**1. Morphological characteristics and nutritional values of wild and cultivated autochthonous edible mushrooms**

The mushrooms contain an extremely wide variety (over 100,000 species spread across all ecosystems) and are traditionally included among the plants. Currently, they are considered as a self-standing group, halfway between the plant world and the animal world. It is true that due to their anatomical and physiological characteristics, they present traits of both worlds (i.e. plant and animal). They are distinguished from chlorophyll plants by the total absence of photosensitizing pigments, hence the inability to produce sugars and starch, starting from the carbonic anhydride present in the atmosphere [1–4]. The mushrooms have their cell walls made from cellulose, but also from chitin, an insect-specific component. So, to survive, mushrooms consume simple substances (such as proteins and sugars) produced by others [2].

It is well known that macromycetes (i.e. superior fungi) represent a heterogeneous group that includes both *Ascomycota* and *Basidiomycota* phyla, with a fruiting body

of at least 4 mm in diameter [2]. In Romania [2–4] are known over 2500 varieties of basidiomycetes, of which more than 500 are edible, being more or less tasty. During their development, superior fungus passes through two successive stages [3, 4]: (a) vegetative, represented by the mycelium from substrate, the body or talus of the fungus; (b) fertile, in which, the fruiting body (i.e. spore producer) is formed. From a morphological point of view, the fruiting body of mushrooms is consisted by pileus (i.e. cap) and stipe (i.e. stalk, stem). Consequently, basidiomycetes have a typical umbrella, with one stipe more or less developed, either cylindrical or thickened or subdued at the base, sometimes flattened or extended in soil with a variable length mycelium. It is important to observe how to insert the stipe into the cap: it can be completely central, more or less eccentric, and sometimes completely lateral [2, 3]. During the fungus growth, the pileus form varies widely: at first it is shaped globes and at complete maturation may be concave or funnel-shaped [2, 3].

The vegetative organ of mushroom consists from a hyphae mycelium that is gathered and placed in a soft fiber texture (real mycelium). The macromycetes mycelium can live outside of the organism on which of it develops (epiphytic) or inside of it (endophytic). Epiphytic fungi sometimes lead a saprophytic life and the endophytes are always parasitic. Nutrition of macromycetes is heterotrophic, the mycelium acting on the nutrient substrate, live or non-living, through the enzymes which it secretes [2, 3].

The compact bodies of mushrooms appear to the substrate surface, either solitary, either in irregularly arranged groups, linearly or in circles, either in the form of bushes [3–5]. Favorable conditions of nutrition, temperature and humidity, are the main factors involved in superior fungi growing [3–9].

The most common basidiomycetes families, which are growing in the Romanian forests, appreciated from nutritional point of view, are: *Lepiotaceae* (e.g. *Macrolepiota mastoidea*, *Macrolepiota rhacodes*), *Tricholomataceae* (e.g. *Tricholoma rutilans*, *Tricholoma columbetta*, *Tricholoma terreum*), *Hygrophoraceae* (e.g. *Hygrophorus marzuolus*, *Hygrophorus eburneus*), *Russulaceae* (e.g. *Russula aeruginea*, *Russula alutacea*, *Russula atropurpurea*, *Russula cyanoxantha*, *Russula delica*, *Russula nigricans*, *Russula vesca*), *Pleurotaceae* (e.g. *Pleurotus cornucopiae*, *Pleurotus ostreatus*), *Agaricaceae* (e.g. *Agaricus augustus*, *Agaricus campestris*, *Agaricus bisporus*, *Agaricus silvaticus*, *Macrolepiota procera*, *Macrolepiota excoriata*), *Boletaceae* (e.g. *Boletus edulis*, *Boletus pinicola*, *Boletus aereus*, *Boletus regius*), *Fistulinaceae* (e.g. *Fistulina hepatica*), *Cortinariaceae* (e.g. *Cortinarius varius*, *Cortinarius caperatus*, *Cortinarius collinitus*), *Amanitaceae* (e.g. *Amanita rubescens*, *Amanita citrina*), *Cantarellaceae* (e.g. *Cantharellus cibarius*, *Cantharellus lutescens*), *Physalacriaceae* (e.g. *Armillaria mellea*) and so on.

