterns and the effects of behavioral and cognitive interventions. Behaviour Research and Therapy. 1989;**27**(4):421-434

[4] Emmelkamp PM, Beens H. Cognitive therapy with obsessive-compulsive disorder: A comparative evaluation. Behaviour Research and Therapy. 1991;**29**(3):293-300

[5] David D, Szentagotai A, Lupu V, Cosman D. Rational emotive behavior therapy, cognitive therapy, and medication in the treatment of major depressive disorder: A randomized clinical trial, posttreatment outcomes, and six-month followup. Journal of Clinical Psychology. 2008;**64**(6):728-746

[6] Meaden A, Keen N, Aston R, Barton K, Bucci S. Cognitive Therapy for Command Hallucinations: An Advanced Practical Companion. New York: Routledge; 2013

[7] Cuijpers P, Berking M, Andersson G, Quigley L, Kleiboer A, Dobson KS. A meta-analysis of cognitive behavioural therapy for adult depression, alone and in comparison with other treatments. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. 2013;**58**(7):376-385

[8] David D, Lynn SJ, Ellis A. Rational and Irrational Beliefs: Research, Theory, and Clinical Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2010

[9] Butler AC, Chapman JE, Forman EM, Beck AT. The empirical status of cognitive-behavioral therapy: A review of meta-analyses. Clinical Psychology Review. 2006;**26**:17-31

[10] Tarrier N, editor. Case Formulation in Cognitive Behaviour Therapy: The Treatment of Challenging and Complex Cases. New York: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group; 2006

[11] Clark DM, Ehlers A, Hackmann A, et al. Cognitive therapy versus exposure and applied relaxation in social phobia: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 2006;**74**:568-578

[12] Stubbings DR, Rees CS, Roberts LD, Kane RT. Comparing in-person to videoconference-based cognitive behavioral therapy for mood and anxiety disorders: Randomized controlled trial. Journal of Medical Internet Research. 2013;**15**(11):e258

[13] Valenzuela F, Lock J, Le Grange D, Bohon C. Comorbid depressive symptoms and self-esteem improve after either cognitivebehavioural therapy or family-based treatment for adolescent bulimia nervosa. European Eating Disorders Review. 2018;**26**(3):253-258. DOI: 10.1002/erv.2582. Epub: February 15, 2018

[14] Cheong MJ, Lee GE, Kang HW, Kim S, Kim HK, Jo HI, et al. Clinical effects of mindfulness meditation and cognitive behavioral therapy standardized for insomnia: A protocol for a systematic review and metaanalysis. Medicine (Baltimore). 2018;**97**(51):1-7

[15] Bach E, Beissner K, Murtaugh C, Trachtenberg M, Reid MC. Implementing a cognitive-behavioral pain self-management program in home health care. Part 2: Feasibility

**7**

*Introductory Chapter: Definition of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Its Principal Applications*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90139*

and acceptability cohort study. Journal of Geriatric Physical Therapy (2001).

[16] Beissner K, Bach E, Murtaugh C,

Reid MC. Implementing a cognitivebehavioral pain self-management program in home health care. Part 1: Program adaptation. Journal of Geriatric Physical Therapy (2001).

[17] Lopresti AL. Cognitive behaviour therapy and inflammation: A systematic review of its relationship and the potential implications for the treatment of depression. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry.

[18] Hofmann S, Reinecke M, editors. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy with Adults: A Guide to Empirically

Informed Assessment and Intervention. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University

[19] Sanatinia R, Wang D, Tyrer P, Tyrer H, Crawford M, Cooper S, et al. Impact of personality status on the outcomes and cost of cognitive-

behavioural therapy for health anxiety. The British Journal of Psychiatry. 2016;**209**(3):244-250. DOI: 10.1192/bjp. bp.115.173526. Epub: July 21, 2016

[20] Morrison AP, Law H, Carter L, Sellers R, Emsley R, Pyle M, et al. Antipsychotic drugs versus cognitive

[21] Lueken U, Straube B, Konrad C, Wittchen HU, Ströhle A, Wittmann A, et al. Neural substrates of treatment response to cognitive-behavioral therapy in panic disorder with

agoraphobia. The American Journal of Psychiatry. 2013;**170**(11):1345-1355

behavioural therapy versus a combination of both in people with psychosis: A randomised controlled pilot and feasibility study. Lancet Psychiatry. 2018;**5**:411-423

Parker SJ, Trachtenberg M,

2013;**36**(3):130-137

2013;**36**(3):123-129

2017;**51**(6):565-582

Press; 2010

*Introductory Chapter: Definition of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Its Principal Applications DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90139*

and acceptability cohort study. Journal of Geriatric Physical Therapy (2001). 2013;**36**(3):130-137

[16] Beissner K, Bach E, Murtaugh C, Parker SJ, Trachtenberg M, Reid MC. Implementing a cognitivebehavioral pain self-management program in home health care. Part 1: Program adaptation. Journal of Geriatric Physical Therapy (2001). 2013;**36**(3):123-129

[17] Lopresti AL. Cognitive behaviour therapy and inflammation: A systematic review of its relationship and the potential implications for the treatment of depression. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry. 2017;**51**(6):565-582

[18] Hofmann S, Reinecke M, editors. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy with Adults: A Guide to Empirically Informed Assessment and Intervention. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 2010

[19] Sanatinia R, Wang D, Tyrer P, Tyrer H, Crawford M, Cooper S, et al. Impact of personality status on the outcomes and cost of cognitivebehavioural therapy for health anxiety. The British Journal of Psychiatry. 2016;**209**(3):244-250. DOI: 10.1192/bjp. bp.115.173526. Epub: July 21, 2016

[20] Morrison AP, Law H, Carter L, Sellers R, Emsley R, Pyle M, et al. Antipsychotic drugs versus cognitive behavioural therapy versus a combination of both in people with psychosis: A randomised controlled pilot and feasibility study. Lancet Psychiatry. 2018;**5**:411-423

[21] Lueken U, Straube B, Konrad C, Wittchen HU, Ströhle A, Wittmann A, et al. Neural substrates of treatment response to cognitive-behavioral therapy in panic disorder with agoraphobia. The American Journal of Psychiatry. 2013;**170**(11):1345-1355

**6**

*Cognitive Behavioral Therapy - Theories and Applications*

[9] Butler AC, Chapman JE, Forman EM,

[10] Tarrier N, editor. Case Formulation in Cognitive Behaviour Therapy: The Treatment of Challenging and Complex Cases. New York: Routledge/Taylor &

[11] Clark DM, Ehlers A, Hackmann A, et al. Cognitive therapy versus exposure and applied relaxation in social phobia: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology.

[12] Stubbings DR, Rees CS, Roberts LD, Kane RT. Comparing in-person to videoconference-based cognitive behavioral therapy for mood and anxiety disorders: Randomized controlled trial. Journal of Medical Internet Research. 2013;**15**(11):e258

[13] Valenzuela F, Lock J, Le Grange D, Bohon C. Comorbid depressive symptoms and self-esteem improve after either cognitivebehavioural therapy or family-based treatment for adolescent bulimia nervosa. European Eating Disorders Review. 2018;**26**(3):253-258. DOI: 10.1002/erv.2582. Epub: February 15,

[14] Cheong MJ, Lee GE, Kang HW, Kim S, Kim HK, Jo HI, et al. Clinical effects of mindfulness meditation and cognitive behavioral therapy standardized for insomnia: A protocol for a systematic review and metaanalysis. Medicine (Baltimore).

[15] Bach E, Beissner K, Murtaugh C,

Implementing a cognitive-behavioral pain self-management program in home health care. Part 2: Feasibility

Trachtenberg M, Reid MC.

Beck AT. The empirical status of cognitive-behavioral therapy: A review of meta-analyses. Clinical Psychology

Review. 2006;**26**:17-31

Francis Group; 2006

2006;**74**:568-578

2018

2018;**97**(51):1-7

[1] Ellis A. Changing rational-emotive therapy (RET) to rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT). Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior

[2] David D. Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy. New York: Oxford University

[4] Emmelkamp PM, Beens H. Cognitive therapy with obsessive-compulsive disorder: A comparative evaluation. Behaviour Research and Therapy.

[5] David D, Szentagotai A, Lupu V, Cosman D. Rational emotive behavior therapy, cognitive therapy, and medication in the treatment of major depressive disorder: A randomized clinical trial, posttreatment

outcomes, and six-month followup. Journal of Clinical Psychology.

[6] Meaden A, Keen N, Aston R, Barton K, Bucci S. Cognitive Therapy for Command Hallucinations: An Advanced Practical Companion. New York: Routledge; 2013

[7] Cuijpers P, Berking M, Andersson G, Quigley L, Kleiboer A, Dobson KS. A meta-analysis of cognitive behavioural therapy for adult depression, alone and in comparison with other treatments. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry.

[8] David D, Lynn SJ, Ellis A. Rational and Irrational Beliefs: Research, Theory, and Clinical Practice. Oxford: Oxford

[3] Mersch PPA, Emmelkamp PM, Bögels SM, Van der Sleen J. Social phobia: Individual response patterns

and the effects of behavioral and cognitive interventions. Behaviour Research and Therapy.

1989;**27**(4):421-434

1991;**29**(3):293-300

2008;**64**(6):728-746

2013;**58**(7):376-385

University Press; 2010

Therapy. 1995;**13**(2):85-89

Press; 2014

**References**

**9**

**Chapter 2**

**Abstract**

Education

*Oleg Evgenevich Baksansky*

and interpretations that have not developed.

**1. Introduction to cognitive psychology**

**Keywords:** education, cognitive science, education philosophy

whole heaven is harmony and number ([1], vol. 1, pp. 75–76).

**2. Pragmatic approach to cognitive psychology**

Cognitive Psychology and Modern

The outlook of each certain person and society in general arises as result of mastering by them information on essence of the world and the nature of their interaction. Today, the methodological field of education is characterized by fragmentary vision, the complete picture of problems and uniform tradition of their statement,

The swift development of information and communication technologies (ICTs) not only has qualitatively facilitated and accelerated an access to information but also led to an unprecedented synformism—the synthesis of information (databases) intrinsic to different scientific and technical fields. A formal (and external) unification is caused by the ICT foundation, computer digitization, indifferent to the object content, semantics. In a wonderful manner, a general digitization sends us back to a Hellenistic idea, natural numbers underlie the universe, which was suggested by Aristotle in *Metaphysics* in the discussion of Pythagorean propositions: "Everything in the nature is undoubtedly similar to numbers" and numbers are first in nature…and the elements of numbers are the elements of everything, and the

However, such synthesis does not play a major role. In spite of subjective opinions and interests, the real paradigm—purposeful human activity—combines most different types of matter and interaction, such as natural, physicotechnological and

People and nature are inseparable worlds, and their intertwining becomes more tight with progress in science, technology, and civilization as a whole (e.g., it is quite reasonable to investigate military political problems in the context of geopolitical analysis). People make decisions and take actions according to strategic and tactical plans, which can be adequate and correct only if all significant factors and all participating persons are taken into account. Hence, when the problems of real pragmatics are analyzed, we deal, strictly speaking, with the system analysis of subjective and objective problems instead of recognizing a human role in the surrounding world.

scientific, social political, economical, international, military, and cultural.

#### **Chapter 2**

## Cognitive Psychology and Modern Education

*Oleg Evgenevich Baksansky*

#### **Abstract**

The outlook of each certain person and society in general arises as result of mastering by them information on essence of the world and the nature of their interaction. Today, the methodological field of education is characterized by fragmentary vision, the complete picture of problems and uniform tradition of their statement, and interpretations that have not developed.

**Keywords:** education, cognitive science, education philosophy

#### **1. Introduction to cognitive psychology**

The swift development of information and communication technologies (ICTs) not only has qualitatively facilitated and accelerated an access to information but also led to an unprecedented synformism—the synthesis of information (databases) intrinsic to different scientific and technical fields. A formal (and external) unification is caused by the ICT foundation, computer digitization, indifferent to the object content, semantics. In a wonderful manner, a general digitization sends us back to a Hellenistic idea, natural numbers underlie the universe, which was suggested by Aristotle in *Metaphysics* in the discussion of Pythagorean propositions: "Everything in the nature is undoubtedly similar to numbers" and numbers are first in nature…and the elements of numbers are the elements of everything, and the whole heaven is harmony and number ([1], vol. 1, pp. 75–76).

However, such synthesis does not play a major role. In spite of subjective opinions and interests, the real paradigm—purposeful human activity—combines most different types of matter and interaction, such as natural, physicotechnological and scientific, social political, economical, international, military, and cultural.

#### **2. Pragmatic approach to cognitive psychology**

People and nature are inseparable worlds, and their intertwining becomes more tight with progress in science, technology, and civilization as a whole (e.g., it is quite reasonable to investigate military political problems in the context of geopolitical analysis). People make decisions and take actions according to strategic and tactical plans, which can be adequate and correct only if all significant factors and all participating persons are taken into account. Hence, when the problems of real pragmatics are analyzed, we deal, strictly speaking, with the system analysis of subjective and objective problems instead of recognizing a human role in the surrounding world.

In this approach, pragmatic problems are objectified to a great extent and can be regarded as the humanitarian and natural scientific problems of system analysis applied to pragmatic informational interactions: the decision-making based on analyzed pragmatic data and strategic planning. The essence of pragmatic research and theory is determined by (i) the completeness and quality of information and (ii) the validity, adequacy, and corroboration of pragmatic theories.

#### **3. Cognitive approach of information theory**

The information theory involves the multidisciplinary approaches to information problems and technologies ([2], p. 1). In addition, the informational interaction of entities of different kind is assumed to be the subject of new science synthesizing the results of natural sciences and humanities. In this chapter, pragmatic information and the foundations of pragmatic knowledge are analyzed. The architectonics of pragmatic theories is the subject of separate research.

Information appeared at the very beginning and contains the sources of plans and human actions. In the information theory, information of different type is understood as an intuitive description of objects and phenomena (in detail, ([2], p. 2)). According to the information theory, pragmatic information (from Greek πργματοζ signifying "action" or "manner"), that is, data on the real pragmatics, constitutes an information base according to which society objects make decisions, act, and create strategic plans ([2], p. 2). The pragmatics must start with a reliable information base if we want to engage in the real pragmatics instead of mythmaking.

The physical world, nature, can exist and exists as a whole, irrespectively of a person (as a carrier of activity, consciousness, and awareness ([3], p. 155)) and individual's consciousness. In this sense, the physical world and its constituents are objective. Their fundamental property is that they can be observed and measured by both scientific instruments and a man. Facts—accurate results of observations and measurements—are empirical data. Natural scientific empirism allows *multiplication* (empirical repetition of a spontaneous observation and experiment), which helps to extract meaningful factors, filter a subjective component, formalize idealized speculative experiments, and define and verify initial hypotheses.

Observation and measurement tools must be available to any observer or researcher concerned to check factors. As was suggested by Vollmer [4], this requirement is is called intersubjective checkability. In addition, description tools must be intelligible ("intersubjective intelligibility"). In this case, Vollmer's requirement of common language is optional because the translation requirement (the existence of faithful translation) is sufficient. Vollmer classifies these requirements (they are actually the condition of universalism) as "objectivity criteria." Together with other criteria, they have been discussed in Kuznetsov et al. [5]. Comprehensively investigating the biological problems of a knowledge process and its expression tools (first of all, language), Maturana and Varela [6] also rely on the requirement that the phenomenon description (translation) intelligibility is a necessary condition of knowledge.

The foundation of perception and cognition is biological (the subject of investigation of the "evolutionary theory of knowledge") [4, 6, 7]. In observation and perception of the real world (i.e., its physical and humanitarian aspects), the human physiological system is the same real tool as the physical world and the manmade technological facilities. The person-object coupling is described perfectly well in the striking metaphor of Lorenz [7], p. 260:

**11**

to be pragmatic.

*Cognitive Psychology and Modern Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82408*

the same reality as this world."

cannot be accepted.

**combinatorial theory**

**4. Modern approach to cognitive psychology**

"Even in our days, a realist looks only at the external world and does not realize that he is its mirror. Even in our days, an idealist looks only at a mirror, averting his eyes from the external world. The direction of observation impedes them to see that the mirror has a nonreflective reverse side, relating it to the reflected real things: the physiological tool, the function of which is the cognition of the external world, has

In the light of the twentieth century discoveries in physics, an object and a subject (reference frame) are related more tightly than commonly thought: the object-perception dependence is also the immanent property of the physical world. The relativism noted by Lorenz is valid for physical objects proper: the fundamental attributes of bodies are noninvariant with respect to the reference frame. The most known attributes are size and shape (the abbreviation introduced by Lorenz) and time and age ("the clock paradox"). Together with physical laws, they can be noninvariant in different reference frames. This problem can be solved with the help of the "own reference frame" in which an object remains motionless. However, in the complicated system whose components move with respect to each other, the solution cannot be found. Thus, the Vollmer's "reality postulate" (discussed in Kuznetsov et al. [5]), that is, "there is the real world independent of perception,"

**5. Cognitive approaches based on entropy, algorithms and** 

A quantitative description of information is usually associated with three approaches based on entropy [8], algorithms (Kolmogorov), and the combinatorial theory [2]. An advantage of these approaches is that they are supported by the developed mathematical apparatus. A disadvantage is that quantitative description makes it impossible to estimate the informational semantics—the meaningful content of information. A semantic approach was reported in the well-known study of Barr Hillel and Carnap [9] and developed by the author of Moscow semantic school,

the foundations of which were provided by I.A. Vel'chuk and Y.A. Apresyan.

It is needless to say that the contents of many objects and processes of natural science have been described quantitatively (as functions, matrices, and equations). The major part of information on the nature allows *multiplication*—accumulation in quantity (repetition of experiments). As a consequence of this fundamental property, natural scientific data can be checked and accepted by any researcher. In contrary to objective information on the physical world, the basic part of pragmatic data is subjective. In essence, they are evidences, and not facts. Hence, the probability of distortion in an actual pattern is very high. For comprehensible reason, a general pattern contains information of different observers. Hence, distortions are added with contradictions. Data on a historical process can be assumed

Firstly, pragmatic data consist of evidences formed due to observations of experts and, hence, having the highest confidence. However, random and unintentional distortions must be taken into account. Secondly, they involve evidences of accidental persons, which are appreciably less reliable. It is obvious that the results of personal observations cannot be regarded as reliable. Thirdly, (this refers to the

"Even in our days, a realist looks only at the external world and does not realize that he is its mirror. Even in our days, an idealist looks only at a mirror, averting his eyes from the external world. The direction of observation impedes them to see that the mirror has a nonreflective reverse side, relating it to the reflected real things: the physiological tool, the function of which is the cognition of the external world, has the same reality as this world."

#### **4. Modern approach to cognitive psychology**

In the light of the twentieth century discoveries in physics, an object and a subject (reference frame) are related more tightly than commonly thought: the object-perception dependence is also the immanent property of the physical world. The relativism noted by Lorenz is valid for physical objects proper: the fundamental attributes of bodies are noninvariant with respect to the reference frame. The most known attributes are size and shape (the abbreviation introduced by Lorenz) and time and age ("the clock paradox"). Together with physical laws, they can be noninvariant in different reference frames. This problem can be solved with the help of the "own reference frame" in which an object remains motionless. However, in the complicated system whose components move with respect to each other, the solution cannot be found. Thus, the Vollmer's "reality postulate" (discussed in Kuznetsov et al. [5]), that is, "there is the real world independent of perception," cannot be accepted.

