**8. Relationship between the consumption of wholegrain cereals and incidence of lifestyle-related diseases**

The incidence of diseases originating from the current lifestyle, such as cardiovascular diseases (CVD), certain types of cancer, and type II diabetes [54–62], is diminished by the consumption of whole grains [63, 65, 66]. Although importance is given to fibers in food, all the mechanisms responsible for this behavior are still not fully understood. Metabolomics was used for this study, which is a research that determines, in this case in plasma, the set of metabolites that is produced in the ingestion of a certain substance by means of instrumental analysis, for example, proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy 1 H NMR, chromatography, and mass spectrometry; these results are processed by means of a statistical analysis through software with the aim of understanding the endogenous biochemistry that is produced. When high-fat diets are consumed, apolipoprotein profiles of pigs are similar to humans, and these animals suffer atherosclerotic lesions similar to those that arise in humans [64]. Therefore, the pig is a suitable model to study the hypocholesterolemic effects of cereals. Barley and oats have been studied because of their high β-glucan content [60, 61, 67, 68]. However, there were no studies on whole meal rye breads; for this reason, using metabolomics as a tool, the positive effects of these breads were studied and compared with wheat breads in hypercholesterolemic pigs. The pigs were fed with rye-based (n = 9) or wheat (n = 8) bread with high-fat

**139**

*Fibers: Healthy Component in Whole Wheat and Rye Flours*

content and similar levels of dietary fiber for 9–10 weeks. Fasting plasma samples were collected 2 days before and after 8 and 12 days of consuming the experimental diets, while the postprandial samples were taken after 58–67 days, and the spectra

H NMR samples were made. The main component of the analysis (PCA)

H-NMR spectra of the plasma samples revealed a clear separation in the metabolite profiles of the plasma samples of the integral rye diet with respect to the samples of the diets of non-integral wheat both on day 8 and day 12 and at slaughter. In order to determine the differences in the metabolites of the two diets, a discriminant regression analysis by partial least squares (PLS-DA) was performed. On both day 8 and slaughter, an increase in the spectral intensities of the signals was observed at 3.29 ppm of the plasma samples of the animals that consumed rye compared with the samples of the animals that consumed the non-integral wheat, which is consistent with a chemical change for the different N(CH3)3 groups [64]. It has been demonstrated using liquid chromatography with LC-MS mass spectrometry detector that this response should be attributed to betaine [65]. We can affirm that the intake of a diet with high-fiber rye breads in hypercholesterolemic pigs increases betaine, which can be considered a biomarker because it is present in all the samples of the animals that consumed this diet with rye, which is not verified whether this biomarker can be used in a mixed diet [69, 70] since it has been shown that betaine is absorbed and increases in serum concentrations [72, 74]. Betaine acts as a methyl donor in the reaction of betaine-homocysteine methyltransferase that converts homocysteine into methionine [71, 73–76]. This is beneficial since plasma homocysteine is a risk factor for CVD [77, 78]; this property can be expected that betaine is involved in the prevention of CVD through this route. In addition, the concentration of plasma betaine is inverse to the amount of the following parameters, non-HDL serum cholesterol, triglycerides, and percentage of body fat, waist circumference, and systolic and diastolic blood pressure [79]. This study demonstrates a relationship between the intake of rye bread and the concentration of plasma betaine. Furthermore, in the analysis of the regressions, contributions of this diet to the chain of fatty acids linked to lipoproteins were observed; this behavior is not clear; however it could lead to an alteration in the composition [80]. Another study compared whether the postprandial glucose and insulin responses

to whole-grain rye bread are less than wheat bread, and these responses were observed in two different types of rye bread. Rye breads are based on wholemeal flour and are thus rich in dietary fiber (DF). The dietary fiber content of our rye is 15 ± 17%, arabinoxylans (8 ± 10%), beta-glucan (2 ± 3%), and cellulose (1 ± 3%) being the main chemical constituents [81, 82]. Mainly due to its high DF content, wholemeal rye bread may reduce the health risks associated with coronary heart disease [79] and colon, breast, and prostate cancer [83, 84]. Slowly digestible carbohydrates have been suggested to be nutritionally most desirable, improving metabolic variables not only in diabetes and hyperlipidemia but also in healthy subjects [82, 83]. Although the glycemic index (GI) is a criticized concept [84], it is a widely used method for classification of different foods according to their effect on postprandial glucose levels. It has been analyzed that the glucose and insulin responses of different rye breads and other rye products have been reported to be variably lower than those of wheat bread [85]. The lowest GI values (66–80) have been reported for pumpernickel-type breads containing intact kernels [86–89]. There is a consensus that intact botanical structure protects the encapsulated starch of the kernel against the hydrolysis [90, 91]. The amount of whole kernels in the bread has been concluded to be more effective in reducing the glucose and insulin responses than the high-fiber content as such [86–88, 92]. The GI of food is generally to increase by the heat processing. However, there is exception to this rule, that is, pasta manufacture and most pasta products having a GI value of 50 ± 70 [93]. Low temperature and