Particularly, in the forests of Dambovita County several species such as, *Russula atropurpurea*, *Russula cyanoxantha*, *Russula alutacea*, *Russula nigricans*, *Russula vesca*, *Pleurotus ostreatus*, *Armillaria mellea*, *Cantharellus cibarius*, *Boletus edulis*, *Macrolepiota excoriate*, *Macrolepiota procera*, *Agaricus bisporus*, *Agaricus campestris* are very widespread (**Table 1**). From this reason, these species were characterized from morphological and nutritional point of view (**Table 2**).

Mushrooms provide several important nutrients (**Table 2**) which reduced risk of obesity [5] and overall mortality [6], diabetes [7], and heart disease [8]. In this respect, mushrooms are a high content in antioxidants [9], selenium [21], vitamin D [22] and folic acid [23], substances which inhibit the growth of cancer cells [19] by contributing to the regulation of the cell growth cycle [24]. Dietary fibers (i.e. beta-glucan and chitin) from superior fungi also benefit the digestive system [1] and reduce the risk of heart disease and metabolic syndrome [25]. Together with fibers, the high content of potassium and vitamin C in mushrooms decrease the risk of high blood pressure and cardiovascular diseases [26, 27]. Several other minerals

**13**

*Correlation between Enzymatic and Non-Enzymatic Antioxidants in Several Edible Mushrooms…*

**class/order/family/genus/specie**

Agaricomycetes/Russulales/ Russulaceae/*Russula*/*Russula* 

Basidiomycota/

*atropurpurea*

Basidiomycota/

Basidiomycota/

Basidiomycota/

*cyanoxantha*

Basidiomycota/

Agaricomycetes/Russulales/ Russulaceae/*Russula*/*Russula vesca*

Agaricomycetes/Russulales/ Russulaceae/*Russula*/*Russula nigricans*

Agaricomycetes/Russulales/ Russulaceae/*Russula*/*Russula* 

Agaricomycetes/Russulales/ Russulaceae/*Russula*/*Russula alutacea* **Habitat**

Conifer forests, under broad-leaf trees of oak and beech [3]

Hornbeam areas [3]

Durmast forest [3]

Durmast and hornbeam areas [3]

Deciduous forests [3]

**Aspect Scientific classification: division/**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82578*

*Correlation between Enzymatic and Non-Enzymatic Antioxidants in Several Edible Mushrooms… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82578*


*Food Engineering*

which it secretes [2, 3].

*mellea*) and so on.

of at least 4 mm in diameter [2]. In Romania [2–4] are known over 2500 varieties of basidiomycetes, of which more than 500 are edible, being more or less tasty. During their development, superior fungus passes through two successive stages [3, 4]: (a) vegetative, represented by the mycelium from substrate, the body or talus of the fungus; (b) fertile, in which, the fruiting body (i.e. spore producer) is formed. From a morphological point of view, the fruiting body of mushrooms is consisted by pileus (i.e. cap) and stipe (i.e. stalk, stem). Consequently, basidiomycetes have a typical umbrella, with one stipe more or less developed, either cylindrical or thickened or subdued at the base, sometimes flattened or extended in soil with a variable length mycelium. It is important to observe how to insert the stipe into the cap: it can be completely central, more or less eccentric, and sometimes completely lateral [2, 3]. During the fungus growth, the pileus form varies widely: at first it is shaped globes

The vegetative organ of mushroom consists from a hyphae mycelium that is gathered and placed in a soft fiber texture (real mycelium). The macromycetes mycelium can live outside of the organism on which of it develops (epiphytic) or inside of it (endophytic). Epiphytic fungi sometimes lead a saprophytic life and the endophytes are always parasitic. Nutrition of macromycetes is heterotrophic, the mycelium acting on the nutrient substrate, live or non-living, through the enzymes