#### **5. Cognitive approaches based on entropy, algorithms and combinatorial theory**

A quantitative description of information is usually associated with three approaches based on entropy [8], algorithms (Kolmogorov), and the combinatorial theory [2]. An advantage of these approaches is that they are supported by the developed mathematical apparatus. A disadvantage is that quantitative description makes it impossible to estimate the informational semantics—the meaningful content of information. A semantic approach was reported in the well-known study of Barr Hillel and Carnap [9] and developed by the author of Moscow semantic school, the foundations of which were provided by I.A. Vel'chuk and Y.A. Apresyan.

It is needless to say that the contents of many objects and processes of natural science have been described quantitatively (as functions, matrices, and equations).

The major part of information on the nature allows *multiplication*—accumulation in quantity (repetition of experiments). As a consequence of this fundamental property, natural scientific data can be checked and accepted by any researcher.

In contrary to objective information on the physical world, the basic part of pragmatic data is subjective. In essence, they are evidences, and not facts. Hence, the probability of distortion in an actual pattern is very high. For comprehensible reason, a general pattern contains information of different observers. Hence, distortions are added with contradictions. Data on a historical process can be assumed to be pragmatic.

Firstly, pragmatic data consist of evidences formed due to observations of experts and, hence, having the highest confidence. However, random and unintentional distortions must be taken into account. Secondly, they involve evidences of accidental persons, which are appreciably less reliable. It is obvious that the results of personal observations cannot be regarded as reliable. Thirdly, (this refers to the

modern world), pragmatic data contain information recorded by observing devices or the governmental means of observation and inspection.

The events under consideration must be supplemented with man-made things and those not made by hand, historical sources or evidences of witnesses (or almost witnesses) irrelevant to the theme of analysis, literary and cultural monuments, private letters, and analytical manuscripts. A professional researcher withdraws data from all aspects of human activity in all manifestations.

However, there are special types (political, economical, and military) of information: signed international treaties and accepted governmental laws and regulations. If international treaties and foreign policy documents objectively highlight foreign policy interests, ordinance and regulations correspond to domestic interests and the goals of participators of political and economical processes inside the country (in the opposite case, it is impossible to rest on anything). Thus, it is this information, as well as the records of observing devices, that is fundamental for *understanding* of pragmatic processes.

In the absolute majority of cases, a pragmatic process is empirically irreproducible and, hence, denies an experimental repetition, that is, multiplication, and, therefore, an empirical verification—another principle feature of pragmatic information.

It is self-evident that natural scientific experiments, investigations, and hypotheses can be inaccurate and even contradictory. At the same time, multiplication enables us to verify them. Pragmatic data are accumulated over time. Only a reliably described and correctly analyzed historical experience (in a wide sense) can underlie search for pragmatics laws. In connection with this, historians, sociologists, and economists who arbitrary "dissect" information, can be called the counterfeiters of real pragmatics.

#### **6. The information theory**

From the viewpoint of etymology, the word "information" (Latin *informatio*) designating to a massage or explanation implies the interaction (or dialog) between an information source and its consumer. Interaction is the base of human activity, and informational interaction is one of the forms of activity. Hence, data domains and actions must be investigated in parallel with the trends of events, interests giving their birth, words and deeds, and causes and effects. System analysis enables us to obtain important and unexpected results via pure mind. As was said by Bloch [10], p. 23, reality can be best explained according to its causes. In addition, analysis of contradictions can directly indicate sources where missing information or probative base must be sought and "bring historical witnesses to tell even against their will," wrote Bloch [10], p. 23, and, in connection with this, added, "I know questions that should be addressed" to history.

A man, including a desperate individualist, spends his life interacting with the world and people (even Diogenes of Sinope interacted with the Sun, its barrel, and nearest idlers, asking them not to disturb him). From the standpoint of philosophy, human existence involves dialogs with oneself, "the other," and "the others" (i.e., a community). According to the philosophic doctrine of Bakhtin [11], which is shared by Lektorskii [3], pp. 17, 36, 46, the essence and the existence of an individual are inseparably linked with answers on "the appeal of another man," and "another" is the necessary part of the individual ([11], pp. 35–50). Perception and subsequent knowledge arise from interaction with the nature and people, which affect the thoughts and actions of a man.

**13**

*Cognitive Psychology and Modern Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82408*

systems (class 2), and natural (living) systems (class 3).

tightly coupled during decision-making in the real pragmatics.

the evolutionary theory of knowledge (e.g., see [5]).

indisputably summarizes as follows:

enables survival}" ([4], p. 131).

In the information theory, an informational interaction plays a significant role and is interpreted as the interaction between persons and objects, leading to a change in the database (accumulated information) of one of them ([2], p. 5).

The information transfer technologies have been discussed in Kuznetsov [2], pp. 5, 6. Informational interactions can be divided into three classes (types), namely interactions occurring in artificial (technical) systems (class 1), combined

The first class is informational interactions in technical systems: from simplest regulators to global computer networks. The second class contains "living organism-artificial organ," "man-machine," "researcher-inorganic object of investigations," and other interactions. The third class corresponds to informational interactions occurring in the range between molecular genetic levels to social communities. It should be emphasized that the aforementioned types of interactions are

In recent years, the unprecedented systems of acquisition, storage, transmission, and analysis of data—computer systems—have been created ([5], p. 91, references). As a result of striking progress in computer technologies, computer systems have become the intellectual communicators, brokers, and competent partners of people in solving the problems of semantics (digital data conversion into conscious information) and pragmatics (data conversion into the knowledge of purposeful activity).

**7. Cognitive approach according the evolutionary theory of knowledge**

An important feature of informational interactions is linked with the biological aspects of formation of pragmatic knowledge, that is, with the human properties understood as both the tools of world perception (and information obtainment) and the constituents participating in evolution and formation processes. In the latter case, both the biological species and the intellectual and social activities of a man are formed. These problems are thoroughly evaluated in the studies devoted to

Biological aspects indicate that external world signals (i.e., objective and subjective data) are perceived by different organs and biological systems (constituents) of a human organism and, thereafter, undergo specific processing, filtering, and changes ([5], pp. 77, 79, 84). In connection with an evolutionary approach, Vollmer

"{Our cognition apparatus is the result of evolution. Subjective cognitive structures correspond to the world due to their formation during adaptation to this real world. They agree (partially) with the real structures because such an agreement

The evolutionary theory of knowledge focuses on that the biological apparatus of a man and its organization were created phylogenetically when people evolved as the biological species. There is no doubt that they are given to each man a priori. The existence of inborn instincts can also be regarded as proven. An ancient problem is whether any man has "inborn concepts" or "inborn forms of cognition." In the metaphorical sense, the issue is whether a man a priori has an intellectual piano or an intellectual composition text book. This problem will be of interest from the view point of determining purposes in the pragmatic analysis technique. The aforesaid is also associated with the correlation between "information" and "knowledge." Information of different kind, which contains the descriptions of objects, events, and processes ([2], p. 2), is built into the foundation of knowledge and future theory (science). In Section 2, information and informational interactions

#### *Cognitive Psychology and Modern Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82408*

In the information theory, an informational interaction plays a significant role and is interpreted as the interaction between persons and objects, leading to a change in the database (accumulated information) of one of them ([2], p. 5).

The information transfer technologies have been discussed in Kuznetsov [2], pp. 5, 6. Informational interactions can be divided into three classes (types), namely interactions occurring in artificial (technical) systems (class 1), combined systems (class 2), and natural (living) systems (class 3).

The first class is informational interactions in technical systems: from simplest regulators to global computer networks. The second class contains "living organism-artificial organ," "man-machine," "researcher-inorganic object of investigations," and other interactions. The third class corresponds to informational interactions occurring in the range between molecular genetic levels to social communities. It should be emphasized that the aforementioned types of interactions are tightly coupled during decision-making in the real pragmatics.

In recent years, the unprecedented systems of acquisition, storage, transmission, and analysis of data—computer systems—have been created ([5], p. 91, references). As a result of striking progress in computer technologies, computer systems have become the intellectual communicators, brokers, and competent partners of people in solving the problems of semantics (digital data conversion into conscious information) and pragmatics (data conversion into the knowledge of purposeful activity).

#### **7. Cognitive approach according the evolutionary theory of knowledge**

An important feature of informational interactions is linked with the biological aspects of formation of pragmatic knowledge, that is, with the human properties understood as both the tools of world perception (and information obtainment) and the constituents participating in evolution and formation processes. In the latter case, both the biological species and the intellectual and social activities of a man are formed. These problems are thoroughly evaluated in the studies devoted to the evolutionary theory of knowledge (e.g., see [5]).

Biological aspects indicate that external world signals (i.e., objective and subjective data) are perceived by different organs and biological systems (constituents) of a human organism and, thereafter, undergo specific processing, filtering, and changes ([5], pp. 77, 79, 84). In connection with an evolutionary approach, Vollmer indisputably summarizes as follows:

"{Our cognition apparatus is the result of evolution. Subjective cognitive structures correspond to the world due to their formation during adaptation to this real world. They agree (partially) with the real structures because such an agreement enables survival}" ([4], p. 131).

The evolutionary theory of knowledge focuses on that the biological apparatus of a man and its organization were created phylogenetically when people evolved as the biological species. There is no doubt that they are given to each man a priori. The existence of inborn instincts can also be regarded as proven. An ancient problem is whether any man has "inborn concepts" or "inborn forms of cognition." In the metaphorical sense, the issue is whether a man a priori has an intellectual piano or an intellectual composition text book. This problem will be of interest from the view point of determining purposes in the pragmatic analysis technique. The aforesaid is also associated with the correlation between "information" and "knowledge."

Information of different kind, which contains the descriptions of objects, events, and processes ([2], p. 2), is built into the foundation of knowledge and future theory (science). In Section 2, information and informational interactions were discussed as already existing events. Below, the perception and replication (obtainment) of data are considered only if it is necessary to understand the reliability of knowledge and theory.

As was postulated by Gibson [12], perception is an active process of gathering of object (organism) data. This position agrees closely with the information theory. Information carries—technical tools and people—are principally different. Technical tools are known rather well due to their artificial origin. Information can be transferred from an arbitrary technical carrier to computers, that is, represented as computer data. Hence, computer information systems can be assumed to be universal informational equivalents just as gold or money is an equivalent of cost or a medium of exchange.

#### **8. Digital implementation to cognition**

When represented with the help of computers, information is the digital implementation of ideas determining an algorithmic (combinatorial) approach. Owing to binary alphabet {0, 1}, words, subsequent algebraic operations, and recursive functions (or algorithms) are formed as though a philosophic ascent from simple to intricate things was carried out, making it possible to computerize all languages, texts, and visual and sound patterns and series.

A discrete set of bits or metasemantic information—computerized data without any sense—can acquire certain values and becomes intelligent and intentional information. This refutes the standpoint according to which representation objects can be formed and exist as a holistic perception.

Partial information or sensation can be considered the separate signs (properties) of observed objects, the certain set of which can characterize (attribute) an object. In practice, this set is used to perform expert examinations. The same principle underlies the uniqueness theorems in mathematics. In this case, a mathematical object satisfying certain conditions (having certain properties) is proved to exists and be unique.

The situation is more complicated if the biological aspects of human perception are investigated. The biological aspects of information obtainment are analyzed exhaustively in Refs. [4, 6, 7, 13, 14] and discussed in Refs. [5, 15]. The illusions of human perception (a Müller Lyer illusion, a Necker cube, a depth illusion, etc.), nonsensory factors, distortions, and instabilities are known, and their research is now being actively per formed. In addition, observation and measurement techniques, which are technical and biological in nature, are inaccurate in principal. In a high magnification microscope, a line segment drawn along the straightest edge of a ruler turns out to be a wavy line. A stretched paint thread, which is used to mark a straight line on a surface (after chalking and stretching, the thread is released, hit the surface, and remains a line of sawcut) is surely not a line segment, but does not differ from the segment by eye. The microscopic image of any straight line is a discrete series of dots instead of a continuous line, a smooth curve displayed by a computer is actually a broken line, etc.

In describing the nonidentity of the environmental reality and the world pattern constructed by each man on its base, R. Bandler and J. Grinder indicate that perception filters can be neurophysiological, social, and individual [16]. These problems are also discussed in Kuznetsov et al. [17].

In addition, the improved information obtainment techniques can cardinally vary our conceptions of the world. Observations with the help of modern high precision instruments indicate that visually immovable and unchangeable objects can vibrate and change their shapes and chemical compositions. In particular, a bright

**15**

*Cognitive Psychology and Modern Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82408*

**9. Mathematical theory of errors**

mind is conceivable ([3], pp. 115, 116).

**10. Theories of Gestalt psychology**

not perceived and cannot be conscious in sensations.

features affecting their survival.

shape varies in time.

example is a fixed DVD perceived as an immovable flat disk. During observations carried out via laser equipment, this disk exhibits a vibrating curved surface and its

Inaccuracies and errors are the properties of any technical device. They are investigated, for example, in the mathematical theory of errors. There are no reasons to attribute the accuracy to biological aspects of perceptions, including a man. What is the meaning of the statement "sensations cannot deceive themselves" and how is interpreted a hazy "argument" of Russel, "In reality, there are no illusions of senses, but data are erroneously interpreted as the signs of things other than themselves" ([3], p. 116)? In the light of the valid physical property of relativism, can "things themselves" be the dependences between the fundamental properties of a substance and the reference (observation) frame? Thus, except for dogmatic reasons, there are no grounds to assert that "an absolute obviousness is a distinctive feature of sensations." Perception can be illusory not only because the activity of

A controversial question is whether a human perception is composed of sensations and in what manner ([3], p. 115). The credo of gestalt psychology—a whole is not the sum between constituents, that is, a negative reaction on a psychological structuralism—is beyond any doubt. Among other things, this principle is use to construct all mathematical theories: objects exist not only as things in themselves but also in relations and interactions with each other. However, a proposition that perceptions are always holistic nonatomized images is questionable. Our observing tools and knowledge of a human organism are still very imperfect for making categorical inferences similar to that of gestalt psychologists. However, strictly speaking, an argument is inconsistent when sensations do not exist as the individual images and fragments of perception (elements of perception), at least in this quality, because they are not recognized. Thus, genes, genetic information carriers, are

Arguments of Riley [3], p. 116, which were extracted from the ideas of late Wittgenstein, are even more surprising. A man visually perceives concrete things with certain qualities instead of qualities themselves, for example, only objects of the corresponding color rather than the color as a light spectrum—electromagnetic waves of definite waves and frequencies. Hence, sensations are declared as "imaginary objects" with the acquired features of perception and a "categorical error." In connection with this, natural numbers (and, therefore, mathematics based on natural numbers) would be announced as imaginary objects and the categorical error. In contrast to Riley, mathematicians are thought that the separation of numbers and

In the context of an evolutionary approach, a significant idea is that evolutionary changes caused by a natural selection lead to the appearance of adaptable sensory systems. As a consequence, all species adequately respond to the environmental

Vollmer [4], p. 152, associates information acquisition (or the representation of real objects) with designing in which tree components are taken into account: an object, a projection, and a screen. The designing mechanism has been discussed in

objects is not an error but the discovery made thousands of years ago.

example is a fixed DVD perceived as an immovable flat disk. During observations carried out via laser equipment, this disk exhibits a vibrating curved surface and its shape varies in time.

### **9. Mathematical theory of errors**

Inaccuracies and errors are the properties of any technical device. They are investigated, for example, in the mathematical theory of errors. There are no reasons to attribute the accuracy to biological aspects of perceptions, including a man. What is the meaning of the statement "sensations cannot deceive themselves" and how is interpreted a hazy "argument" of Russel, "In reality, there are no illusions of senses, but data are erroneously interpreted as the signs of things other than themselves" ([3], p. 116)? In the light of the valid physical property of relativism, can "things themselves" be the dependences between the fundamental properties of a substance and the reference (observation) frame? Thus, except for dogmatic reasons, there are no grounds to assert that "an absolute obviousness is a distinctive feature of sensations." Perception can be illusory not only because the activity of mind is conceivable ([3], pp. 115, 116).

#### **10. Theories of Gestalt psychology**

A controversial question is whether a human perception is composed of sensations and in what manner ([3], p. 115). The credo of gestalt psychology—a whole is not the sum between constituents, that is, a negative reaction on a psychological structuralism—is beyond any doubt. Among other things, this principle is use to construct all mathematical theories: objects exist not only as things in themselves but also in relations and interactions with each other. However, a proposition that perceptions are always holistic nonatomized images is questionable. Our observing tools and knowledge of a human organism are still very imperfect for making categorical inferences similar to that of gestalt psychologists. However, strictly speaking, an argument is inconsistent when sensations do not exist as the individual images and fragments of perception (elements of perception), at least in this quality, because they are not recognized. Thus, genes, genetic information carriers, are not perceived and cannot be conscious in sensations.

Arguments of Riley [3], p. 116, which were extracted from the ideas of late Wittgenstein, are even more surprising. A man visually perceives concrete things with certain qualities instead of qualities themselves, for example, only objects of the corresponding color rather than the color as a light spectrum—electromagnetic waves of definite waves and frequencies. Hence, sensations are declared as "imaginary objects" with the acquired features of perception and a "categorical error." In connection with this, natural numbers (and, therefore, mathematics based on natural numbers) would be announced as imaginary objects and the categorical error. In contrast to Riley, mathematicians are thought that the separation of numbers and objects is not an error but the discovery made thousands of years ago.

In the context of an evolutionary approach, a significant idea is that evolutionary changes caused by a natural selection lead to the appearance of adaptable sensory systems. As a consequence, all species adequately respond to the environmental features affecting their survival.

Vollmer [4], p. 152, associates information acquisition (or the representation of real objects) with designing in which tree components are taken into account: an object, a projection, and a screen. The designing mechanism has been discussed in Kuznetsov et al. [5], p. 86. In the Vollmer's scheme, both a "cognitive metaphor" and the term "designing" are successfully employed. However, it goes without saying that metaphors and new terms cannot solve problems, except for those inherent to the representations of adaptors of "language games."

Subjective relativity is capable of distorting the real pragmatics in the description of textual evidences to a greater extent. Hence, the previously noted proposition of Lorenz from *Reversed Side of the Mirror*, which is devoted to the equivalence and interdependence of human physiological systems as the tool of external world perception and the conscious real world ([7], p. 260), is especially actual. Thus, critical analysis of information (or historical sources) is the first and obligatory stage in the construction of the subject theory.

The errors of perception and cognition can also arise from erroneous learning. Let us consider the fragment in the book of M. Goldstein and N. Goldstein, which describes learning of blind persons whose eyesight was recovered in the mature age. To reveal the shapes of geometric figures, the palpation problem is posed instead of the geometrical problem; that is, a tomato is proposed to determine exclusively by color, combining incorrect cooking experiments and "palpation geometry" with the utilitarianism into an inconceivable mismatch of incorrect attainments. If the similar technique is employed to learn experts, we will eat falsifications instead of qualitative products. However, such a situation is definitely encouraging: in our country, learning is not very bad because there are worse processes.

The perception of the world through experience and its cognition were inherent to people long before the formation of knowledge. Information was generated by combining conscious individual data and an informational interaction. A human biological system was formed during an evolutionary process, which required to obtain and estimate (or structurize to some extent) data and, most importantly, comprehend them and apply according to circumstances "here and now" (often instantly) in interactions with the external world. The problems concerning the man's survival as a biological species inevitably led to improvements in information base and behavioral stereotypes (and their subsequent (regular or random) fixation in mind). This phylogenetic aspect of human evolution is most important in the evolutionary theory of knowledge.