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83341*

of the 1

in the 1

#### *Fibers: Healthy Component in Whole Wheat and Rye Flours DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83341*

*Food Engineering*

30% lower than data from microbiological assays [46–48]. Furthermore, the sum of folate content was underestimated by lack of quantification of 5-HCO-H4 folate and 10-formyl-dihydrofolate. Other groups also reported difficulties in quantification of 5-HCO-H4 folate in cereal foods using HPLC [45–47]. Up to 40% 5-HCO-H4 folate was reported in untreated wheat and rye [45–48], and the content was not significantly affected by germination of rye [49]. Also 7–13% of 10-formyl-dihydrofolate was found in untreated and germinated rye cultivars by [49, 50], while [51] did not detect this form. This can partly explain the discrepancy between our results and data reported in the literature. The mean folate content in six rye and four wheat cultivars ranges from 23 to 39 mg/100 g DM, being approximately 25% higher in rye than in wheat. The folate content in both cereals by four- to sixfold increases in germination subsequent oven-drying, which is required for milling of germinated grains, does not affect the folate content. Germinated kernels and their flours are

ingredients with increased folate content for use in bakery products [52].

considered to be a significant contributor to the bitter note of rye [53].

**8. Relationship between the consumption of wholegrain cereals and** 

mass spectrometry; these results are processed by means of a statistical analysis through software with the aim of understanding the endogenous biochemistry that is produced. When high-fat diets are consumed, apolipoprotein profiles of pigs are similar to humans, and these animals suffer atherosclerotic lesions similar to those that arise in humans [64]. Therefore, the pig is a suitable model to study the hypocholesterolemic effects of cereals. Barley and oats have been studied because of their high β-glucan content [60, 61, 67, 68]. However, there were no studies on whole meal rye breads; for this reason, using metabolomics as a tool, the positive effects of these breads were studied and compared with wheat breads in hypercholesterolemic pigs. The pigs were fed with rye-based (n = 9) or wheat (n = 8) bread with high-fat

The incidence of diseases originating from the current lifestyle, such as cardiovascular diseases (CVD), certain types of cancer, and type II diabetes [54–62], is diminished by the consumption of whole grains [63, 65, 66]. Although importance is given to fibers in food, all the mechanisms responsible for this behavior are still not fully understood. Metabolomics was used for this study, which is a research that determines, in this case in plasma, the set of metabolites that is produced in the ingestion of a certain substance by means of instrumental analysis, for example,

H NMR, chromatography, and

The whole grain rye is beneficial for health. However it may be bitter. The impact of nonvolatile chemical compounds on the bitter taste of rye was analyzed by the aid of enzymatic hydrolysis, releasing potentially flavor-active compounds from the rye matrix. Water suspension of whole grain rye flour was treated with hydrolytic enzymes, after portions of the rye suspensions were baked into crackers and assessed for their sensory profile as well as solubilized hydrolysis products. Heat treatment reduced the perceived bitterness. The treatment with enzyme preparation with high protease activity increased the bitterness of rye and also wheat flour both as suspension and as crackers. Other enzymes tested (with high polygalacturonase, endo-glucanase, xylanase, or amyloglucosidase activity) had no significant impact on the perceived bitterness. Thus, small molecular weight peptides were