The compact bodies of mushrooms appear to the substrate surface, either solitary, either in irregularly arranged groups, linearly or in circles, either in the form of bushes [3–5]. Favorable conditions of nutrition, temperature and humidity,

The most common basidiomycetes families, which are growing in the Romanian forests, appreciated from nutritional point of view, are: *Lepiotaceae* (e.g. *Macrolepiota mastoidea*, *Macrolepiota rhacodes*), *Tricholomataceae* (e.g. *Tricholoma* 

*rutilans*, *Tricholoma columbetta*, *Tricholoma terreum*), *Hygrophoraceae* (e.g.

*Hygrophorus marzuolus*, *Hygrophorus eburneus*), *Russulaceae* (e.g. *Russula aeruginea*, *Russula alutacea*, *Russula atropurpurea*, *Russula cyanoxantha*, *Russula delica*, *Russula nigricans*, *Russula vesca*), *Pleurotaceae* (e.g. *Pleurotus cornucopiae*, *Pleurotus ostreatus*), *Agaricaceae* (e.g. *Agaricus augustus*, *Agaricus campestris*, *Agaricus bisporus*, *Agaricus silvaticus*, *Macrolepiota procera*, *Macrolepiota excoriata*), *Boletaceae* (e.g. *Boletus edulis*, *Boletus pinicola*, *Boletus aereus*, *Boletus regius*), *Fistulinaceae* (e.g. *Fistulina hepatica*), *Cortinariaceae* (e.g. *Cortinarius varius*, *Cortinarius caperatus*, *Cortinarius collinitus*), *Amanitaceae* (e.g. *Amanita rubescens*, *Amanita citrina*), *Cantarellaceae* (e.g. *Cantharellus cibarius*, *Cantharellus lutescens*), *Physalacriaceae* (e.g. *Armillaria* 

Particularly, in the forests of Dambovita County several species such as, *Russula* 

Mushrooms provide several important nutrients (**Table 2**) which reduced risk of obesity [5] and overall mortality [6], diabetes [7], and heart disease [8]. In this respect, mushrooms are a high content in antioxidants [9], selenium [21], vitamin D [22] and folic acid [23], substances which inhibit the growth of cancer cells [19] by contributing to the regulation of the cell growth cycle [24]. Dietary fibers (i.e. beta-glucan and chitin) from superior fungi also benefit the digestive system [1] and reduce the risk of heart disease and metabolic syndrome [25]. Together with fibers, the high content of potassium and vitamin C in mushrooms decrease the risk of high blood pressure and cardiovascular diseases [26, 27]. Several other minerals

*atropurpurea*, *Russula cyanoxantha*, *Russula alutacea*, *Russula nigricans*, *Russula vesca*, *Pleurotus ostreatus*, *Armillaria mellea*, *Cantharellus cibarius*, *Boletus edulis*, *Macrolepiota excoriate*, *Macrolepiota procera*, *Agaricus bisporus*, *Agaricus campestris* are very widespread (**Table 1**). From this reason, these species were characterized

from morphological and nutritional point of view (**Table 2**).

and at complete maturation may be concave or funnel-shaped [2, 3].

are the main factors involved in superior fungi growing [3–9].

**12**


**15**

**Table 1.**

*Correlation between Enzymatic and Non-Enzymatic Antioxidants in Several Edible Mushrooms…*

**class/order/family/genus/specie**

Basidiomycota/Agaricomycetes/ Agaricales/Agaricaceae/*Macrolepiota/*

Basidiomycota/Agaricomycetes/ Agaricales/Agaricaceae/*Agaricus/*

Basidiomycota/Agaricomycetes/ Agaricales/Agaricaceae/*Agaricus/*

*Agaricus campestris*

*Agaricus bisporus*

*Macrolepiota excoriata*

**Habitat**

Pasture, heaths and open woodland [3]

Grassy areas following rain or forest edge [3]

Meadows, wet grasslands or forest edge [3]