In the cognition and interaction processes, a man employs different significant tools: musical, plastic (gestures, dance, and ballet), and visual (painting, graphics, ideograms, and optical images) resources. From the viewpoint of a mathematician, graphics can say no less than words and symbols. Moreover, Zen and Koan practices and language—the most powerful tool whose primary importance was noted by all the cited authors describing the evolutionary theory of knowledge—have not to be forgotten. The linguistic world, where human thought move, in conjunction with the external world provide the foundation of cognition. The correctly used language makes it possible to develop perfected deductive theories, the constituents of scientific cognition. However, the difficulties caused by the development of scientific theories (i.e., the construction of basic concepts, critical analysis of data and semantic knowledge, the validity of inferences, and their interpretation) are beyond the scopes of language problems. These features are known to each mathematician who comprehends the most arduous counterexamples or proofs of problems remained unsolved for centuries or theoreticians in the physical sciences who deal with cosmological models, the problems of quantum mechanics (or field theory), and foundations of theoretical physics as a whole (or any other specialists who solve the complicated technical problems). By a lucky chance, humanitarian dreamers do not suspect these difficulties and assume that the main world problems are the language problems—*sancta simplicitas*.

**17**

Feyerabend.

*Cognitive Psychology and Modern Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82408*

**11. New modern cognitive theories**

It is axiomatic that a man does more than creates and improves language and linguistic forms. During the development of new cognitive theories, the linguistics laws (as directives of thought motion) elevate the human mind, and such a process is not connected with any mysticism. However, the man-language, man-object, and language-object interactions do not deserve the new "language idol" instead of idols that were thrown down. (Language and images are synthesized as combination of zeros and unities in computers; that is, is it required to venerate zeros and unities?) Linguists relying on the statement "a man has been created by language" must explain how primitive societies and first public institutions were created by *Homo sapiens* when language did not exist or was more primitive than a man and was less important than gestures (it is necessary not to forget the influence of instruments of

The process under consideration corresponds to a cognitive process in the three stage scheme proposed by Vollmer (perception-subscientific cognition-scientific cognition). From the viewpoint of the information theory, we deal with transition from nonconscious information of experimental perception to conscious data understood in the context of semantic information, followed by going to semantic knowledge. This process is the first and natural (as historically corresponding to a cognitive process) stage of acquired knowledge (note that the part of modern information is pseudosemantic). The semantic knowledge is the fixed structurized

labor). Note that children better recognizes patterns than speech.

semantic information (from Greek σημαντικοζ signifying having a value). The semantic knowledge precedes the scientific one. In this case, it is not assumed that the knowledge was concealed in the powerful spirit of Fichte "before all centuries" and patiently waited its birth or was hidden in the world spirit and waited the birth of Hegel to manifests itself. During a purposeful human activity in all possible interactions and biological and social evolutions, the necessity of solving arising problems created both the modern civilization and modern scientific knowledge. The semantic knowledge about the physical world, secrets of handcrafts, human society, and people is more ancient than the scientific knowledge. In the Middle Ages, many discoveries of natural sciences, secrets of handcrafts, and remarkable culinary recipes have been obtained randomly without purposeful investigations. The semantic knowledge involves facts, data, statements, concepts,

The prescientific and extrascientific information is called ordinary data and characterized as cognitive, but uncritical. Different types of ordinary knowledge were directives of handcrafts and human behavior and could involve both true and false data. Disordered pro to information can hardly be called the knowledge if its belittling is not the purpose. This is the so called gold carrying ore intended to extract gold. If the human activity is analyzed objectively, the part of knowledge is routinely used in the everyday life and production activity at the level of ordinary instincts and without mental efforts. Hence, the slogan of Maturana and Varela [6], p. 16, 17, "Any action is cognition; any cognition is action," is semicorrected. The

According to all cited authors of the publications on the evolutionary theory of knowledge, the human knowledge is greater that the scientific. As was noted by Lektorskii, the scientific knowledge not only contains the prescientific and extrascientific variants but also interacts with them ([3], p. 113). We share this view point and must add that the absolute majority of people has no common with sciences and this undisputable fact cannot be denied by the postulates of Kunh and

prejudice, stereotypes, rites, delusions, dogmas, etc.

action is not always cognition.

### **11. New modern cognitive theories**

It is axiomatic that a man does more than creates and improves language and linguistic forms. During the development of new cognitive theories, the linguistics laws (as directives of thought motion) elevate the human mind, and such a process is not connected with any mysticism. However, the man-language, man-object, and language-object interactions do not deserve the new "language idol" instead of idols that were thrown down. (Language and images are synthesized as combination of zeros and unities in computers; that is, is it required to venerate zeros and unities?) Linguists relying on the statement "a man has been created by language" must explain how primitive societies and first public institutions were created by *Homo sapiens* when language did not exist or was more primitive than a man and was less important than gestures (it is necessary not to forget the influence of instruments of labor). Note that children better recognizes patterns than speech.

The process under consideration corresponds to a cognitive process in the three stage scheme proposed by Vollmer (perception-subscientific cognition-scientific cognition). From the viewpoint of the information theory, we deal with transition from nonconscious information of experimental perception to conscious data understood in the context of semantic information, followed by going to semantic knowledge. This process is the first and natural (as historically corresponding to a cognitive process) stage of acquired knowledge (note that the part of modern information is pseudosemantic). The semantic knowledge is the fixed structurized semantic information (from Greek σημαντικοζ signifying having a value).

The semantic knowledge precedes the scientific one. In this case, it is not assumed that the knowledge was concealed in the powerful spirit of Fichte "before all centuries" and patiently waited its birth or was hidden in the world spirit and waited the birth of Hegel to manifests itself. During a purposeful human activity in all possible interactions and biological and social evolutions, the necessity of solving arising problems created both the modern civilization and modern scientific knowledge. The semantic knowledge about the physical world, secrets of handcrafts, human society, and people is more ancient than the scientific knowledge. In the Middle Ages, many discoveries of natural sciences, secrets of handcrafts, and remarkable culinary recipes have been obtained randomly without purposeful investigations. The semantic knowledge involves facts, data, statements, concepts, prejudice, stereotypes, rites, delusions, dogmas, etc.

The prescientific and extrascientific information is called ordinary data and characterized as cognitive, but uncritical. Different types of ordinary knowledge were directives of handcrafts and human behavior and could involve both true and false data. Disordered pro to information can hardly be called the knowledge if its belittling is not the purpose. This is the so called gold carrying ore intended to extract gold. If the human activity is analyzed objectively, the part of knowledge is routinely used in the everyday life and production activity at the level of ordinary instincts and without mental efforts. Hence, the slogan of Maturana and Varela [6], p. 16, 17, "Any action is cognition; any cognition is action," is semicorrected. The action is not always cognition.

According to all cited authors of the publications on the evolutionary theory of knowledge, the human knowledge is greater that the scientific. As was noted by Lektorskii, the scientific knowledge not only contains the prescientific and extrascientific variants but also interacts with them ([3], p. 113). We share this view point and must add that the absolute majority of people has no common with sciences and this undisputable fact cannot be denied by the postulates of Kunh and Feyerabend.

Accurate definition of scientific knowledge is not obligatory. According to M. Castells, the knowledge is "the basic laws of the object domain by which a man can solve arising industrial, scientific, and other problems, that is, facts, concepts, mutual relations, estimates, rules, heuristics (or actual knowledge), and strategies of solutions in this field (or strategic knowledge)" [18]. The knowledge can be divided into declarative (to know what) and procedural (to know how). Declarative knowledge is theoretical because makes it possible to explain the reason of action. Procedural knowledge is pragmatic and corresponds to certain habits. Procedural knowledge can be divided into constructive (to know recipes and instructions) and situational (to act in arising situations). It is possible to separate the third type of knowledge characterizing the culture of the given social system. The behavior of knowledge can implicitly, that is, unallowable for "profane."

The structurization of semantic knowledge, as well as its organization in the human brain (in particular, the known logical level scheme of P. Dilts and G. Bateson: *environment* (when, where, with whom) → *behavior* (what) → *capacities and strategies* (how) → *beliefs and values* (why) → *identity* (who) → *mission* (who and what else)), is discussed in Kuznetsov et al. [17].

Information society is a popular word combination. This term is commonly used in discussions devoted to society, economics, or education.

It is extremely useful to study what meaning has this term when scientists try to describe an information society. In the literature concerned with information society, the number of authors who operate with the undeveloped definitions of the subject is very large. As was emphasized by Webster at the beginning of his study *Information Society Theory* ([19], p. 13), they continuously discuss the features of an information society, but their operational criteria remain uncleared.

The quantitative estimates of the high level of ICT influence on politics and economics are the most popular argument for classifying the modern society as an information community. Competent quantitative analysis performed by F. Muchlup and M. Porat are considered the strong argument in favor of the Porat's inference: the United States has become "the information society the main activity of which is the creation of informational products and services" ([20], p. 32). Analogous statement was postulated by D. Bell in 1973: "we enter into the information society (the synonym of postindustrial society, as was thought D. Bell) when the majority of people are engaged in the information sphere" ([19], p. 21). Well known analytics R. Reich, P. Draker, and M. Castells also assume that the moving force of modern economics is people and their key feature is the use of information ([19], p. 22). Castells begins section *Technology, Society, and Historical Changes* by the words "revolution in information technology covers the entire region of human activity" (however, he explains, "the technology does not predetermine the evolution of society)" ([18], p. 28) and finishes this section as follows: "The modern technological revolution…has appeared and developed during the global restructurization of capitalism and is an important tool of restructurization. Thus, a new society born due to this transformation is both capitalistic and informational."

Webster note that "the majority of definitions of an information society are based on quantitative characteristics" and separates five definitions associated with the identification of innovations: technological, economical, coupled with the sphere of employment, spatial, and cultural. Emphasizing that the grounds of these definitions are the statement that quantitative changes in the information sphere have led to the formation of a qualitatively new social structure—information society, and the reasoning that our society is informational due to an increase in the volume of information and the appearance of information society is caused by the appearance of new information technologies ([19], p. 17), he criticizes this questionable structure.

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**12. Quantitative approaches to knowledge**

statistical tables, which must confirm the objectivity of proofs.}"

Indicating the debatableness of the quantitative approach, Webster writes in the first chapters ([19], p. 19): "{The main problem is that hidden subjective interpretations, as well as estimation statements related to the construction of categories and the incorporations and eliminations of an informational sector, stand behind the

As a consequence, the principal problems are the unreliable foundation and structure of all quantitative approaches. Without analyzing the arguments of the different authors, we can indicate that the implementations of informfile ideas and the release out of the industrial society have led to the replacement of the Great Britain (the nineteenth century) and USA (the twentieth century) workshops of the world with the China workshop of the world (the twenty-first century).

Webster thoroughly discusses and denies the Bell's concept, engages in polemics with Castells, but must admit that information is the fundamental factor in the modern economics ([19], p. 72). Let us consider its role in the ICTs of the existing

Although many intellectuals and politics interpret new technologies as the new-

During historical evolution, none of the technologies was considered the determining factor of our society. The discovery of a wheel, the domestication of a horse, and the inventions of a metallurgical process, a steam engine, or a lifting vehicle (very important inventions) do not imply that "horse" or "steam" society has arisen. Owing to the ICT influence on different aspects of current life, numerous investigations of an influence process are performed. Below, we do not consider the current political problems: globalization, a growth in ICT influence (and, therefore, national sovereignty restrictions), class problems of a traditional political economy (the works of Shiller), information distortions and its manipulations for political purposes (the favorite topic of Yu. Khabermas), but focuses on philosophic problems. Coinciding with the substantiated inferences of Webster (i.e., the appearance and development of unprecedented ICTs, the sharply increased amount of information, the growth of its influence on the current activity, society organization, etc. cannot be regarded as the features of the new type of the society of the new epoch

It is accepted that a distinctive feature of the existing "information society" is the information transformation into the good. "Knowledge is created to be sold and consumed to acquire cost in the new product," declares Lyotard [21], p. 19 (it is clear that he does not know the Pushkin's expression: "Inspiration is not sold, but a manuscript can be sold"). G. Shiller has assumed that the information revolution is hallmarked with the continuously sharpened inequality (the point at issue). However, the information and knowledge transformation into the valuable product is scarcely the new process. The secrets of silk production, violin manufacturers, bell molding and other corporate secrets (including culinary), which were state secrets, military technologies, etc. always estimated higher than gold. Mongolian vanquishers and Tamerlane took care of captive artisans. In the Middle Ages, books were very expensive even after the discovery of paper. Beginning at least from the thirteenth century, both technological and legal literacies were valued highly. After Guttenberg discovered book printing, the number books printed in Europe for 50 years substantially exceeded the number books written for several preceding centuries; that is, the revolution has occurred. Hence, this society could be called informational (in addition, this was the period of great geographical discoveries). Thus, from the viewpoint of aspects discussed above, it is necessary to note the

world and in the theoretical knowledge (which is of equal importance).

([19], p. 80)), we must indicate the occurred principle changes.

continuity of our epoch instead of its exceptionality.

est idols with keys to progress and healing, the situation is more complicated.

### **12. Quantitative approaches to knowledge**

Indicating the debatableness of the quantitative approach, Webster writes in the first chapters ([19], p. 19): "{The main problem is that hidden subjective interpretations, as well as estimation statements related to the construction of categories and the incorporations and eliminations of an informational sector, stand behind the statistical tables, which must confirm the objectivity of proofs.}"

As a consequence, the principal problems are the unreliable foundation and structure of all quantitative approaches. Without analyzing the arguments of the different authors, we can indicate that the implementations of informfile ideas and the release out of the industrial society have led to the replacement of the Great Britain (the nineteenth century) and USA (the twentieth century) workshops of the world with the China workshop of the world (the twenty-first century).

Webster thoroughly discusses and denies the Bell's concept, engages in polemics with Castells, but must admit that information is the fundamental factor in the modern economics ([19], p. 72). Let us consider its role in the ICTs of the existing world and in the theoretical knowledge (which is of equal importance).

Although many intellectuals and politics interpret new technologies as the newest idols with keys to progress and healing, the situation is more complicated.

During historical evolution, none of the technologies was considered the determining factor of our society. The discovery of a wheel, the domestication of a horse, and the inventions of a metallurgical process, a steam engine, or a lifting vehicle (very important inventions) do not imply that "horse" or "steam" society has arisen.

Owing to the ICT influence on different aspects of current life, numerous investigations of an influence process are performed. Below, we do not consider the current political problems: globalization, a growth in ICT influence (and, therefore, national sovereignty restrictions), class problems of a traditional political economy (the works of Shiller), information distortions and its manipulations for political purposes (the favorite topic of Yu. Khabermas), but focuses on philosophic problems.

Coinciding with the substantiated inferences of Webster (i.e., the appearance and development of unprecedented ICTs, the sharply increased amount of information, the growth of its influence on the current activity, society organization, etc. cannot be regarded as the features of the new type of the society of the new epoch ([19], p. 80)), we must indicate the occurred principle changes.

It is accepted that a distinctive feature of the existing "information society" is the information transformation into the good. "Knowledge is created to be sold and consumed to acquire cost in the new product," declares Lyotard [21], p. 19 (it is clear that he does not know the Pushkin's expression: "Inspiration is not sold, but a manuscript can be sold"). G. Shiller has assumed that the information revolution is hallmarked with the continuously sharpened inequality (the point at issue). However, the information and knowledge transformation into the valuable product is scarcely the new process. The secrets of silk production, violin manufacturers, bell molding and other corporate secrets (including culinary), which were state secrets, military technologies, etc. always estimated higher than gold. Mongolian vanquishers and Tamerlane took care of captive artisans. In the Middle Ages, books were very expensive even after the discovery of paper. Beginning at least from the thirteenth century, both technological and legal literacies were valued highly. After Guttenberg discovered book printing, the number books printed in Europe for 50 years substantially exceeded the number books written for several preceding centuries; that is, the revolution has occurred. Hence, this society could be called informational (in addition, this was the period of great geographical discoveries). Thus, from the viewpoint of aspects discussed above, it is necessary to note the continuity of our epoch instead of its exceptionality.

As to postmodernistic (proofless) prophecies that the entire data and science will be transformed into a commercial shop, they will fail. Mercenariness is an important, but not sole, aspect or motif. Even ancient Roman understood that *spiritus ubi vult spirum* (the spirit moves in an arbitrary direction). Scientific and technological investigations always required financing. However, many investigations and discoveries have been carried out without proper payments and even contrary to mercantile interests. Moreover, profitable discoveries were not often supposed to be gainful.

However, the high data transmission rates, which have led to the new types of business; the information dissemination freedom, which has strongly hampered its concealment; and the state authority functioning with the help of Internet technologies were not observed previously. The Castells' attention to informational networks ([18], Ch. 3–5) and their constructive and destructive functions in the society is undoubtedly justified.

Intellectual aspects are as important as political economical relations. According to F. Webster, "although the theoretical knowledge priority is little discussed in the information society theories, there are many grounds to interpret this property as a distinctive feature of modernity." In addition, it is proposed without proofs that "it is possible to prove that the theoretical knowledge plays a key role in the modern society in contrast to the preceding epoch with dominant practical and situational knowledge" ([19], p. 38). "This knowledge is formalized in texts and transferred mainly by learning" ([19], p. 39). In addition, Webster kindly cites D. Bell who assures us that industrial revolutions were performed by "talented dreamer indifferent to sciences and the fundamental laws underlying discoveries." It is likely that Bell both observed the flashes of inspirations of dreamers and penetrated into their thoughts. The current situation differs in that "innovations are initiated by principle knowledge; their initiation clearly manifests itself in the field of science and technology (note that these principles can be understood by a small number of experts)" ([19], p. 38). Let imagine yourselves that Aristotle's, Euclid's, Galilei's, and Newton's crowds roamed the streets in the previous years. It is of interest whether anyone can guarantee that the current dreamers will not call liars in 200 years.

Note that F. Webster uncritically expounds the views of D. Bernar and N. Shter [19], p. 163.

We agree with Webster's concept about the high significance of theoretical knowledge and the remark "in our time…the theoretical knowledge underlies many political decisions and debates" ([19], p. 39), but the words "in our time" are obscure. It seems that *State* of Plato, *Politicians* of Aristotle, *De Cavitate Dei* of St. Augustine, *De Monarchia* of Dante, *Prince* of Macki Avelli, *Mahaprajnaparamita sutra* of Nagarjuna, and *Conversations and Statements* of K'ung Fu tzu (Confucius) and other publications prepared his successors were not written or they weakly affected the minds of politicians. It is clear that there is no need to remember the influence of political and economical doctrines, which "became the material force and seized the masses."

We also assume that accents must be changed. "Theoretical knowledge has become the defining feature of our world," was written by Webster [19], p. 40.

The problem must be posed in the following manner: *what* (in the qualitative sense) theoretical knowledge has become the defining feature of our world.