**7. Prevent the bitterness of whole grain flour**

**incidence of lifestyle-related diseases**

proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy 1

**138**

content and similar levels of dietary fiber for 9–10 weeks. Fasting plasma samples were collected 2 days before and after 8 and 12 days of consuming the experimental diets, while the postprandial samples were taken after 58–67 days, and the spectra of the 1 H NMR samples were made. The main component of the analysis (PCA) in the 1 H-NMR spectra of the plasma samples revealed a clear separation in the metabolite profiles of the plasma samples of the integral rye diet with respect to the samples of the diets of non-integral wheat both on day 8 and day 12 and at slaughter. In order to determine the differences in the metabolites of the two diets, a discriminant regression analysis by partial least squares (PLS-DA) was performed. On both day 8 and slaughter, an increase in the spectral intensities of the signals was observed at 3.29 ppm of the plasma samples of the animals that consumed rye compared with the samples of the animals that consumed the non-integral wheat, which is consistent with a chemical change for the different N(CH3)3 groups [64]. It has been demonstrated using liquid chromatography with LC-MS mass spectrometry detector that this response should be attributed to betaine [65]. We can affirm that the intake of a diet with high-fiber rye breads in hypercholesterolemic pigs increases betaine, which can be considered a biomarker because it is present in all the samples of the animals that consumed this diet with rye, which is not verified whether this biomarker can be used in a mixed diet [69, 70] since it has been shown that betaine is absorbed and increases in serum concentrations [72, 74]. Betaine acts as a methyl donor in the reaction of betaine-homocysteine methyltransferase that converts homocysteine into methionine [71, 73–76]. This is beneficial since plasma homocysteine is a risk factor for CVD [77, 78]; this property can be expected that betaine is involved in the prevention of CVD through this route. In addition, the concentration of plasma betaine is inverse to the amount of the following parameters, non-HDL serum cholesterol, triglycerides, and percentage of body fat, waist circumference, and systolic and diastolic blood pressure [79]. This study demonstrates a relationship between the intake of rye bread and the concentration of plasma betaine. Furthermore, in the analysis of the regressions, contributions of this diet to the chain of fatty acids linked to lipoproteins were observed; this behavior is not clear; however it could lead to an alteration in the composition [80].

Another study compared whether the postprandial glucose and insulin responses to whole-grain rye bread are less than wheat bread, and these responses were observed in two different types of rye bread. Rye breads are based on wholemeal flour and are thus rich in dietary fiber (DF). The dietary fiber content of our rye is 15 ± 17%, arabinoxylans (8 ± 10%), beta-glucan (2 ± 3%), and cellulose (1 ± 3%) being the main chemical constituents [81, 82]. Mainly due to its high DF content, wholemeal rye bread may reduce the health risks associated with coronary heart disease [79] and colon, breast, and prostate cancer [83, 84]. Slowly digestible carbohydrates have been suggested to be nutritionally most desirable, improving metabolic variables not only in diabetes and hyperlipidemia but also in healthy subjects [82, 83]. Although the glycemic index (GI) is a criticized concept [84], it is a widely used method for classification of different foods according to their effect on postprandial glucose levels. It has been analyzed that the glucose and insulin responses of different rye breads and other rye products have been reported to be variably lower than those of wheat bread [85]. The lowest GI values (66–80) have been reported for pumpernickel-type breads containing intact kernels [86–89]. There is a consensus that intact botanical structure protects the encapsulated starch of the kernel against the hydrolysis [90, 91]. The amount of whole kernels in the bread has been concluded to be more effective in reducing the glucose and insulin responses than the high-fiber content as such [86–88, 92]. The GI of food is generally to increase by the heat processing. However, there is exception to this rule, that is, pasta manufacture and most pasta products having a GI value of 50 ± 70 [93]. Low temperature and

long-time baking may slow the digestion of bread by increasing the retrogradation of amylose and hence the amount of resistant starch (RS) in the product [94]. RS passes the small intestine without digestion and is available as energy only after colon fermentation. Rye bread contains organic acids and their salts; the latter are supposed to lower postprandial glucose and insulin responses [95–98] either by interfering the action of hydrolytic enzymes in the small intestine or by delaying gastric emptying [94]. The majority of the studies concerning glycemic responses of rye bread has been conducted in diabetic patients. In this study it was determined in healthy subjects whether the postprandial glucose and insulin responses to rye bread (whole kernel bread) are lower than those to wheat bread. Furthermore it was evaluated out if various types of rye breads give different glucose and insulin responses (wholemeal crispbread vs. wholemeal bread).

Standardized breads through an in vitro analysis of the hydrolysis rate of starch with a content of 43 ± 61 g of available carbohydrates, were consumed at a breakfast by 20 subjects (10 women and 10 men) with normal glucose tolerance. Eight samples of blood were taken from the subjects, postprandial for a period of 3 h. Eight samples of blood were taken from the subjects, postprandial for a period of 3 h. The results of the plasma insulin of the samples of the subjects who consumed whole wheat rye bread were lower than the samples of the subjects who consumed the wheat bread (45 min P = 0.025, 60 min P = 0.002, 90 min P = 0.0004, 120 min P = 0.050, 150 min P = 0.033); however there was no difference in glucose responses. We can conclude that wheat bread produces a greater postprandial insulin response than whole grain rye bread, but there is no difference in glucose response [99].