**Aspect Scientific classification: division/**

copper, iron, and phosphorus, are available in mushrooms and according with their species, these elements and more (i.e. zinc, manganese, sodium, calcium) can be accumulated from their habitat and translocated in stipe and cap in different concentration [26, 28]. Sometimes high concentration in heavy metals such as, lead,

Some species, mainly from genera *Agaricus*, *Macrolepiota*, and *Russulaceae*, accumulate high levels of cadmium and lead even in unpolluted and mildly polluted areas [32]. The concentrations of both metals and also of chromium and nickel increase considerably in the heavily polluted sites, such as in the vicinity of metal smelters [30]. Present knowledge of metal speciation in mushrooms is limited as well as is knowledge of their bioavailability in human's body. Thus, consumption of

nickel, cadmium, chromium was found in mushrooms species [4, 29–31].

*Scientific classification and habitat of several autochthonous edible mushroom species.*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82578*

*Correlation between Enzymatic and Non-Enzymatic Antioxidants in Several Edible Mushrooms… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82578*


copper, iron, and phosphorus, are available in mushrooms and according with their species, these elements and more (i.e. zinc, manganese, sodium, calcium) can be accumulated from their habitat and translocated in stipe and cap in different concentration [26, 28]. Sometimes high concentration in heavy metals such as, lead, nickel, cadmium, chromium was found in mushrooms species [4, 29–31].

Some species, mainly from genera *Agaricus*, *Macrolepiota*, and *Russulaceae*, accumulate high levels of cadmium and lead even in unpolluted and mildly polluted areas [32]. The concentrations of both metals and also of chromium and nickel increase considerably in the heavily polluted sites, such as in the vicinity of metal smelters [30]. Present knowledge of metal speciation in mushrooms is limited as well as is knowledge of their bioavailability in human's body. Thus, consumption of

*Food Engineering*

**Aspect Scientific classification: division/**

**class/order/family/genus/specie**

Basidiomycota/Agaricomycetes/ Agaricales/Pleurotaceae/*Pleurotus*/

*Pleurotus ostreatus*

Basidiomycota/

*Armillaria mellea*

Basidiomycota/

*edulis*

Agaricomycetes/Cantharellales/ Cantharellaceae/*Cantharellus/ Cantharellus cibarius*

Basidiomycota/Agaricomycetes/ Boletales/Boletaceae/*Boletus*/*Boletus* 

Basidiomycota/Agaricomycetes/ Agaricales/Agaricaceae/*Macrolepiota/*

*Macrolepiota procera*

Agaricomycetes/Agaricales/ Physalacriaceae/*Armillaria*/ **Habitat**

On trunks of deciduous species [3]

Grows solitary or in groups, on trunks of oak and beech but also on conifer trunks, roots, rotten logs [3, 4]

Beech and conifer forests [3]

Conifer forests [3]

Open woods and pastures as well as besides the paths in the forests (e.g. oak and beech or coniferous) [3]

**14**


**17**

*Correlation between Enzymatic and Non-Enzymatic Antioxidants in Several Edible Mushrooms…*

Carbohydrates (65.4% d.w.) [16]; palmitic acid, 9.8%; stearic acid, 2.7%; oleic acid, 36.1%; linoleic acid, 42.2%, linolenic acid, 0.2% [17]; 20 essential and nonessential amino acids, (total content 2.3 g/100 g d.w.) vitamin D2 (4.7 μg/100 g d.w.); selenium (13–17 ppm) [18]

Carbohydrates (glycerol, mannitol, glucose, trehalose, lepiotan); 15.9% saturated acids, 81.95% unsaturated fatty acid, 19.51% monosaturated acids, 62.44% polysaturated acids, 10.95% palmitic acid, 62.44% dien, 17.40% oleic acid, 62.44% linoleic acid; chitin, proteins, fiber, vitamins, minerals [3, 15]

68.4% carbohydrates, 23.9% crude protein, 5.4% ash, 68.59% saturated acids, 26.58% unsaturated fatty acid, 26.58% monosaturated acids, 45.06% palmitic acid, 8.81% oleic acid [15, 16]