#### **13. Post-modern approaches to cognitive psychology**

The orthodox Marxism-Leninism crisis and the USSR decomposition had unexpected consequences. At the beginning of postmodernism, which is called both an intellectual process and our everyday life ([19], p. 312), postmodernists

**21**

*Cognitive Psychology and Modern Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82408*

interested in culture and art. However, in the last two decades of the twentieth century, they have passed to total generalizations (it is rather surprising because they refused all total theories). As was interpreted by postmodernists, the collapse of the so-called socialist system confirms that not only "great statements" (a bright metaphor of Lyotard)—proofless doctrines pretended to the generality and infallibility—but also other theories aspired to the authenticity and truth are inconsistent. They began with correctly criticizing the precarious concepts of aforementioned theories, such as "progress," "humanism," and "civilization development." (In general, starting with Hegel, many philosophers better criticize and deny than create.) Thereafter, it was indicated that the dogmas of Enlightenment philosophers (i.e., the laws exist in the historical process and the political being and actions of people is rational and understandable as the a priori truth) cannot be accepted. However, postmodernists simultaneously threw the child out with bathwater. Let us briefly analyze this situation because the postmodernism intended to play the role of the main social philosophic direction of modern times. Postmodernistic arguments rely on four principal statements. Firstly, it is assumed that the adequate and objective description and analysis of the historical process and humanitarian world are impossible. A man and political existence are declared to be incognizable (because the course of history discredits such attempts). The second principal statement is more radical: there no reality and truth due to

the "multiplicity of representations," but imaginary meanings are possible.

empty information (various symbols and linguistic games).

arbitrary extrapolations.

The third statement is pseudopositive: the place of the reality is occupied by

Fourthly, in the opinion of postmodernists, the unavoidable subjectivity of a researcher is caused by both personal subjective and political commitments. Its propagandistic purpose is the event orientation in the definite direction by means of

Let us consider these problems. Let us begin with the second (deepest) statement. Indeed, the truth multiplicity is an important problem. The truth multiplicity proved by mathematicians in the twentieth century (e.g., Indian philosopher assumed that the truth multiplicity is a self-evident fact and denied the objective and absolute truths ([22], p. 39)) resembles the postulation of a single absolute truth in the West philosophy and is the principal discovery. The simplest example is alternative geometries. It is firmly ascertained that the axiom of parallels, as well as its negation, is compatible with the axiomatics of absolute geometry. Similar to alternative geometries, the standard axiomatics of the theory of Zermelo-Fraenkel (ZF) sets is compatible with both the axiom of choice (AC) and its negation. In other words, ZF sets can be extended both to theory (ZF + AC) and to theory (ZF +? AC). However, each theory will have its own drawbacks ([11], p. 177). In addition, the well-known continuum hypothesis (to solve the continuum problem, investigations have been performed for almost a century) turns out to be independent of ZF sets. The possibility of existing of Lebesgue non-measurable sets (not having the length or area), as well as the possibility of non-existing, is considered in Jech [23], Ch. 20. *Here, the problem is solved in the completely opposite manner*: several truths are

possible (however, only in the perfect theories with infinite basic positions).

In this case, there are no contradictions. In any theory, the contradiction is admissible. The truth multiplicity and inconsistency are completely different things. The problem can be solved by two methods. The first of them is to investigate the sources and grounds of alternative theories, as is done in mathematical logic, for example, in the proof theory. The other method is to rely on contradictions. In this case, postmodernists are not pioneers: "contradiction is the source of any motion and vitality; something moves, has motivations, and is active only due to an internal contradiction," Hegel [24], Book 2, p. 65. The problem is hampered by continuous mixing of

#### *Cognitive Psychology and Modern Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82408*

interested in culture and art. However, in the last two decades of the twentieth century, they have passed to total generalizations (it is rather surprising because they refused all total theories). As was interpreted by postmodernists, the collapse of the so-called socialist system confirms that not only "great statements" (a bright metaphor of Lyotard)—proofless doctrines pretended to the generality and infallibility—but also other theories aspired to the authenticity and truth are inconsistent. They began with correctly criticizing the precarious concepts of aforementioned theories, such as "progress," "humanism," and "civilization development." (In general, starting with Hegel, many philosophers better criticize and deny than create.) Thereafter, it was indicated that the dogmas of Enlightenment philosophers (i.e., the laws exist in the historical process and the political being and actions of people is rational and understandable as the a priori truth) cannot be accepted. However, postmodernists simultaneously threw the child out with bathwater. Let us briefly analyze this situation because the postmodernism intended to play the role of the main social philosophic direction of modern times.

Postmodernistic arguments rely on four principal statements. Firstly, it is assumed that the adequate and objective description and analysis of the historical process and humanitarian world are impossible. A man and political existence are declared to be incognizable (because the course of history discredits such attempts).

The second principal statement is more radical: there no reality and truth due to the "multiplicity of representations," but imaginary meanings are possible.

The third statement is pseudopositive: the place of the reality is occupied by empty information (various symbols and linguistic games).

Fourthly, in the opinion of postmodernists, the unavoidable subjectivity of a researcher is caused by both personal subjective and political commitments. Its propagandistic purpose is the event orientation in the definite direction by means of arbitrary extrapolations.

Let us consider these problems. Let us begin with the second (deepest) statement. Indeed, the truth multiplicity is an important problem. The truth multiplicity proved by mathematicians in the twentieth century (e.g., Indian philosopher assumed that the truth multiplicity is a self-evident fact and denied the objective and absolute truths ([22], p. 39)) resembles the postulation of a single absolute truth in the West philosophy and is the principal discovery. The simplest example is alternative geometries. It is firmly ascertained that the axiom of parallels, as well as its negation, is compatible with the axiomatics of absolute geometry. Similar to alternative geometries, the standard axiomatics of the theory of Zermelo-Fraenkel (ZF) sets is compatible with both the axiom of choice (AC) and its negation. In other words, ZF sets can be extended both to theory (ZF + AC) and to theory (ZF +? AC). However, each theory will have its own drawbacks ([11], p. 177). In addition, the well-known continuum hypothesis (to solve the continuum problem, investigations have been performed for almost a century) turns out to be independent of ZF sets. The possibility of existing of Lebesgue non-measurable sets (not having the length or area), as well as the possibility of non-existing, is considered in Jech [23], Ch. 20. *Here, the problem is solved in the completely opposite manner*: several truths are possible (however, only in the perfect theories with infinite basic positions).

In this case, there are no contradictions. In any theory, the contradiction is admissible. The truth multiplicity and inconsistency are completely different things. The problem can be solved by two methods. The first of them is to investigate the sources and grounds of alternative theories, as is done in mathematical logic, for example, in the proof theory. The other method is to rely on contradictions. In this case, postmodernists are not pioneers: "contradiction is the source of any motion and vitality; something moves, has motivations, and is active only due to an internal contradiction," Hegel [24], Book 2, p. 65. The problem is hampered by continuous mixing of

contradictions and contrapositions, which was predicted by Kant [25] (this work was underestimated by his successors). The contradiction was previously related to the magic word "dialectics." At present, the magic word is "relativism."

Analyzing postmodernistic arguments of adequacy and truth in the context of the correlated first and second statements (in Ch. 9), Webster highlights their initial propositions:

Each representation and description of the reality is mainly falsified ("truth versions"). This proposition is called by the godlessly disturbed term "relativism," which was borrowed from theoretical physics. Hence, search for authenticity is senseless.

The reality is replaced with symbols, linguistic games, and unreal and empty estimates. Events occur in the world where "the concept of reality" is eliminated (the scheme of J. Baudrillard).

Accepting contradictions inherent to the society as a whole and each person, we must forget about the existence of true I.

In addition, it is necessary to consider postmodernistic concepts of the practice of these linguistic games (see Lyotar*d, @Scientific Knowledge Pragmatics*, Ch. 7), which is interpreted as a learning process (i.e., the teacher-student process). Since the directives of learning have a certain degree of acceptability, they are regarded to be "scientific." "The truth" and "the scientific content" of directives are determined by the resolutions of the narrow specialized isolated community of experts. Lyotard calls this community "the scientific institute" (such communities were referred to as sects in the days of old). "The truth of a directive and the competence of an expert depend mainly on the approval of group of expert with equal competences" ([21], pp. 62–63).

In this case, all phenomena become reversed. The truth of phenomena is determined by checked observations and measurements, rather than resolutions and approvals of a certain community. The observations and measurements are primary, and the resolutions are their consequences. The geocentric system will not be true due to the resolutions of the scientific institute even after "the name of Trismegist Aristotle." At the same time, this system is true not only because of the approval by the Copernicus scientific institute, which "announced that planets have circular trajectories. The institute assumes that it can prove its announcements. On the other hand, any statement related to the same expert is eliminated if it is inverse or contradictory" ([21], p. 62). However, the reasons of elimination are unintelligible. As was declared by Webster, "the TRUTH" is replaced with "the truth multiplicity" and there is no commonly used method of selection among the components of this set. As was affirmed by Lyotard ([26], p. 66) the truth is the issue of selection (i.e., only the accepted residue remains). To give a complete picture, it should be said: according to the order of Lyotard in 1988.

To corroborate and justify the elimination of the reality, surprising assertions about freedom are used (by the way, how to philosophize without the freedom). "After making a decision on the essence of truth, we easily come to tyranny" ([19], p. 319). Then, the principal total tyranny is mathematics, and mathematicians are slaves. In this case, without lapsing into tyranny and determining the criteria of estimation and selection, it is impossible to find whether Mahatma Gandhi is better than Hitler. However, postmodernists, one and all, do not want to live under the control of Hitler or Stalin.

As postmodernists deny the truth, it would be correct to say that "the multiplicity of senses" (or, simply, "the multiplicity of subjective, erroneous, and contradictory senses") instead of "the multiplicity of truths." The reason is the uniqueness of researchers of the humanitarian world and history. What if natural sciences could be created by automatic machines or clowns? "Postmodernism denies all claims to the reality: nothing can be true and authentic because everything is falsified" ([21], p. 325). Why postmodernists announce that researchers of the humanitarian world are falsifiers? Why they (in contrast to specialists of natural sciences) tend toward falsification?

**23**

*Cognitive Psychology and Modern Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82408*

pragmatic theories must be developed.

must be complete and properly structurized.

Why they demonstrate contempt both to other scientists and, strictly speaking, to themselves? These questions have no clear answers. It is likely that other purposes and

There are the other, absolutely correct, reasons: the subjectivity of observation tools (in the first place, a man as a biological tool of observations) and the subjectivity of evidences. They have already been discussed in the context of pragmatic information. However, it is necessary to make an absolutely different inference: any pragmatic investigation must be preceded by thorough critical analysis accompanied by the detection of possible contradictions and their elimination or the explanation the impossibility of elimination. However, all occurs contrariwise: facts are arbitrary analyzed or remained unverified and proofs, including arguments, are replaced

means exist and, in addition, other requirements and criteria are imposed.

with declarations. In natural sciences, such a practice is inapplicable.

Why the humanitarian world is senseless and unreal? Why the actions of its objects are unreason able, contradictory, and incognizable, as is announced by postmodernists in their total extrapolations from culture to the whole pragmatism? The fauna is real and is the subject of science. The behavior of unreasonable animals is characterized by the directivity and consistency. Biology has revealed the behavioral laws of animals. Why a man is defective even in comparison with animals? Although sociologists and historians are in extremely intricate situation, biologists and their evolution undergo greater difficulties. It can be thought that the quantum physics, cosmology, and genetics problems are simpler. The negation of the reality and truth is an ordinary dogma, which is not substantiated but is the indulgence of the lack of knowledge and skill. However, if "there is no reality, but the language," and the unreal world around us is created by information, what is the subject of postmodernistic investigations? Is it possible that they investigate themselves? Let us only imagine that houses and bridges, air crafts, and nuclear reactors are created on the basis of postmodernistic principles. Generally speaking, if postmodernists are collected on the separate territory and live according to their principles, the natural selection will rapidly lead to their extinction (God forbid, we do not wish it). It is undoubted that constructive analysis is much better than postmodernistic intellectual groans and round dances of general phrases and abstruse terms. However, for this purpose, the pragmatic analysis laws must be determined and

The reliability and completeness of information are very important factors. Postmodernists correctly indicate modern "informational hazards." As was noted by Lyotard, information is not only gathered and analyzed but also concealed and distorted due to propagandistic reasons. Indeed, we drown in the sea of symbols, ceasing to designate anything. Rozak [19], pp. 34–36, asks whether the increasing volume of information leads to the higher informativity of citizens. Thus, there appear two problems: data obtainment and their rejection. Therefore, information

In this case, we encounter some problems and cardinally new possibilities, which make it possible to say about "the information society." All archives are being successfully digitized. It seems probable that this process will be finished in the nearest future. Thereafter, all the materials of natural and humanitarian sciences will be generally available in the Internet. In this case, an end will be put to the absolutely vicious practice of rational minds to select somewhat important parts from data according to their hierarchy of values, arbitrary concealing or distorting other parts. Then, any researcher and "scientific institute" (according to Lyotard) will be able to validate the completeness and consistency of the database used to construct

Thus, each of us can validate the perfection of substantiations. In this case, the conception inferences must be confirmed by strict (error free and complete) *proofs*,

one or another concept, thereby checking the perfection of foundations.

#### *Cognitive Psychology and Modern Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82408*

Why they demonstrate contempt both to other scientists and, strictly speaking, to themselves? These questions have no clear answers. It is likely that other purposes and means exist and, in addition, other requirements and criteria are imposed.

There are the other, absolutely correct, reasons: the subjectivity of observation tools (in the first place, a man as a biological tool of observations) and the subjectivity of evidences. They have already been discussed in the context of pragmatic information.

However, it is necessary to make an absolutely different inference: any pragmatic investigation must be preceded by thorough critical analysis accompanied by the detection of possible contradictions and their elimination or the explanation the impossibility of elimination. However, all occurs contrariwise: facts are arbitrary analyzed or remained unverified and proofs, including arguments, are replaced with declarations. In natural sciences, such a practice is inapplicable.

Why the humanitarian world is senseless and unreal? Why the actions of its objects are unreason able, contradictory, and incognizable, as is announced by postmodernists in their total extrapolations from culture to the whole pragmatism? The fauna is real and is the subject of science. The behavior of unreasonable animals is characterized by the directivity and consistency. Biology has revealed the behavioral laws of animals. Why a man is defective even in comparison with animals?

Although sociologists and historians are in extremely intricate situation, biologists and their evolution undergo greater difficulties. It can be thought that the quantum physics, cosmology, and genetics problems are simpler. The negation of the reality and truth is an ordinary dogma, which is not substantiated but is the indulgence of the lack of knowledge and skill. However, if "there is no reality, but the language," and the unreal world around us is created by information, what is the subject of postmodernistic investigations? Is it possible that they investigate themselves?

Let us only imagine that houses and bridges, air crafts, and nuclear reactors are created on the basis of postmodernistic principles. Generally speaking, if postmodernists are collected on the separate territory and live according to their principles, the natural selection will rapidly lead to their extinction (God forbid, we do not wish it).

It is undoubted that constructive analysis is much better than postmodernistic intellectual groans and round dances of general phrases and abstruse terms. However, for this purpose, the pragmatic analysis laws must be determined and pragmatic theories must be developed.

The reliability and completeness of information are very important factors. Postmodernists correctly indicate modern "informational hazards." As was noted by Lyotard, information is not only gathered and analyzed but also concealed and distorted due to propagandistic reasons. Indeed, we drown in the sea of symbols, ceasing to designate anything. Rozak [19], pp. 34–36, asks whether the increasing volume of information leads to the higher informativity of citizens. Thus, there appear two problems: data obtainment and their rejection. Therefore, information must be complete and properly structurized.

In this case, we encounter some problems and cardinally new possibilities, which make it possible to say about "the information society." All archives are being successfully digitized. It seems probable that this process will be finished in the nearest future. Thereafter, all the materials of natural and humanitarian sciences will be generally available in the Internet. In this case, an end will be put to the absolutely vicious practice of rational minds to select somewhat important parts from data according to their hierarchy of values, arbitrary concealing or distorting other parts. Then, any researcher and "scientific institute" (according to Lyotard) will be able to validate the completeness and consistency of the database used to construct one or another concept, thereby checking the perfection of foundations.

Thus, each of us can validate the perfection of substantiations. In this case, the conception inferences must be confirmed by strict (error free and complete) *proofs*, which must be correspond to definite true theorem instead of general statements comprising round dances of general phrases sanctified by a popular expert, *ism*th, or a political order. In addition, it can be checked that the concept has no contradictions with the known facts. As a consequence, intellectual dreamers will not mislead an ordinary leader and themselves.

The correctly structurized scientific part of the Internet (together with public libraries) will be "the keeper of facts" the significance of which was highlighted by Webster, Phillips, and Moser [19], p. 254. Thus, it will be possible (by means of the power of thought) to enter into the epoch of the substantiated "theoretical knowledge" of new technologies and real pragmatics.

Knowledge applicable to the real pragmatics—purposeful human activity—is of special significance. From the pragmatic standpoint, there are good natural reasons to assume that knowledge is information capable of generating an action stimulating comprehension [27].

In practice, knowledge can be considered intellectual assets, which can provide and provides real dividends to companies: patents, copyrights, the knowledge and professional quantities of specialists, trademarks, a client base, the network of loyal providers and partners, the culture of innovation implementation, a corporative memory and databases, the quality of working procedures, etc. According to utilitarianism, this is an important factor and the challenging motif of an efficient and successful economical activity.

#### **14. Principles of professional knowledge**

The professional knowledge involves the following aspects:

Cognitive knowledge ("to know that"): the mastering of a basic discipline. Specialists attain a high level of skill due to intensive learning and certification.

Applied skill ("to know how"): "book learning" is transformed into efficient execution. The ability of employing the rules belonging to a definite discipline to solve existing complicated problems. This is most widespread professional level leading to the creation of valuable products.

System understanding ("to know why"): the deep understanding of the entire system of mutual relations and causes and effects underlying a definite discipline.

Personal motivation of creative work ("to want to know why") embraces will, motivation, and aiming for success.

Together with creation and maintenance of intellectual capital, it is necessary to abandon certain obsolete and inappropriate types of knowledge. Therefore, the problem concerning knowledge acquisition and management is posed. The knowledge management is the key component of scientific and industrial activities in the mordent society.

The knowledge management has two trends: efficiency, the use of knowledge to increase productivity by increasing the speed and decreasing expenses, and innovations intended to create new products and services, new enterprises, and new business processes.

According to the investigations of Liebowitz and Beckmann ([28], p. 76) the knowledge management can be divided into eight stages.

From the tactical standpoint, a knowledge management process is accepted to divide into four stages: information gathering (acquisition), application, learning, and dissemination. The basic problem is the development of system indices used to estimate the advantages of investments in a knowledge base. Practical recommendations and the structurization and systematization processes of knowledge management are discussed in Bukowitz and Williams [29].

**25**

*Cognitive Psychology and Modern Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82408*

**15. Trends to competence approach**

by Hutmacher in [31].

inadmissible.

**16. Conclusions**

*and Margarita*, Ch. 3.)

Since the data exchange speed and the technological innovation rate have increased, it is necessary to update the traditional educational system. In the knowledge and human resource management and professional technical education and training, the dominant position is occupied by the competence approach, which integrates education and training into practice (e.g., see [30]) and involves both a competence and a functional competency, that is, the capability of demonstrating its competence.