Carbohydrates (3.26 g/100 g d.w.); vitamins, such as: 7% thiamine (B1), 34% riboflavin (B2), 24% niacin (B3) 30% pantothenic acid (B5), 8% vitamin B6, 4% folic acid (B9), 2% vitamin B12, 3% vitamin C, 1% vitamin D; protein

Carbohydrates (30.4%), proteins (18.9%), polyunsaturated acid (34.4%), monounsaturated acid (48.4%), saturated acids (17.2%), potassium (66.5%), phosphorous (21.2%) [20]

(3.09/100 g) [19]

**Mushrooms Morphological characteristics Nutritional value**

fleshy and hard, initially hemispherical, then convex; compact and solid stipe, cylindrical, thickened or even globular, with a very fine and dense surface;

Cap has 10–30 cm in diameter, initially globular, then convex, umbrella-shaped, with a dark-brown, smooth central gurgle; brown, cylindrical stipe, with 10–40 cm height, is hollow inside, long, compact and fragile, bulbous at the base, provided with a large, membranous and strong ring, can slide down along stipe [3]

First ovoid, then flat, with a large gurgle in the middle, peanut shell color, in a darker shade in the center; cylindrical, fusiform stipe, bulbous at the base, whitish above the ring and straw-colored beneath it with flour-like aspect [3]

Cap is a pale gray-brown in color, with broad, flat scales on a paler background and fading toward the margins; first is hemispherical in shape before flattening out with maturity, and 5–10 cm in diameter; cylindrical stipe is up to 6 cm tall by 1–2 cm wide and bears a thick and narrow ring, which may be streaked on the upper side; spore print is dark brown, oval to round, measuring

4.5–5.5 μm × 5–7.5 μm [2, 3]

pleasant smell and taste

Diameter of cap is 5–15 cm; first, it is globular, then hemispherical and stretched, perfectly flat in center, white, silky and smooth, with brown flakiness; stipe has tall of 3–7 cm and thick of 1–3 cm, slightly narrowed to the base, white, full, hard, smooth, squamous under the ring; small and fragile ring; pseudo-tissue is soft inside, white, with a

the accumulating species should be restricted. The cultivated species, especially the oyster mushroom (*Pleurotus ostreatus*) contain only low levels of the trace elements

*Morphological and nutritional characteristics of several autochthonous edible mushroom species.*

The main role of the diet is to provide adequate nutrients in satisfactory quantities for the metabolic needs of the body and, in addition, to give to consumer a sense of satisfaction and pleasure through the hedonic attributes of food. Recent research supports the hypothesis that, besides to meeting nutritional needs, diet

according with previous authors studies [4, 30].

**2. Mushrooms as functional foods**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82578*

*Macrolepiota procera*

*Macrolepiota excoriata*

*Agaricus bisporus*

*Agaricus campestris*

**Table 2.**

*Boletus edulis* Cap diameter is 5–25 cm, brown, very

brown spores [3]

*Correlation between Enzymatic and Non-Enzymatic Antioxidants in Several Edible Mushrooms… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82578*


**Table 2.**

*Food Engineering*

*Russula atropurpurea*

*Russula nigricans*

*Russula cyanoxantha*

*Pleurotus ostreatus*

*Armillaria mellea*

*Cantharellus cibarius*

**Mushrooms Morphological characteristics Nutritional value**

Vitamins C, D, B, choline, folic acid, chitin and beta-glucans, potassium, phosphorous, iron, copper [4]

Fe (118.17–130.88 mg/kg d.w.); Cu (13.28– 14.19 mg/kg d.w.); Zn (15.11–17.84 mg/kg d.w.); Mn (19.58–26.76 mg/kg d.w.) [10]

Fe (107.03–141.30 mg/kg d.w.); Cu (6.72– 13.10 mg/kg d.w.); Zn (25.41–94.81 mg/kg d.w.); Mn (34.21–57.41 mg/kg d.w.) [10]