The competence approach as a whole comprises three trends. In the *behavioral approach* (an American tradition), the main attention is devoted to a high motivation and an efficient operation during the interaction of a man and an environment. The *functional approach* (a British tradition) is based on the functional competency in which knowledge, comprehension, and skills are employed according to the specified standards, including the problem solution and compliance with varying requirements. The *multidimensional and holistic approach* (France, Germany, and Great Britain) deals with knowledge, skills, and comprehension (action), which are selected as the constituents of the structurally complicated competence model. Competences are accepted to classify into three directions: cognitive, social, and personal competences. The Council of Europe has defined five groups of major social competences, which "must be attributed to young Europeans," as is reported

However, in parallel with utilitarian and practical problems, which can be regarded as technological problems, an equivalent attention must be devoted to the following principal issues: How the reliable scientific knowledge is selected among the pragmatic knowledge; what is the necessary tool in "distinguishing between truth and conspicuity" (Kant), and how knowledge is transformed into scientific theories. Semantic information structurization is an obligatory initial stage, which precedes the semantic knowledge transformation into a scientific theory. The selection problems concerned with the rapidly increasing flow of new data require the cardinal reconstruction of the Internet, i.e., its division into free and professional parts. The free part is restricted only by legal requirements. The professional part must involve portals, the number of which can be increased according to expert council decisions. The existing situation, in which much time is spent to find desired data (their reliability is unknown) among garbage collections, is

At present, the amount of technical instruments is high enough (much greater than in the previous century) to implement adequate observations and measurements of the humanitarian world. In addition, it is interesting to know the correlation between the reality and the postmodernistic world, where "nothing can be true and authentic because everything is falsified." ("It is very interesting that you have no things I requested from you," was said by Voland in the Bulgakov's novel *Master* 

How important is the question about the world in which politicians, economists, and intellectuals play political linguistic games without our participation. Is it good that the life and philosophy begin and end by linguistic games? Probably, there is a need to change existing guidelines and target designations compelling us to live in the world where proportions between an external form and the content (thought)

Since the data exchange speed and the technological innovation rate have increased, it is necessary to update the traditional educational system. In the knowledge and human resource management and professional technical education and training, the dominant position is occupied by the competence approach, which integrates education and training into practice (e.g., see [30]) and involves both a competence and a functional competency, that is, the capability of demonstrating its competence.

#### **15. Trends to competence approach**

The competence approach as a whole comprises three trends. In the *behavioral approach* (an American tradition), the main attention is devoted to a high motivation and an efficient operation during the interaction of a man and an environment. The *functional approach* (a British tradition) is based on the functional competency in which knowledge, comprehension, and skills are employed according to the specified standards, including the problem solution and compliance with varying requirements. The *multidimensional and holistic approach* (France, Germany, and Great Britain) deals with knowledge, skills, and comprehension (action), which are selected as the constituents of the structurally complicated competence model.

Competences are accepted to classify into three directions: cognitive, social, and personal competences. The Council of Europe has defined five groups of major social competences, which "must be attributed to young Europeans," as is reported by Hutmacher in [31].

However, in parallel with utilitarian and practical problems, which can be regarded as technological problems, an equivalent attention must be devoted to the following principal issues: How the reliable scientific knowledge is selected among the pragmatic knowledge; what is the necessary tool in "distinguishing between truth and conspicuity" (Kant), and how knowledge is transformed into scientific theories.

Semantic information structurization is an obligatory initial stage, which precedes the semantic knowledge transformation into a scientific theory. The selection problems concerned with the rapidly increasing flow of new data require the cardinal reconstruction of the Internet, i.e., its division into free and professional parts. The free part is restricted only by legal requirements. The professional part must involve portals, the number of which can be increased according to expert council decisions. The existing situation, in which much time is spent to find desired data (their reliability is unknown) among garbage collections, is inadmissible.

#### **16. Conclusions**

At present, the amount of technical instruments is high enough (much greater than in the previous century) to implement adequate observations and measurements of the humanitarian world. In addition, it is interesting to know the correlation between the reality and the postmodernistic world, where "nothing can be true and authentic because everything is falsified." ("It is very interesting that you have no things I requested from you," was said by Voland in the Bulgakov's novel *Master and Margarita*, Ch. 3.)

How important is the question about the world in which politicians, economists, and intellectuals play political linguistic games without our participation. Is it good that the life and philosophy begin and end by linguistic games? Probably, there is a need to change existing guidelines and target designations compelling us to live in the world where proportions between an external form and the content (thought)

are violated. Must we adore the newest technologies? Can we become wiser after the obtainment of a new electronic device?

What must determine pragmatic plans, decisions, and human actions? In the biological sense, the efficient behavior is the result of multicentury evolution and millions of tests and errors. In the social, political, and economical senses, a humanitarian community cannot allow such expanses. How pragmatic theories are created? What underlies their grounds? What is the pragmatic analysis procedure? What inferences can be regarded as reliable? In addition, there is a need to ascertain whether scientific investigations and strategic plans are prophecies or something like "ku ka re ku" in the postmodernistic style.

To what degree the scientifically established laws of the physical world can be assumed to be hypothetical? Is it successful that a cognitive scheme is classified as the "hypothetical realism" (Lorenz, D. Campbell, and G. Vollmer)? Is it possible to assert that "each hypothesis is an intuitive guesswork"? Is it true that D.I. Mendeleev fell asleep and the periodic system of elements was his intuitive guesswork in a dream?

Another important problem is related to the a priori forms of cognition. The existence of congenital instincts seems to be proven. Are there innate concepts and hypothesis? It may be that cognition is a simple remembering of them. However, great Hellenes did not know about basic arithmetical symbols—modern Indian numbers and the radix notation. Moreover, they have no fundamental concepts about motion of celestial bodies. The "congenital concept" of an irrational segment appeared many years ago and led to the revolution in ancient mathematics. At the same time, the "congenital concept" of an irrational number was not created by Newton, Leibniz, and Euler. The fundamental concept of space (more exactly, spaces) was not formulated even by Kant and Hegel. The "congenital concepts" of mathematical logic were born only at the end of the twentieth century. Note that many "con genital physical concepts" have not been created up to the twentieth century. Thus, the problem under consideration remains unexplained.

The aforesaid is important to determine the correct technique if pragmatic analysis, the variant of which has been proposed in Refs. [32, 33] and called conceptual analysis.

Vollmer was emphasized that scientific knowledge is based on observations and experiments. He correctly assumes that its attributes are critical analysis of information, the formulation and checkout of hypothesis, and the use of cognitive models and deductive conclusions. However, an especially significant aspect of pragmatic scientific knowledge is the construction of pragmatic theories. The architectonics of pragmatic theories, analysis of philosophy, and the results of analytical history will be discussed in the subsequent study.

#### **Author details**

Oleg Evgenevich Baksansky Lebedev Physical Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia

\*Address all correspondence to: obucks@mail.ru

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**27**

[in Russian]

*Cognitive Psychology and Modern Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82408*

[1] Aristotel S. Works in 4 Vol. Moscow: Mysl'; 1976. pp. 75-76. [in Russian]

[12] Gibson JJ. The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception. Boston: Houghton Mifflin; 1979 (Moscow: Progress; 1988)

[13] Schiffman HR. Sensation and Perception. An Integrated Approach. New York: Wiley and Sons; 2001 (St. Petersburg: Piter; 2003)

[14] Simon H. The Sciences of the Artificial. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; 1969 (Moscow: Editorial URSS; 2004)

[15] Kuznetsov NA, Baksanskii OE, Grech ishkina NA. Modeling of intellectual activities: touch input in cognitive system. Russian Journal Informatsionnye Protsessy.

[16] Bandler R, Grinder J. The Structure of Magic: A Book about Language and Therapy. Palo Alto, CA: Science and Behavior Books; 1975 (Moscow: Al'yans;

[17] Kuznetsov NA, Baksanskii OE, Grech ishkina NA. Fundamental importance of informatics in contemporary scientific picture of world. Russian Journal Informatsionnye

[18] Castells M. The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture. Oxford: Blackwell; 1996 (Moscow: GU-VShE;

Information Society. London: Routledge; 1995 (Moscow: Aspekt Press; 2004)

[20] Porat MU. Communication policy in an information society. In: Robinson GO, editor. Communications for Tomorrow. New York: Praeger; 1978.

[21] Lyotard JF. The Postmodern Condition, A Report on Knowledge. Manchester: Manchester Univ. Press; 1984 (St. Petersburg: Aleteja; 1998)

[19] Webster F. Theories of the

Protsessy. 2006;**7**:81-109

2007;**7**:432-474

2001)

2000)

pp. 3-60

[2] Kuznetsov NA. Information interaction in techno logical living systems. Russian Journal Informatsionnye Protsessy. 2001;**1**:1-9

**References**

[3] Lektorskii VA. Epistemology Classical and Not Classical. Moscow: Editorial URSS; 2009 [in Russian]

[5] Kuznetsov NA, Baksanskii OE, Grech ishkina NA. Origin of knowledge: Backgrounds and foundations. Russian Journal Informatsionnye Protsessy.

[6] Maturana HR, Varela FH. Tree of Knowledge. Biological Roots of Human Understanding. Boston: Shambhala; 1987 (Moscow: Progress Traditsiya;

[7] Lorenz K. Die Ruckseite des

[8] Martin NFG, England JW. Mathematical The ory of Entropy. Reading: Addison Wesley; 1981

[9] Barr Hillel Y, Carnap R. Semantic information. British Journal for the Philosophy of Science. 1953;**4**(4):7

[10] Bloch M. Apologie pour l'histoire ou Metier d'historien. Paris: Armand Colin;

[11] Bakhtin MM. Aesthetics of Verbal Creation. Moscow: Iskusstvo; 1979

(Moscow: Mir; 1988)

1949 (Moscow: Mir; 1986)

Spiegels: Versuch einer Naturgeschichte menschlichen Erkennens. Munchen: Piper; 1973 (Moscow: Respublika; 1998)

2007;**7**(1):72-92

1999) [in Russian]

[4] Vollmer G. Evolutionare Erkenntnistheorie: Angeborene Erkenntnisstrukturen im Kontext von Biologie, Psychologie, Linguistik, Philosophie und Wissenschaftstheorie. Stuttgart: Hirzel; 1981 (Moskow, 1998)

### **References**

[1] Aristotel S. Works in 4 Vol. Moscow: Mysl'; 1976. pp. 75-76. [in Russian]

[2] Kuznetsov NA. Information interaction in techno logical living systems. Russian Journal Informatsionnye Protsessy. 2001;**1**:1-9

[3] Lektorskii VA. Epistemology Classical and Not Classical. Moscow: Editorial URSS; 2009 [in Russian]

[4] Vollmer G. Evolutionare Erkenntnistheorie: Angeborene Erkenntnisstrukturen im Kontext von Biologie, Psychologie, Linguistik, Philosophie und Wissenschaftstheorie. Stuttgart: Hirzel; 1981 (Moskow, 1998)

[5] Kuznetsov NA, Baksanskii OE, Grech ishkina NA. Origin of knowledge: Backgrounds and foundations. Russian Journal Informatsionnye Protsessy. 2007;**7**(1):72-92

[6] Maturana HR, Varela FH. Tree of Knowledge. Biological Roots of Human Understanding. Boston: Shambhala; 1987 (Moscow: Progress Traditsiya; 1999) [in Russian]

[7] Lorenz K. Die Ruckseite des Spiegels: Versuch einer Naturgeschichte menschlichen Erkennens. Munchen: Piper; 1973 (Moscow: Respublika; 1998)

[8] Martin NFG, England JW. Mathematical The ory of Entropy. Reading: Addison Wesley; 1981 (Moscow: Mir; 1988)

[9] Barr Hillel Y, Carnap R. Semantic information. British Journal for the Philosophy of Science. 1953;**4**(4):7

[10] Bloch M. Apologie pour l'histoire ou Metier d'historien. Paris: Armand Colin; 1949 (Moscow: Mir; 1986)

[11] Bakhtin MM. Aesthetics of Verbal Creation. Moscow: Iskusstvo; 1979 [in Russian]

[12] Gibson JJ. The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception. Boston: Houghton Mifflin; 1979 (Moscow: Progress; 1988)

[13] Schiffman HR. Sensation and Perception. An Integrated Approach. New York: Wiley and Sons; 2001 (St. Petersburg: Piter; 2003)

[14] Simon H. The Sciences of the Artificial. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; 1969 (Moscow: Editorial URSS; 2004)

[15] Kuznetsov NA, Baksanskii OE, Grech ishkina NA. Modeling of intellectual activities: touch input in cognitive system. Russian Journal Informatsionnye Protsessy. 2007;**7**:432-474

[16] Bandler R, Grinder J. The Structure of Magic: A Book about Language and Therapy. Palo Alto, CA: Science and Behavior Books; 1975 (Moscow: Al'yans; 2001)

[17] Kuznetsov NA, Baksanskii OE, Grech ishkina NA. Fundamental importance of informatics in contemporary scientific picture of world. Russian Journal Informatsionnye Protsessy. 2006;**7**:81-109

[18] Castells M. The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture. Oxford: Blackwell; 1996 (Moscow: GU-VShE; 2000)

[19] Webster F. Theories of the Information Society. London: Routledge; 1995 (Moscow: Aspekt Press; 2004)

[20] Porat MU. Communication policy in an information society. In: Robinson GO, editor. Communications for Tomorrow. New York: Praeger; 1978. pp. 3-60

[21] Lyotard JF. The Postmodern Condition, A Report on Knowledge. Manchester: Manchester Univ. Press; 1984 (St. Petersburg: Aleteja; 1998)

[22] Kanaeva NA. Problem of Terminal Knowledge in India. Moscow: Vost. Literatua; 2002

[23] Jech TJ. Lectures in Set Theory, with Particular Emphasis on the Method of Forcing. Berlin: Springer Verlag; 1971 (Moscow: Mir; 1973)

[24] Hegel GWF. Die Wissenschaft der Logik. Nurnberg; 1812-1813 Moscow: MSU; 1970

[25] Kant I. Versuch den Begriff der negativen Gröossen in der Weltweisheit einzufuhren. Köonigsberg: Johann Jacob Kanter; 1763 (AK II, 165-204)

[26] Kant I. Attempt to introduce the concept of negative magnitudes into philosophy. In: Collected Works in 8 Vols. Vol. 2. Moscow: Mysl'; 1993-1996. [in Russian]

[27] Lyotard JF. The Difference: Phases in Dispute. Manchester: Manchester Univ. Press; 1988

[28] Rumizen MC. The Complete Idiot's Guide to Knowl edge Management. Indianapolis, IN: Alpha; 2002 (AST, Moscow, 2004). Available from: www. koism.rags.ru/publ/articles/26.php

[29] Bukowitz W, Williams R. Knowledge Management Fieldbook. Old Tappan, NJ: Prentice Hall; 1999 (Moscow: Infra; 2002)

[30] Raven J, Stephenson J, editors. Competence in the Learning Society. New York: Peter Lang; 2001 (Moscow: Kogito Tsentr; 2002)

[31] Hutmacher W. Key competencies for Europe. In: Report of the Symposium Berne, Switzerland, Mar 27-30, 1996. Strasburg: Council for Cultural Co operation (CDCC)/Secondary Education for Europe; 1997

[32] Zholkov CY. Available from: http:// www.gubkin.ru/personal\_sites/

[33] Zholkov SY. On laws of society and history I. Alma Mater–Vestnil Vysshei Shkoly. 2010;**2**:16-26

**29**

**Chapter 3**

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

The Role of Self-Efficacy and

Forming Prosocial Behaviour

and empirical psychological intervention needs to be administered.

**Keywords:** prosocial, behaviour, self-efficacy, religion, community

Self-efficacy is a trait where one can make a sound judgement about his or her own decision. An individual who trusts him or herself is considered of having good self-efficacy. Therefore, self-efficacy is a crucial factor in creating a harmonious society through the demonstration of ethical behaviour. Bandura [1] argues that an individual who possesses a high level of self-efficacy can achieve personal success as well as behave positively. On the contrary, a person with a low level of selfefficacy is less successful and less confident in achieving the goals set. According to Eisenberg et al. [2], the existence of the *perceived self-efficacy* as a factor in social learning cognitive is related to the *emphatic* efficacy perception, which is also related to prosocial behaviour. Thus, self-efficacy serves as a critical factor in how far a person can involve him or herself with the feedback from other people.

However, every person has a different personality trait. The diversity of human

personality becomes the determiners of prosocial behaviour. Penner et al. [3]

Cognitive Behaviour Therapy in

*Rosmawati Mohamad Rasit and Siti Zuhrah Che Ab Razab*

Prosocial value can be associated with the positive behaviours that are commonly practised in the socio-surrounding of a civilised community, for example, the action of helping, loving and developing empathy with each other. The formation of the prosocial behaviour also has a connection with one's self-efficacy. The individual's mastery of his or her self-efficacy can contribute to the differences in how he or she is behaving. All of the ethical values in every religion explain life as revolving around helping one another and living peacefully in society. The effort of helping based on the concerns towards other people could be the motivational factors that are closely related to the prosocial behaviour. Having positive personality traits and then backed with a sound religious belief ingrain the necessary moral compass that guides a person into behaving in ways that are considered society-friendly. Meanwhile, media roles depending on the content are capable of propagating decent values among the larger mass. Generally speaking, these factors are sufficient in educating and nurturing normal individuals to attain better selfefficacy. However, on an earnest ground considering individuals who suffer from a low level of self-efficacy, which resulted in antisocial behaviour, a more structured

#### **Chapter 3**

## The Role of Self-Efficacy and Cognitive Behaviour Therapy in Forming Prosocial Behaviour

*Rosmawati Mohamad Rasit and Siti Zuhrah Che Ab Razab*

#### **Abstract**

Prosocial value can be associated with the positive behaviours that are commonly practised in the socio-surrounding of a civilised community, for example, the action of helping, loving and developing empathy with each other. The formation of the prosocial behaviour also has a connection with one's self-efficacy. The individual's mastery of his or her self-efficacy can contribute to the differences in how he or she is behaving. All of the ethical values in every religion explain life as revolving around helping one another and living peacefully in society. The effort of helping based on the concerns towards other people could be the motivational factors that are closely related to the prosocial behaviour. Having positive personality traits and then backed with a sound religious belief ingrain the necessary moral compass that guides a person into behaving in ways that are considered society-friendly. Meanwhile, media roles depending on the content are capable of propagating decent values among the larger mass. Generally speaking, these factors are sufficient in educating and nurturing normal individuals to attain better selfefficacy. However, on an earnest ground considering individuals who suffer from a low level of self-efficacy, which resulted in antisocial behaviour, a more structured and empirical psychological intervention needs to be administered.

**Keywords:** prosocial, behaviour, self-efficacy, religion, community

#### **1. Introduction**

Self-efficacy is a trait where one can make a sound judgement about his or her own decision. An individual who trusts him or herself is considered of having good self-efficacy. Therefore, self-efficacy is a crucial factor in creating a harmonious society through the demonstration of ethical behaviour. Bandura [1] argues that an individual who possesses a high level of self-efficacy can achieve personal success as well as behave positively. On the contrary, a person with a low level of selfefficacy is less successful and less confident in achieving the goals set. According to Eisenberg et al. [2], the existence of the *perceived self-efficacy* as a factor in social learning cognitive is related to the *emphatic* efficacy perception, which is also related to prosocial behaviour. Thus, self-efficacy serves as a critical factor in how far a person can involve him or herself with the feedback from other people.

However, every person has a different personality trait. The diversity of human personality becomes the determiners of prosocial behaviour. Penner et al. [3]

suggest that those who have a prosocial personality have more readiness to help others and are more emphatic. Based on a study by Penner et al. [3], the *Helpfulness* factor serves as the predictor that explains prosocial behaviour better than the *Other-oriented Empathy* factor. Penner et al. [3] argumentation involves *helping,* which has a strong link with self-efficacy than the environmental skills mastery. This link explains that someone who is consistently involved in prosocial behaviour does so because he or she is doing something for him or herself, not only because of his or her contributions to others.

Meanwhile, according to Norenzayan and Shariff [4], a society that practices a more religious life tends to behave more prosocially due to the understanding of the concept of God. The studies on the relationship between prosocial behaviour and religion explain about the religious influence on the prosocial value in a society such as simplifying a behaviour that can benefit others [4], teaching about compassion [5], volunteering to help as well as acting non-aggressively [6] when coming into contact with the daily routine.

According to NICE Guideline on Diagnosis, Assessment and Management of Harmful Drinking and Alcohol Dependence published by the British Psychological Society and the Royal College of Psychiatrists, NICE [7], psychological interventions consist of a broad spectrum that is subjected to the underpinning theoretical models. They are classified under several approaches such as behavioural, cognitive, psychodynamic, humanistic, systemic, motivational, disease, and social and environmental. In relation to nurturing higher level of self-efficacy among individuals who suffer from low-level self-efficacy so that they can behave more prosocially, cognitive behavioural therapy is considered as a two-in-one approach to address the issues based on the assumptions that cognition has a significant influence on humans' emotional and behavioural impediment [8]. This section centres on a brief discussion on psychological intervention, particularly cognitive behavioural therapy, which is one of the intervention approaches that are empirically supported and evidence-based to see convincing results [9].

#### **2. Self-efficacy**

Self-efficacy is a concept that can be linked to the extent of control that a person has over the situation in his or her life. A person with a high level of self-efficacy is someone who thinks positively, charismatic, courageous and persistence. Therefore, self-efficacy becomes a factor that leads to the behaviour of a person. Bandura [10] discusses the concept of self-efficacy, which also influences behaviour. Self-efficacy can be explained as a person's trust or judgement on the faculty and competence of his or herself to carry out actions to achieve specific goals set [1, 10–12].

In other words, self-efficacy is the inherent belief of the extent of the ability to act based on the faculty within oneself. Self-efficacy can influence a person's performance achievement [10] whether it is at a peak or otherwise. It means the level of self-efficacy is capable of influencing more excellent contribution to work performance compared to those with a low level of self-efficacy. This self-competence becomes a crucial factor in the cognitive, motivation and health aspect formation process [1]. The individuals who have a high level of self-efficacy exhibit characteristics of those among the successful and consistent in their strategic planning.

Therefore, we can see that individuals with high self-efficacy possess the determination and readiness to sacrifice for the benefit of others. They reason and can accept challenges with high determination. It is the opposite of individuals with low self-efficacy. They will avoid doing strenuous work and always see life challenges

**31**

*The Role of Self-Efficacy and Cognitive Behaviour Therapy in Forming Prosocial Behaviour*

as problems that haunt their lives. These individuals are incapable of accepting the burden, and in life, they often end up in despair. They are incapable of controlling themselves with negative thoughts and blame others for what has happened in their life. According to Bandura [1], the capability to master good cognitive and thinking

*Diagram of the representation of the differences between efficacy expectations and outcome expectations.* 

Bandura [1] differentiates between *efficacy expectations* and *outcome expectations* (**Figure 1**). Bandura [1] places self-efficacy as efficacy expectations. *Efficacy expectations* involve the perception towards the ability of the self in determining the expected actions. Meanwhile, *outcome expectations* serve as self-estimation regarding the behaviours performed that will result in specific outcomes. Through *efficacy expectations*, an individual is capable of evaluating an action performed whether it is good, bad, precise or otherwise. *Efficacy expectations* portray the ideal self-evaluation that can be achieved, whereas the *outcome expectations* achievement depends on an individual's endurance in ensuring that the wish is fulfilled [1]. This mean, an individual can have realistic *efficacy expectations*, which is hoped can be materialised; however, the *outcome expectation*s will become unrealistic if the hope

Therefore, an individual with high-efficacy expectations is confident in being able to carry out actions that are suitable for the situational demands. Meanwhile, the realistic outcome expectations that are aligned with the faculty of the self will cause the individual to work hard and is capable of achieving the goals set. Self-efficacy becomes the mediator that can determine individuals' behaviour, whereas the individuals play the role of controlling actions through self-control assessment. The self-control mechanism enables a person to set realistic *outcome expectations* that are aligned with their ability and faculty. Selfefficacy is closely linked to excellence in achieving good performance, which is assessed as cognitive determinants. Muhammad Awais [13] argues about selfefficacy that it is capable of providing the measurement regarding one's personality aspect that involves motivation and trust. Meanwhile, according to Eklund et al. [14], individuals who have a high level of self-efficacy have better prosocial

Helpfulness trait has become the practice of today's society. The need to offer help is not limited to those we know but also strangers. Similarly, the caring attitude towards other people's welfare in a sincere manner that hopes for nothing in return has become a social practice within societal life environment. These traits form a prosocial value that leads to prosocial behaviour. According to Hastings et al. [15], prosocial behaviour is a form of behaviour that is voluntarily performed in the attempt to benefit others. It is a response that is performed proactively and reactively towards other people's needs in the attempt to promote healthier social life. Therefore, volunteering activities should be nurtured as a society's responsibility

skills will enable the control of matters that can affect one's life.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81957*

**Figure 1.**

*Source: Bandura [1].*

is too high from the actual expected results.

value and are more popular.

**3. Prosocial behaviour**

*The Role of Self-Efficacy and Cognitive Behaviour Therapy in Forming Prosocial Behaviour DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81957*

#### **Figure 1.**

*Cognitive Behavioral Therapy - Theories and Applications*

his or her contributions to others.

contact with the daily routine.

**2. Self-efficacy**

strategic planning.

and evidence-based to see convincing results [9].

suggest that those who have a prosocial personality have more readiness to help others and are more emphatic. Based on a study by Penner et al. [3], the *Helpfulness* factor serves as the predictor that explains prosocial behaviour better than the *Other-oriented Empathy* factor. Penner et al. [3] argumentation involves *helping,* which has a strong link with self-efficacy than the environmental skills mastery. This link explains that someone who is consistently involved in prosocial behaviour does so because he or she is doing something for him or herself, not only because of

Meanwhile, according to Norenzayan and Shariff [4], a society that practices a more religious life tends to behave more prosocially due to the understanding of the concept of God. The studies on the relationship between prosocial behaviour and religion explain about the religious influence on the prosocial value in a society such as simplifying a behaviour that can benefit others [4], teaching about compassion [5], volunteering to help as well as acting non-aggressively [6] when coming into

According to NICE Guideline on Diagnosis, Assessment and Management of Harmful Drinking and Alcohol Dependence published by the British Psychological Society and the Royal College of Psychiatrists, NICE [7], psychological interventions consist of a broad spectrum that is subjected to the underpinning theoretical models. They are classified under several approaches such as behavioural, cognitive, psychodynamic, humanistic, systemic, motivational, disease, and social and environmental. In relation to nurturing higher level of self-efficacy among individuals who suffer from low-level self-efficacy so that they can behave more prosocially, cognitive behavioural therapy is considered as a two-in-one approach to address the issues based on the assumptions that cognition has a significant influence on humans' emotional and behavioural impediment [8]. This section centres on a brief discussion on psychological intervention, particularly cognitive behavioural therapy, which is one of the intervention approaches that are empirically supported

Self-efficacy is a concept that can be linked to the extent of control that a person has over the situation in his or her life. A person with a high level of self-efficacy is someone who thinks positively, charismatic, courageous and persistence. Therefore, self-efficacy becomes a factor that leads to the behaviour of a person. Bandura [10] discusses the concept of self-efficacy, which also influences behaviour. Self-efficacy can be explained as a person's trust or judgement on the faculty and competence of

In other words, self-efficacy is the inherent belief of the extent of the ability to act based on the faculty within oneself. Self-efficacy can influence a person's performance achievement [10] whether it is at a peak or otherwise. It means the level of self-efficacy is capable of influencing more excellent contribution to work performance compared to those with a low level of self-efficacy. This self-competence becomes a crucial factor in the cognitive, motivation and health aspect formation process [1]. The individuals who have a high level of self-efficacy exhibit characteristics of those among the successful and consistent in their

Therefore, we can see that individuals with high self-efficacy possess the determination and readiness to sacrifice for the benefit of others. They reason and can accept challenges with high determination. It is the opposite of individuals with low self-efficacy. They will avoid doing strenuous work and always see life challenges

his or herself to carry out actions to achieve specific goals set [1, 10–12].

**30**

*Diagram of the representation of the differences between efficacy expectations and outcome expectations. Source: Bandura [1].*

as problems that haunt their lives. These individuals are incapable of accepting the burden, and in life, they often end up in despair. They are incapable of controlling themselves with negative thoughts and blame others for what has happened in their life. According to Bandura [1], the capability to master good cognitive and thinking skills will enable the control of matters that can affect one's life.

Bandura [1] differentiates between *efficacy expectations* and *outcome expectations* (**Figure 1**). Bandura [1] places self-efficacy as efficacy expectations. *Efficacy expectations* involve the perception towards the ability of the self in determining the expected actions. Meanwhile, *outcome expectations* serve as self-estimation regarding the behaviours performed that will result in specific outcomes. Through *efficacy expectations*, an individual is capable of evaluating an action performed whether it is good, bad, precise or otherwise. *Efficacy expectations* portray the ideal self-evaluation that can be achieved, whereas the *outcome expectations* achievement depends on an individual's endurance in ensuring that the wish is fulfilled [1]. This mean, an individual can have realistic *efficacy expectations*, which is hoped can be materialised; however, the *outcome expectation*s will become unrealistic if the hope is too high from the actual expected results.

Therefore, an individual with high-efficacy expectations is confident in being able to carry out actions that are suitable for the situational demands. Meanwhile, the realistic outcome expectations that are aligned with the faculty of the self will cause the individual to work hard and is capable of achieving the goals set. Self-efficacy becomes the mediator that can determine individuals' behaviour, whereas the individuals play the role of controlling actions through self-control assessment. The self-control mechanism enables a person to set realistic *outcome expectations* that are aligned with their ability and faculty. Selfefficacy is closely linked to excellence in achieving good performance, which is assessed as cognitive determinants. Muhammad Awais [13] argues about selfefficacy that it is capable of providing the measurement regarding one's personality aspect that involves motivation and trust. Meanwhile, according to Eklund et al. [14], individuals who have a high level of self-efficacy have better prosocial value and are more popular.

#### **3. Prosocial behaviour**

Helpfulness trait has become the practice of today's society. The need to offer help is not limited to those we know but also strangers. Similarly, the caring attitude towards other people's welfare in a sincere manner that hopes for nothing in return has become a social practice within societal life environment. These traits form a prosocial value that leads to prosocial behaviour. According to Hastings et al. [15], prosocial behaviour is a form of behaviour that is voluntarily performed in the attempt to benefit others. It is a response that is performed proactively and reactively towards other people's needs in the attempt to promote healthier social life. Therefore, volunteering activities should be nurtured as a society's responsibility

towards a healthy and prosperous life. It can also encourage social responsibility in shaping prosocial attitude among the local community.

Prosocial behaviour is a positive behaviour that is the opposite of the antisocial behaviour as the negative behaviour. Prosocial behaviour relies on the belief that an individual is part of a local community in which they need mutual help, support and love for one another [16, 17]. Therefore, an individual who practices prosocial behaviour that the community encourages will feel the sense of acceptance from his or her community group. It is because humans prefer giving help to the members of their group compared to strangers. Thus, the cultural difference can also cause some of the individuals having less tendency towards helping and putting their trust in strangers.

As the consequences, collective culture exists, which leads to egocentrism within a society. An egocentric society cares less for those who are outside of their group. This condition causes the antisocial behaviour and reduces the tendency of prosocial behaviour in the society. Fiedler et al. [18] argue about this situation where cultural differences can influence prosocial behaviour. *In-group favouritism* sees groups that share a similar identity as more straightforward to be helped compared to the out-group. According to Carlo and Randall [19], prosocial behaviour has two central concepts, which are the readiness to help and altruism.

Similarly, prosocial behaviour introduced by Penner et al. [20] through the development of *Prosocial Personality Battery* (PSB) to discuss two fundamental factor structures; *Other-oriented Empathy* and *Helpfulness*. The first factor; *Other-oriented Empathy* explains the cognitive and affective domain through the dimension of *social responsibility*, *mutual moral reasoning*, *other-oriented reasoning*, *empathic concern* and also *perspective taking*. Meanwhile, the second factor; *Helpfulness* relates to behavioural tendency through self-reported altruism and personal distress [3, 20–22].

Among the key aspects that have become the essence of focus in the discussion regarding prosocial behaviour are the causes and motives behind the formation of prosocial behaviour. The questions that arose through the discussion by Baron et al. [16], among others, to look at the motives, about how far an individual is involved in helping the needy and the situational and personal factors that cause the exposure of prosocial behaviour to a person. A low level of empathy as well as prosocial behaviour is said to contribute to the rejection of prosocial behaviour [17]. This condition shows that prosocial behaviour is linked to the voluntary actions to help others.

At the same time, individuals who provide the helping awareness are those with a high level of empathy. The present emotional, personal and situational influences are among the pulling factors of the existence of prosocial behaviour. The readiness to help among individuals largely depends on the existence of emotional effects, which involved the empathy aspect. When an individual possesses empathy, he or she will place him or herself in other people's shoes. Other people's misfortunes become the encouragement to the readiness to help among them. The help is as an effort to share emotions.

However, according to Carlo and Randall [19], a crowd situational factor makes an individual to have less tendency to behave prosocially. This condition shows that the sense of responsibility and readiness to help will decrease when they assume that other people can help. Each one hopes that there will be someone else who will help and take the responsibility. In today's globalisation challenges, this situation commonly occurs, which creates pluralistic ignorance when the crowd sees things that are unrelated to them. For example, the circumstances and mishaps within a society like wars, murders, robberies, deaths and missing persons received a cold shoulder and ignored on the social media. It is even more so if the circumstances befall on strangers. This scenario also leads to the news posts and shares on the social media that are lacking in empathy. Therefore, we must encourage the society,

**33**

tion with their peers.

*The Role of Self-Efficacy and Cognitive Behaviour Therapy in Forming Prosocial Behaviour*

especially the Y generation to always behave prosocially in life. The dissemination of the caring and helpfulness culture within the identity of a society must be done especially concerning emergency circumstances. The society should be educated with awareness and with commitment in a good social environment to continue the

Prosocial development is also associated with behaviourism and social learning theory [2] founded by Albert Bandura and his colleagues. Eisenberg et al. [2] argue using the social learning theory by presenting *internal cognitive* process as the critical role in behaviour influence. Therefore, impersonation is a critical process to achieve the socialisation standard of an individual's moral behaviour. Meanwhile, altruism is closely related to prosocial behaviour that can be described as an essential motive by voluntarily helping others without expecting anything in return [16, 20]. Altruism supports the prosocial concept as a motivational drive to unselfish behaviour to help others with sincerity and honesty. Therefore, an altruistic attitude is an attitude that

From the aspect of readiness to help, the study of Carlo and Randall [19] states that compares to women, men are more fearless in offering help whether to those they know or strangers. The tendency to behave prosocially among men is higher from the aspect of exhibiting heroism, whereas women tend to help in the aspect of care, education and commitment. The arguments by Carlo and Randall [19] justify the different traits and characters between men and women. These gender differences produce different actions. Men tend to exhibit masculine actions such as daring to take the risk, being protective and having physical strength. On the contrary, women tend to exhibit more feminine actions such as loving and caring in giving a long-term commitment. Therefore, the gender differences resulted in

The studies on prosocial behaviour have also attracted the attention of the media scholars and researchers such as Gentile et al. [23], Wilson [24], Strasburger et al. [25] and Yates [26]. According to Wilson [23], if the media such as television and films expose children to the antisocial behaviours such as aggressiveness, then the same media should also be able to expose them to prosocial behaviour. Therefore, by giving instructions and controls especially to children regarding the choice of the media program, that should be able to help them become a more critical consumer towards the media content. It can encourage prosocial benefits from the time they spend in front of the television screen and other media devices such as films and the Internet. Based on the previous studies, there were many studies on prosocial behaviours that are linked to media roles [24–27]. However, the group of people that the researchers often choose to be the subjects linked to prosocial behaviours are children and adolescent [23–25, 28, 29]. According to Dumova [27] based on social cognitive theory, children who are exposed to prosocial models and educational media content are more influenced by such prosocial behaviour during the interac-

Strasburger et al. [25] state that researchers who are studying about prosocial learning through media often place the assumption where the media characters that portray traits such as kindness, mutual cooperation, responsible and unselfishness give the examples for children, especially for them to learn and imitate such behaviour. The study by Ostrov et al. [28] proves the existence of the link between media exposure and prosocial behaviour. In a longitudinal study conducted over 2 years, Ostrov et al. [28] examined the patterns and patents of change and development on the same sample that consisted of early kindergarten children, their parents and principals. Ostrov et al. [28] study on the media exposure role is seen as for whether contributing to aggression as well as prosocial behaviour. The study on television programs as an interactive model contributes to positive learning through prosocial

prioritises the interests of others without expecting rewards in return.

different prosocial behaviours between men and women.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81957*

prosocial behaviour.

#### *The Role of Self-Efficacy and Cognitive Behaviour Therapy in Forming Prosocial Behaviour DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81957*

especially the Y generation to always behave prosocially in life. The dissemination of the caring and helpfulness culture within the identity of a society must be done especially concerning emergency circumstances. The society should be educated with awareness and with commitment in a good social environment to continue the prosocial behaviour.

Prosocial development is also associated with behaviourism and social learning theory [2] founded by Albert Bandura and his colleagues. Eisenberg et al. [2] argue using the social learning theory by presenting *internal cognitive* process as the critical role in behaviour influence. Therefore, impersonation is a critical process to achieve the socialisation standard of an individual's moral behaviour. Meanwhile, altruism is closely related to prosocial behaviour that can be described as an essential motive by voluntarily helping others without expecting anything in return [16, 20]. Altruism supports the prosocial concept as a motivational drive to unselfish behaviour to help others with sincerity and honesty. Therefore, an altruistic attitude is an attitude that prioritises the interests of others without expecting rewards in return.

From the aspect of readiness to help, the study of Carlo and Randall [19] states that compares to women, men are more fearless in offering help whether to those they know or strangers. The tendency to behave prosocially among men is higher from the aspect of exhibiting heroism, whereas women tend to help in the aspect of care, education and commitment. The arguments by Carlo and Randall [19] justify the different traits and characters between men and women. These gender differences produce different actions. Men tend to exhibit masculine actions such as daring to take the risk, being protective and having physical strength. On the contrary, women tend to exhibit more feminine actions such as loving and caring in giving a long-term commitment. Therefore, the gender differences resulted in different prosocial behaviours between men and women.

The studies on prosocial behaviour have also attracted the attention of the media scholars and researchers such as Gentile et al. [23], Wilson [24], Strasburger et al. [25] and Yates [26]. According to Wilson [23], if the media such as television and films expose children to the antisocial behaviours such as aggressiveness, then the same media should also be able to expose them to prosocial behaviour. Therefore, by giving instructions and controls especially to children regarding the choice of the media program, that should be able to help them become a more critical consumer towards the media content. It can encourage prosocial benefits from the time they spend in front of the television screen and other media devices such as films and the Internet.

Based on the previous studies, there were many studies on prosocial behaviours that are linked to media roles [24–27]. However, the group of people that the researchers often choose to be the subjects linked to prosocial behaviours are children and adolescent [23–25, 28, 29]. According to Dumova [27] based on social cognitive theory, children who are exposed to prosocial models and educational media content are more influenced by such prosocial behaviour during the interaction with their peers.

Strasburger et al. [25] state that researchers who are studying about prosocial learning through media often place the assumption where the media characters that portray traits such as kindness, mutual cooperation, responsible and unselfishness give the examples for children, especially for them to learn and imitate such behaviour. The study by Ostrov et al. [28] proves the existence of the link between media exposure and prosocial behaviour. In a longitudinal study conducted over 2 years, Ostrov et al. [28] examined the patterns and patents of change and development on the same sample that consisted of early kindergarten children, their parents and principals.

Ostrov et al. [28] study on the media exposure role is seen as for whether contributing to aggression as well as prosocial behaviour. The study on television programs as an interactive model contributes to positive learning through prosocial

*Cognitive Behavioral Therapy - Theories and Applications*

shaping prosocial attitude among the local community.

central concepts, which are the readiness to help and altruism.

Similarly, prosocial behaviour introduced by Penner et al. [20] through the development of *Prosocial Personality Battery* (PSB) to discuss two fundamental factor structures; *Other-oriented Empathy* and *Helpfulness*. The first factor; *Other-oriented Empathy* explains the cognitive and affective domain through the dimension of *social responsibility*, *mutual moral reasoning*, *other-oriented reasoning*, *empathic concern* and also *perspective taking*. Meanwhile, the second factor; *Helpfulness* relates to behavioural tendency through self-reported altruism and personal distress [3, 20–22].

Among the key aspects that have become the essence of focus in the discussion regarding prosocial behaviour are the causes and motives behind the formation of prosocial behaviour. The questions that arose through the discussion by Baron et al. [16], among others, to look at the motives, about how far an individual is involved in helping the needy and the situational and personal factors that cause the exposure of prosocial behaviour to a person. A low level of empathy as well as prosocial behaviour is said to contribute to the rejection of prosocial behaviour [17]. This condition shows that prosocial behaviour is linked to the voluntary

At the same time, individuals who provide the helping awareness are those with a high level of empathy. The present emotional, personal and situational influences are among the pulling factors of the existence of prosocial behaviour. The readiness to help among individuals largely depends on the existence of emotional effects, which involved the empathy aspect. When an individual possesses empathy, he or she will place him or herself in other people's shoes. Other people's misfortunes become the encouragement to the readiness to help among them. The help is as an

However, according to Carlo and Randall [19], a crowd situational factor makes an individual to have less tendency to behave prosocially. This condition shows that the sense of responsibility and readiness to help will decrease when they assume that other people can help. Each one hopes that there will be someone else who will help and take the responsibility. In today's globalisation challenges, this situation commonly occurs, which creates pluralistic ignorance when the crowd sees things that are unrelated to them. For example, the circumstances and mishaps within a society like wars, murders, robberies, deaths and missing persons received a cold shoulder and ignored on the social media. It is even more so if the circumstances befall on strangers. This scenario also leads to the news posts and shares on the social media that are lacking in empathy. Therefore, we must encourage the society,

towards a healthy and prosperous life. It can also encourage social responsibility in

Prosocial behaviour is a positive behaviour that is the opposite of the antisocial behaviour as the negative behaviour. Prosocial behaviour relies on the belief that an individual is part of a local community in which they need mutual help, support and love for one another [16, 17]. Therefore, an individual who practices prosocial behaviour that the community encourages will feel the sense of acceptance from his or her community group. It is because humans prefer giving help to the members of their group compared to strangers. Thus, the cultural difference can also cause some of the individuals having less tendency towards helping and putting their trust in strangers. As the consequences, collective culture exists, which leads to egocentrism within a society. An egocentric society cares less for those who are outside of their group. This condition causes the antisocial behaviour and reduces the tendency of prosocial behaviour in the society. Fiedler et al. [18] argue about this situation where cultural differences can influence prosocial behaviour. *In-group favouritism* sees groups that share a similar identity as more straightforward to be helped compared to the out-group. According to Carlo and Randall [19], prosocial behaviour has two

**32**

actions to help others.

effort to share emotions.

behaviour [26, 27]. Similarly, the television drama acts as 'facilitator' in forming prosocial behaviour [30]. Hence, in addition to having a link and relationship with violence and aggression affecting the behaviour of the audience, the television should also play its role in exposing the audience to prosocial behaviour. It can give benefits to the audience and the society.

The study by Udornpim and Singhal [31] highlights a character in a Japanese soap opera named 'Oshin' as a media role model among its audience in Thailand. In the outcomes of the study, Udornpim and Singhal [31] found that 'Oshin' presents a character who has traits such as perseverance, strong-willed and think positively as well as a willingness to help her family members who need aids. In the study, Udornpim and Singhal [31] have discussed 23 prosocial values, which among those are tolerance, independence, responsibility, mutual helpfulness, caring, forgiveness, gratefulness, diligence, high aspiration and love. The 'Oshin' character becomes a positive role model for the audience and illustrates how they could learn about prosocial values through the drama. Wallbank's [32] study also highlights the media model 'Robin Hood' in the discussion on the comparison between the antisocial and prosocial behaviour.

Meanwhile, Muller and Donnerstein [29] conducted two experimental studies on prosocial behaviour by screening an arousal film form and by using *the excitation transfer model.* The study by Muller and Donnerstein [29] on the subjects consisting of college students (male) aims to see the outcomes either from the aspect of positive and neutral behaviour. The subjects watched either the arousing erotic film or the controlled film that does not have the arousing erotic elements. The findings show that the *arousal* film can increase the subjects' punitive behaviour. Whereas, the subjects who watched the film that is absent from the arousing erotic elements show a more positive attitude [29]. Meanwhile, the correlation studies conducted by Gentile et al. [23] show a positive association between prosocial behaviour with *prosocial gaming exposure*.

The formation of prosocial behaviour is also associated with self-efficacy of individuals involved. Individual domination over self-efficacy can contribute to the differences in how he or she behaves. Carlo et al. [33] study measures prosocial behaviour based on social cognitive theory through the role of self-efficacy to prove the characteristics of the adolescent respondents in showing prosocial behaviour.

Carlo et al. [33] study found that there were differences in the types of prosocial behaviour among early and middle adolescents. Whereas, through the *prosocial agency* [34], humans can act as agents who set goals and behave following their personal and standard values that have been outlined based on their capability. It shows the contribution of self-efficacy and values to prosocial behaviour as discussed by Caprara and Steca [35].

#### **4. Prosocial values and self-efficacy of religious society**

The religious doctrine can be understood as a belief in God or magical and divine power such as deities [36, 37]. Preston et al. [37] and Hardy and Carlo [5] link religion to values and morals that exist within a society, while Saroglou et al. [6], as well as Norenzayan and Shariff [4], argue that religion is a part of a culture that set the values for people who practise religious life with prosocial standards. The definition of the concept of value depends on a few aspects, which originate from different fields such as political science, social sciences or religion. Whereas, Rokeach [38] sees the link between value with attitude and belief. The concept of value refers to the belief and attitude of an individual to translate it into a form of behaviour [38] whether the process produces something better or otherwise.

**35**

rence of everything.

*The Role of Self-Efficacy and Cognitive Behaviour Therapy in Forming Prosocial Behaviour*

Whereas, the value from the Islamic point of view sees the relationship with Allah as the path of life in deciding [39], which includes ethical (*akhlak*) values (behaviour, beliefs and religion) and morality [40]. The appropriateness of every decision is based on the lifetime value that centres on the Islamic shariah. Syed Muhammad Naquib [39] also associates the concept of value with civility (*adab)*.

Social and moral values are crucial as they are the root of well-being and harmony for a religious society. Noble values within a religion explain life that revolves around helping each other and living in peacefulness. Hence, religious prosociality values are in proximity with the noble values taught to a religious society [4]. There are studies on the prosocial behaviour that are viewed from the religious perspective, which becomes the catalyst for a high prosocial tendency within a society [4–6, 41]. Meanwhile, the study by Hardy and Carlo [5] proves that religiosity (the level of religious life) has a significant positive relationship with social behaviour predictor factors; kindness, compliant and altruistic values (prioritising other people's

However, according to Malhotra [41], the link between religion and behaviour is closely related to the context of religious norms, especially for Christians who consider Sunday as the day to meet God. Therefore, most Christians behave more prosocially when the behaviour is linked to religious norms through religious importance on specific days (religious salience). The factor of religious belief is the driving force for a society to behave prosocially. According to Batara et al. [42], a society where its religious value is high is more willing to help others. Whereas, Sasaki et al. [43] argue that individuals with high religious value are better in their prosocial behaviour. However, according to Sasaki et al. [43], the religious influence on prosocial behaviour differs regarding an individual's acceptance. Even though religious factors contribute to prosocial behaviour, but undeniably there are other

Prosocial behaviour is also aligned with the teachings of Islam that aim to encourage the society to practise noble values in life [44]. Islam as a religion that promotes peace and helpfulness accepts prosocial value as a decent value. It is because a religious society places a high emphasis on good religious values such as helpfulness, love and forgiveness. For Muslims, religion refers to Islam as *ad-deen* that can be explained as the submission to Allah as a way of life through the reinforcement of faith (*aqidah*) of the oneness of Allah, worships (*ibadah*), dealings

In the same way with self-efficacy as a personal belief that influences an individual to behave in a certain way. According to Sania and Amena [45], self-efficacy has a significant association with religious belief. It means individuals who have self-efficacy awareness will be able to control better the actions and situations they meet. In the context of a society that holds onto a religious belief, self-efficacy fulfils the personal needs of an individual who believes and trusts in his or her capability. This belief leads to the ability and the faculty of the individual in assuming the responsibilities given unto him or her. The success in carrying out the responsibilities leads to outstanding human characteristics. A successful being is a balanced person between the physical and internal aspects of the self, which include self-confidence, goodwill and humbleness as well as consistently positive about success. However, according to Noornajihan [46], self-efficacy from the Islamic perspective is unlimited to only the belief that exists within the individual's self but also associated with the relationship with the Almighty Creator. Every Muslim believes in the oneness and the power of Allah as the Almighty Creator in the occur-

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81957*

interests).

*Adab* in Islam centres on ethics, norms and morality.

factors in the development of prosocial behaviour.

(*muamalah*) and Islamic ethics (*akhlaq*).

#### *The Role of Self-Efficacy and Cognitive Behaviour Therapy in Forming Prosocial Behaviour DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81957*

Whereas, the value from the Islamic point of view sees the relationship with Allah as the path of life in deciding [39], which includes ethical (*akhlak*) values (behaviour, beliefs and religion) and morality [40]. The appropriateness of every decision is based on the lifetime value that centres on the Islamic shariah. Syed Muhammad Naquib [39] also associates the concept of value with civility (*adab)*. *Adab* in Islam centres on ethics, norms and morality.

Social and moral values are crucial as they are the root of well-being and harmony for a religious society. Noble values within a religion explain life that revolves around helping each other and living in peacefulness. Hence, religious prosociality values are in proximity with the noble values taught to a religious society [4]. There are studies on the prosocial behaviour that are viewed from the religious perspective, which becomes the catalyst for a high prosocial tendency within a society [4–6, 41]. Meanwhile, the study by Hardy and Carlo [5] proves that religiosity (the level of religious life) has a significant positive relationship with social behaviour predictor factors; kindness, compliant and altruistic values (prioritising other people's interests).

However, according to Malhotra [41], the link between religion and behaviour is closely related to the context of religious norms, especially for Christians who consider Sunday as the day to meet God. Therefore, most Christians behave more prosocially when the behaviour is linked to religious norms through religious importance on specific days (religious salience). The factor of religious belief is the driving force for a society to behave prosocially. According to Batara et al. [42], a society where its religious value is high is more willing to help others. Whereas, Sasaki et al. [43] argue that individuals with high religious value are better in their prosocial behaviour. However, according to Sasaki et al. [43], the religious influence on prosocial behaviour differs regarding an individual's acceptance. Even though religious factors contribute to prosocial behaviour, but undeniably there are other factors in the development of prosocial behaviour.

Prosocial behaviour is also aligned with the teachings of Islam that aim to encourage the society to practise noble values in life [44]. Islam as a religion that promotes peace and helpfulness accepts prosocial value as a decent value. It is because a religious society places a high emphasis on good religious values such as helpfulness, love and forgiveness. For Muslims, religion refers to Islam as *ad-deen* that can be explained as the submission to Allah as a way of life through the reinforcement of faith (*aqidah*) of the oneness of Allah, worships (*ibadah*), dealings (*muamalah*) and Islamic ethics (*akhlaq*).

In the same way with self-efficacy as a personal belief that influences an individual to behave in a certain way. According to Sania and Amena [45], self-efficacy has a significant association with religious belief. It means individuals who have self-efficacy awareness will be able to control better the actions and situations they meet. In the context of a society that holds onto a religious belief, self-efficacy fulfils the personal needs of an individual who believes and trusts in his or her capability. This belief leads to the ability and the faculty of the individual in assuming the responsibilities given unto him or her. The success in carrying out the responsibilities leads to outstanding human characteristics. A successful being is a balanced person between the physical and internal aspects of the self, which include self-confidence, goodwill and humbleness as well as consistently positive about success. However, according to Noornajihan [46], self-efficacy from the Islamic perspective is unlimited to only the belief that exists within the individual's self but also associated with the relationship with the Almighty Creator. Every Muslim believes in the oneness and the power of Allah as the Almighty Creator in the occurrence of everything.

*Cognitive Behavioral Therapy - Theories and Applications*

benefits to the audience and the society.

antisocial and prosocial behaviour.

Caprara and Steca [35].

behaviour [26, 27]. Similarly, the television drama acts as 'facilitator' in forming prosocial behaviour [30]. Hence, in addition to having a link and relationship with violence and aggression affecting the behaviour of the audience, the television should also play its role in exposing the audience to prosocial behaviour. It can give

The study by Udornpim and Singhal [31] highlights a character in a Japanese soap opera named 'Oshin' as a media role model among its audience in Thailand. In the outcomes of the study, Udornpim and Singhal [31] found that 'Oshin' presents a character who has traits such as perseverance, strong-willed and think positively as well as a willingness to help her family members who need aids. In the study, Udornpim and Singhal [31] have discussed 23 prosocial values, which among those are tolerance, independence, responsibility, mutual helpfulness, caring, forgiveness, gratefulness, diligence, high aspiration and love. The 'Oshin' character becomes a positive role model for the audience and illustrates how they could learn about prosocial values through the drama. Wallbank's [32] study also highlights the media model 'Robin Hood' in the discussion on the comparison between the

Meanwhile, Muller and Donnerstein [29] conducted two experimental studies on prosocial behaviour by screening an arousal film form and by using *the excitation transfer model.* The study by Muller and Donnerstein [29] on the subjects consisting of college students (male) aims to see the outcomes either from the aspect of positive and neutral behaviour. The subjects watched either the arousing erotic film or the controlled film that does not have the arousing erotic elements. The findings show that the *arousal* film can increase the subjects' punitive behaviour. Whereas, the subjects who watched the film that is absent from the arousing erotic elements show a more positive attitude [29]. Meanwhile, the correlation studies conducted by Gentile et al. [23] show a positive association between prosocial behaviour with *prosocial gaming exposure*. The formation of prosocial behaviour is also associated with self-efficacy of individuals involved. Individual domination over self-efficacy can contribute to the differences in how he or she behaves. Carlo et al. [33] study measures prosocial behaviour based on social cognitive theory through the role of self-efficacy to prove the characteristics of the adolescent respondents in showing prosocial behaviour. Carlo et al. [33] study found that there were differences in the types of prosocial

behaviour among early and middle adolescents. Whereas, through the *prosocial agency* [34], humans can act as agents who set goals and behave following their personal and standard values that have been outlined based on their capability. It shows the contribution of self-efficacy and values to prosocial behaviour as discussed by

The religious doctrine can be understood as a belief in God or magical and divine power such as deities [36, 37]. Preston et al. [37] and Hardy and Carlo [5] link religion to values and morals that exist within a society, while Saroglou et al. [6], as well as Norenzayan and Shariff [4], argue that religion is a part of a culture that set the values for people who practise religious life with prosocial standards. The definition of the concept of value depends on a few aspects, which originate from different fields such as political science, social sciences or religion. Whereas, Rokeach [38] sees the link between value with attitude and belief. The concept of value refers to the belief and attitude of an individual to translate it into a form of behaviour [38] whether the process produces something better or otherwise.

**4. Prosocial values and self-efficacy of religious society**

**34**

#### **5. Cognitive behaviour therapy: a psychological intervention influencing the formation of prosocial behaviour**

Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is a universal expression that originated from the cognitive model of affective disorders, which comprises of many approaches that are based on the postulation that cognition significantly influences emotion and behavioural impediment, and it also offers a wide range of evidencebased cognitive and behavioural techniques and therapies [7, 8]. Moghaddam and Dawson [8] added that despite the general assumption that cognition controls emotion and behaviour, the approaches in CBT have different emphasis, to name a few such as level of analysis (for example, situation-based versus person-based), levels of cognition (for example, prompt thoughts versus underlying central viewpoints) and problem-specificity (for instance, trans-diagnostic versus disorder-specific). Therefore, CBT involves a concerted effort between clients and therapists using a shared configuration to attain the treatment targets [7].

This concerted effort is idiographic in nature as it centres on customised therapy approach that best fits the patients' individual's conditions and needs. The customised intervention is built based on case formulation. According to Persons [9], case formulation is an empirically supported therapy (EST) in providing psychological treatment that is evidence-based that allows flexibility in addressing the patients' unique needs and also functions as guidelines for therapists in the decision-making process, especially in clinical treatment. Persons [9] further explained that an all-inclusive case formulation logically and coherently binds all of the following elements, which are (1) description of patient's symptoms, disorders and problems, (2) suggestion of hypotheses regarding the mechanisms that cause the disorders and problems and (3) suggestion of the latest outcomes of the present disorders and problems as well as the roots of the mechanisms. In cognitive behavioural therapy, a therapist begins a case formulation by obtaining a diagnosis through the collection of assessment facts. He or she then structures the diagnosis into the individualised formulation of the case and uses it to facilitate the task of designing a therapeutic strategy. Patient's consent is necessary before the treatment begins, and once it starts, the formulation will serve as decision-making guidelines for the therapist. This collaborative treatment enables the therapist to collect critical data in observing the treatment progress. It also allows the therapist to make the necessary adjustment [9].

Negative social exchanges refer to the unwelcome and unsympathetic exchanges among members of a social network [47]. The examples of the negative social exchanges are neglect, rejection, insensitivity, interference and unwanted advice (Brooks and Dunkel Schetter, 2011; Newsom et al., 2005; Rook, 1998 in Silva et al., 2016 [47]). It is an ironic social exchange where members of a social network assume that they are behaving helpfully, but in the actual sense, they are not (Oku and Keith, 1998 in Silva et al., 2016 [47]). Research indicates that negative social exchange negatively influences health [47], therefore about self-efficacy and development of prosocial behaviour, the negative social exchange could pose a threat in promoting higher level self-efficacy among people with low of self-efficacy and behaving antisocially.

#### **6. Conclusions**

The concept of self-efficacy explains the attitude of individuals who believe in themselves. It becomes the catalyst for the rational cognitive process in shaping the behaviour of an individual. Hence, self-efficacy that is inherent

**37**

*The Role of Self-Efficacy and Cognitive Behaviour Therapy in Forming Prosocial Behaviour*

in each person can shape a reasonable and mature prosocial value in a society. If a society has a high self-efficacy, then the condition of the society to change to a better state is also high. There is, however, a challenge in having positiveminded individuals with high self-efficacy. In dealing with the reality of life, humans are often tested with different trials and tribulations whether they are personal, family, academic or workplace problems. People with good self-efficacy accept the trials and tribulations as a challenge. However, if an individual accepts the pitfalls negatively, then they will not put efforts to overcome them. Even more so, they will see the problems as difficulties that decrease their

Academic scholars often relate the relationship between the level of self-efficacy with positivism that contributes to the formation of individuals' prosocial behaviour. Individuals who have a decent self-efficacy level will see the world with utmost positivism. They can translate such positivism through the proper behaviour that is inherent in themselves. They have positive ways of thinking that project a fair view among those who are around them. Thus, the readiness to help and love for each

This condition is also associated with the role of religion that encourages its society to practice tolerance and kindness to others. A society that is educated with positive actions such as being helpful with one another, loving as well as having an emphatic soul, interacts easier within a peaceful and harmonious atmosphere. A society that has a prosocial personality tends to behave positively more easily. Therefore, the efforts to help based on the concern towards other people become the motivational factor that is closely associated with prosocial behaviour. Prosocial behaviour is a positive behaviour that can contribute towards better societal change. A decent societal community is those who are complementing each other, living peacefully without disagreement as well as respecting different views among them. All the religions in this world promote peace and safety, which supports prosocial value. The attitudes such as helpfulness, respect and love are the requisite of religious society that leads towards the reinforcement of prosocial behaviour through

Thus, having the data of patient's negative social exchanges at the start of the treatment allows a therapist to customise the intervention through the formation of a precise and unique psychological intervention that is sensitive towards the patient's most fragile areas and the ones that need to be addressed promptly. This idiographic customisation allows a better understanding of the kind of negative social exchanges that could hinder the attainment of a higher level of self-efficacy. The recognition will help the therapist to strategically facilitate the alteration of the patient's thought process into becoming more harmonious, which resulted in better self-efficacy level that later helps an individual behaves

This research was funded by Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) through

I have no conflict of interest and yes I have read and understood the guidelines

other exists as the essential elements in prosocial behaviour.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81957*

motivation.

self-efficacy.

more prosocially.

**Acknowledgements**

**Conflict of interest**

on copyright.

Research Grant University (GUP-2018-011).

#### *The Role of Self-Efficacy and Cognitive Behaviour Therapy in Forming Prosocial Behaviour DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81957*

in each person can shape a reasonable and mature prosocial value in a society. If a society has a high self-efficacy, then the condition of the society to change to a better state is also high. There is, however, a challenge in having positiveminded individuals with high self-efficacy. In dealing with the reality of life, humans are often tested with different trials and tribulations whether they are personal, family, academic or workplace problems. People with good self-efficacy accept the trials and tribulations as a challenge. However, if an individual accepts the pitfalls negatively, then they will not put efforts to overcome them. Even more so, they will see the problems as difficulties that decrease their motivation.

Academic scholars often relate the relationship between the level of self-efficacy with positivism that contributes to the formation of individuals' prosocial behaviour. Individuals who have a decent self-efficacy level will see the world with utmost positivism. They can translate such positivism through the proper behaviour that is inherent in themselves. They have positive ways of thinking that project a fair view among those who are around them. Thus, the readiness to help and love for each other exists as the essential elements in prosocial behaviour.

This condition is also associated with the role of religion that encourages its society to practice tolerance and kindness to others. A society that is educated with positive actions such as being helpful with one another, loving as well as having an emphatic soul, interacts easier within a peaceful and harmonious atmosphere. A society that has a prosocial personality tends to behave positively more easily. Therefore, the efforts to help based on the concern towards other people become the motivational factor that is closely associated with prosocial behaviour. Prosocial behaviour is a positive behaviour that can contribute towards better societal change. A decent societal community is those who are complementing each other, living peacefully without disagreement as well as respecting different views among them. All the religions in this world promote peace and safety, which supports prosocial value. The attitudes such as helpfulness, respect and love are the requisite of religious society that leads towards the reinforcement of prosocial behaviour through self-efficacy.

Thus, having the data of patient's negative social exchanges at the start of the treatment allows a therapist to customise the intervention through the formation of a precise and unique psychological intervention that is sensitive towards the patient's most fragile areas and the ones that need to be addressed promptly. This idiographic customisation allows a better understanding of the kind of negative social exchanges that could hinder the attainment of a higher level of self-efficacy. The recognition will help the therapist to strategically facilitate the alteration of the patient's thought process into becoming more harmonious, which resulted in better self-efficacy level that later helps an individual behaves more prosocially.

#### **Acknowledgements**

This research was funded by Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) through Research Grant University (GUP-2018-011).

#### **Conflict of interest**

I have no conflict of interest and yes I have read and understood the guidelines on copyright.

*Cognitive Behavioral Therapy - Theories and Applications*

**the formation of prosocial behaviour**

shared configuration to attain the treatment targets [7].

**5. Cognitive behaviour therapy: a psychological intervention influencing** 

This concerted effort is idiographic in nature as it centres on customised therapy approach that best fits the patients' individual's conditions and needs. The customised intervention is built based on case formulation. According to Persons [9], case formulation is an empirically supported therapy (EST) in providing psychological treatment that is evidence-based that allows flexibility in addressing the patients' unique needs and also functions as guidelines for therapists in the decision-making process, especially in clinical treatment. Persons [9] further explained that an all-inclusive case formulation logically and coherently binds all of the following elements, which are (1) description of patient's symptoms, disorders and problems, (2) suggestion of hypotheses regarding the mechanisms that cause the disorders and problems and (3) suggestion of the latest outcomes of the present disorders and problems as well as the roots of the mechanisms. In cognitive behavioural therapy, a therapist begins a case formulation by obtaining a diagnosis through the collection of assessment facts. He or she then structures the diagnosis into the individualised formulation of the case and uses it to facilitate the task of designing a therapeutic strategy. Patient's consent is necessary before the treatment begins, and once it starts, the formulation will serve as decision-making guidelines for the therapist. This collaborative treatment enables the therapist to collect critical data in observing the treatment progress. It also allows the therapist to make the neces-

Negative social exchanges refer to the unwelcome and unsympathetic exchanges

The concept of self-efficacy explains the attitude of individuals who believe

in themselves. It becomes the catalyst for the rational cognitive process in shaping the behaviour of an individual. Hence, self-efficacy that is inherent

among members of a social network [47]. The examples of the negative social exchanges are neglect, rejection, insensitivity, interference and unwanted advice (Brooks and Dunkel Schetter, 2011; Newsom et al., 2005; Rook, 1998 in Silva et al., 2016 [47]). It is an ironic social exchange where members of a social network assume that they are behaving helpfully, but in the actual sense, they are not (Oku and Keith, 1998 in Silva et al., 2016 [47]). Research indicates that negative social exchange negatively influences health [47], therefore about self-efficacy and development of prosocial behaviour, the negative social exchange could pose a threat in promoting higher level self-efficacy among people with low of self-efficacy and

Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is a universal expression that originated from the cognitive model of affective disorders, which comprises of many approaches that are based on the postulation that cognition significantly influences emotion and behavioural impediment, and it also offers a wide range of evidencebased cognitive and behavioural techniques and therapies [7, 8]. Moghaddam and Dawson [8] added that despite the general assumption that cognition controls emotion and behaviour, the approaches in CBT have different emphasis, to name a few such as level of analysis (for example, situation-based versus person-based), levels of cognition (for example, prompt thoughts versus underlying central viewpoints) and problem-specificity (for instance, trans-diagnostic versus disorder-specific). Therefore, CBT involves a concerted effort between clients and therapists using a

**36**

sary adjustment [9].

behaving antisocially.

**6. Conclusions**

*Cognitive Behavioral Therapy - Theories and Applications*

#### **Author details**

Rosmawati Mohamad Rasit\* and Siti Zuhrah Che Ab Razab Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

\*Address all correspondence to: rosmawati@ukm.edu.my

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**39**

*The Role of Self-Efficacy and Cognitive Behaviour Therapy in Forming Prosocial Behaviour*

[9] Persons JB. The Case Formulation Approach to Cognitive-Behavior Therapy. New York: Guilford

[10] Bandura A. Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall; 1986

Ramachaudran VS, editor. Encyclopedia of Human Behavior. Vol. 4. New York: Academic Press; 1994. pp. 71-81. Available from: http://www.des.emory.

[12] Bandura A. Social cognitive theory. In: Vasta R, editor. Annals of Child Development. Vol. 6. Greenwich, CT:

[13] Awais M, Qurat-ul-Ain. Relationship between self-efficacy a type personality and leader effectiveness. International Journal of Engineeering Research and

[11] Bandura A. Self-efficacy. In:

edu/mfp/BanEncy.html

JAI Press; 1989. pp. 1-60

Management. 2018;**5**(1):33-38

files/20.3.pdf

[14] Eklund J, Loeb C, Hansen EM, Anderson-Wallin AC. Who cares about others? Empathic self-efficacy as an antecedents to pro-social behaviour. Current Research in Social Psychology. 2012;**20**:31-41. Available from: https:// uiowa.edu/crisp/sites/uiowa.edu.crisp/

[15] Hastings PD, Utendale WT, Sullivan

Guilford Publications; 2007. pp. 638-661

[16] Baron RA, Branscombe NR, Byrne D. Social Psychology. 12th ed. USA:

C. The socialization of prososial development. In: Grusec JE, Hastings PD, editors. Handbook of Socialization:

Theory and Research. New York:

Pearson Education; 2009

[17] Twenge JM, Ciarocco NJ, Baumeister RF, Nathan DeWall C, Bartels JM. Social exclusion decreases

prosocial behavior. Journal of

Publications; 2008

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81957*

[1] Bandura A. Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychology Review. 1977;**84**(2):191-215

[2] Eisenberg N, Fabes RA, Spinrad Tracy L. Prosocial development. In: Damon W, Lerner RM, Eisenberg N, editors. Handbook of Child Psychology Social, Emotional dan Personality Development. 6th ed. New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons, Inc; 2006. pp. 646-718

[3] Penner LA, Dovidio JF, Piliavin JA, Schroeder DA. Prosocial behavior: Multilevel perspectives. Annual Review of Psychology. 2005;**56**(14):14.1-14.28

[4] Norenzayan A, Shariff AF. The origin and evolution of religious prosociality.

[5] Hardy SA, Carlo G. Religiosity and prosocial behaviours in adolescence: The mediating role of prosocial values. Journal of Moral Education.

[6] Saroglou V, Pichon I, Trompette L, Verschueren M, Dernelle R. Prosocial behavior and religion: New evidence based on projective measures and peer ratings. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. 2005;**44**(3):323-348

[7] National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health. Alcohol-Use Disorders: The NICE Guideline on Diagnosis, Assessment and Management of Harmful Drinking and Alcohol Dependence. British Psychological Society and The Royal College of Psychiatrists; 2011. 612 p. ISBN: 978-1-904671-26-8. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/

[8] Moghaddam, NG. and Dawson, DL. Cognitive-behavioural therapy. In: Formulation in Action: Applying Psychological Theory to Clinical

Practice. UK: De Gruyter; 2016. p. 35-39.

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*The Role of Self-Efficacy and Cognitive Behaviour Therapy in Forming Prosocial Behaviour DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81957*

#### **References**

*Cognitive Behavioral Therapy - Theories and Applications*

**38**

**Author details**

provided the original work is properly cited.

Rosmawati Mohamad Rasit\* and Siti Zuhrah Che Ab Razab Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

\*Address all correspondence to: rosmawati@ukm.edu.my

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

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[3] Penner LA, Dovidio JF, Piliavin JA, Schroeder DA. Prosocial behavior: Multilevel perspectives. Annual Review of Psychology. 2005;**56**(14):14.1-14.28

[4] Norenzayan A, Shariff AF. The origin and evolution of religious prosociality. Science. 2008;**322**(5898):58-62

[5] Hardy SA, Carlo G. Religiosity and prosocial behaviours in adolescence: The mediating role of prosocial values. Journal of Moral Education. 2005;**34**(2):231-249

[6] Saroglou V, Pichon I, Trompette L, Verschueren M, Dernelle R. Prosocial behavior and religion: New evidence based on projective measures and peer ratings. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. 2005;**44**(3):323-348

[7] National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health. Alcohol-Use Disorders: The NICE Guideline on Diagnosis, Assessment and Management of Harmful Drinking and Alcohol Dependence. British Psychological Society and The Royal College of Psychiatrists; 2011. 612 p. ISBN: 978-1-904671-26-8. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ books/n/nicecg115/pdf/

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[15] Hastings PD, Utendale WT, Sullivan C. The socialization of prososial development. In: Grusec JE, Hastings PD, editors. Handbook of Socialization: Theory and Research. New York: Guilford Publications; 2007. pp. 638-661

[16] Baron RA, Branscombe NR, Byrne D. Social Psychology. 12th ed. USA: Pearson Education; 2009

[17] Twenge JM, Ciarocco NJ, Baumeister RF, Nathan DeWall C, Bartels JM. Social exclusion decreases prosocial behavior. Journal of

Personality and Social Psychology. 2007;**92**(1):56-66

[18] Fiedler S, Hellman DM, Dorrough AR, Glockner A. Cross-national in-group favoritism in prosocial behavior: Evidence from Latin and North America. Judgment and Decision making. 2018;**13**(1):42060

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[23] Gentile DA, Anderson CA, Yukawa S, Ihori N, Saleem M, Ming LK, et al. The effects of prosocial video games on prosocial behaviors: International evidence from correlational, longitudinal and experimental studies. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2009;**35**(6):752-763

[24] Wilson BJ. Media and children's aggression, fear and altruism. Journal of Children and Media. 2008;**18**(1):87-118

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2th ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc; 2009. pp. 117- 144. Available from: http://people. oregonstate.edu/~flayb/MY%20 COURSES/H549%20Mass%20 Media%20and%20Health%20 %20Winter%202012/Readings/ Strasburger%20etal09%20Ch\_4%20 Prosocial%20effects%20of%20media. pdf

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2003;**23**(1):107-134

2007;**26**(2):218-239

2010;**4**(8):574-590

*The Role of Self-Efficacy and Cognitive Behaviour Therapy in Forming Prosocial Behaviour DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81957*

prosocial tendencies for adolescent. Journal of Early Adolescence. 2003;**23**(1):107-134

*Cognitive Behavioral Therapy - Theories and Applications*

2th ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc; 2009. pp. 117- 144. Available from: http://people. oregonstate.edu/~flayb/MY%20 COURSES/H549%20Mass%20 Media%20and%20Health%20 %20Winter%202012/Readings/ Strasburger%20etal09%20Ch\_4%20 Prosocial%20effects%20of%20media.

[26] Yates BL. Modeling strategies for prosocial television: A review. In: Kertas Kerja Dibentangkan di Open Paper Competition AEJMC Siutheast Colloqium; 4-6 Mac. Lexington,

[27] Dumova T. Prosocial learning. International Journal of Learning. 2006;**2**(9):183-194. Available from: http://www.learning-journal.com

[28] Ostrov JM, Gentile DA, Crick NR. Media exposure, aggression and prosocial behaviour during early childhood: A longitudinal study. Social

Development. 2006;**15**:612-627

Psychology. 1981;**17**:31-41

of prosocial behavior: "The Waltons". Journal of Broadcasting.

1979;**23**(3):277-284

1999;(21):3-21

[29] Muller CW, Donnerstein E. Filmfacilitated arousal and prosocial

[30] Baran SJ, Chase LJ, Courtright JA. Television drama as a facilitator

[31] Udornpim K, Singhal A. Oshin, a pro-social media role model, in Thailand. Keio Communication Review.

[32] Wallbank J. Antisocial and prosocial behavior among contemporary Robon hoods. Personality and Individual Differences. 1985;**6**(1):11-19

[33] Carlo G, Hausmann A, Christiansen S, Randall BA. Sociocognitive and behavioral correlates of a measure of

behavior. Journal of Experimental Social

pdf

Kentucky. 1999

Personality and Social Psychology.

[18] Fiedler S, Hellman DM, Dorrough AR, Glockner A. Cross-national in-group favoritism in prosocial behavior: Evidence from Latin and North America. Judgment and Decision

2007;**92**(1):56-66

2002;**31**(1):31-44

pp. 41-52

making. 2018;**13**(1):42060

[19] Carlo G, dan Randall BA. The development of a measure of prosocial

[20] Penner LA, Fritzsche BA, Craiger JP, Freifeld TR. Measuring the prosocial personality. In: Butcher J, Spielberger CD, editors. Advances in Personality Assessment. Vol. 10. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Erlbaum; 1995. pp. 147-164

[21] Gillath O, Karantzas G. Predicting prosocial personality from attachment facets: Are some facets more critical than others? In: Prosiding Generations of Relationships and Relationships accross Generations Conference. 2007.

[22] Finkelstein MA, Penner LA, Brannick MT. Motive, role identity and prosocial personality as predictors of volunteer activity. Social Behavior and Personality. 2005;**33**(4):403-418

evidence from correlational,

[23] Gentile DA, Anderson CA, Yukawa S, Ihori N, Saleem M, Ming LK, et al. The effects of prosocial video games on prosocial behaviors: International

longitudinal and experimental studies. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2009;**35**(6):752-763

[24] Wilson BJ. Media and children's aggression, fear and altruism. Journal of Children and Media. 2008;**18**(1):87-118

[25] Strasburger VC, Wilson BJ, Jordan AB. Prosocial effects of media. In: Children, Adolescents and the Media.

behaviors for late adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence.

**40**

[34] Bandura A. The evolution of social cognitive theory. In: Smith KG, Hitt MA, editors. Great Minds in Management. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2005. pp. 9-35. Available from: http://www. des.emory.edu/mfp/Bandura2005.pdf

[35] Caprara GV, Steca P. Prosocial agency: The contribution of values and self-efficacy beliefs to prosocial behavior across ages. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. 2007;**26**(2):218-239

[36] Macionis JJ, Plummer K. Sociology a Global Introduction. 3th ed. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited; 2005

[37] Preston JL, Ritter RS, Hernandez JI. Principles of religious prosociality: A review and reformulation. Social and Personality Psychology Compass. 2010;**4**(8):574-590

[38] Rokeach M. The Nature of Human Values. New York: The Free Press; 1973

[39] Syed Muhammad Naquib A. Prolegomena to the Metaphysics of Islam: An Exposition of the Fundamental Elements of the Worldview of Islam. Kuala Lumpur: International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization; 1995

[40] Sawai RP, Abdullah S, Baharudin DF, Ismail N. Penerapan nilai-nilai Islam melalui penggunaan media dalam pendidikan. In: Mustafa MZ, Rahim AM, Ahmad ZA, Ramle NA, editors. Representasi Islam dalam Media. Nilai: Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia; 2011. pp. 53-61

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Section 2

Psychological Applications

of CBT

### Section 2