Carbohydrate (9.56%); protein (49.2%), fat (7.87%), crude fiber (30.81%), ash

Carbohydrates (70.9%); crude protein (25.71 g/100 g d.w.); lipid (3.07 g/100 g d.w.); crude fiber (5.18 g/100 g d.w.); ash (6.82 g/100 g d.w.); magnesium (14 g/kg d.w.); calcium (31 g/kg d.w.); potassium

Protein (26.67%); ash (9.83%); crude fiber (11.05%); potassium (22.81 mg/100 g

Well-balanced nutrients: δ-tocopherol 42.41 μg/100 g d.w.; carbohydrates (81.25 g/100 g d.w.), ash (8.84 g/100 g d.w.), fat (1.97 g/100 g d.w.), proteins (1.81 g/100 g d.w.); polyunsaturated, saturated, monounsaturated fatty

Vitamin C (0.4 mg/g fresh weight), potassium (~0.5%, fresh weight), vitamin D, ergocalciferol (vitamin D2 212 IU/100 grams fresh weight) [1]; 20.21% saturated acids, 77.69% unsaturated fatty acid, 17.92% monosaturated acids, 59.79% polysaturated acids, 12.81% palmitic acid, 59.79% dien, 13.57% oleic acid, 59.79%

(2.56%) [11]

(2.2 g/kg d.w.) [12]

d.w.) [13]

acids [14]

linolenic acid [15]

Convex/flat cap (4–10 cm in diameter) and color dark purple and often almost black in the center; loud stipe (length 3–6 cm, diameter 1–2 cm); whitish spores ornamented with warts and ridges, 7–9 × 6–7 μm measure [3]

then flat at maturity; 7–13 cm diameter cap, purplish to black color; white and dense internal tissue, with low flavor of

Hemispherical cap, first white, with a dent in the center, then brown, flattened at the end of the maturation phenophase, when it becomes deep, in the cup form, with the edge at first begging to the foot, then high and wavy; consistent and short stipe, cylindrical or

Compact and fleshy cap initial globular, then flat and deep on center, concave, with edge raked to stipe then stretched or wavy; blunt and fleshy stipe, thickened at middle and thin on the base, with rough and flour-like

with slightly depressed centre, weakly sticky, color brownish to dark brick-red; stipe narrows toward the base, 2–7 cm long, 1.5–2.5 cm wide, white; taste mild.

Very fleshy cap with 5–15 cm diameter, convex at the beginning and then flat and at maturing time is thickens and deepens, in the seashell form, with smooth surface and glossy, often wavy; white and compact internal tissue with

*Russula alutacea* Compact and fleshy hemispheric cap

fruit and sweet taste [3]

thin at the base [3]

surface [3]

*Russula vesca* Cap is 5–10 cm wide, flat, convex, or

White spore print [3]

pleasant smell [3]

Yellow and fairly consistent cap with a diameter of 4–15 cm, first hemispherical, then flat, and at the end of the maturity phenophase slightly deeper; smooth, glossy cuticle on the wet weather and matte on dry time; 5–20 cm tall of stipe, cylindrical, brown, elongated, bulbous base, fluffy, tough and elastic consistency; white spores [3]

Compact, hard, yellow and fleshy cap, with diameter of 3–10 cm, convex at first, then slightly deep, and at full maturity it takes the shape of a deeply funnel, with irregular surface and corrugated edge; yellow, robust, hard, smooth stipe, 3–8 cm height, in the frustum cone shape; spores are yellow [3]

**16**

*Morphological and nutritional characteristics of several autochthonous edible mushroom species.*

the accumulating species should be restricted. The cultivated species, especially the oyster mushroom (*Pleurotus ostreatus*) contain only low levels of the trace elements according with previous authors studies [4, 30].

## **2. Mushrooms as functional foods**

The main role of the diet is to provide adequate nutrients in satisfactory quantities for the metabolic needs of the body and, in addition, to give to consumer a sense of satisfaction and pleasure through the hedonic attributes of food. Recent research supports the hypothesis that, besides to meeting nutritional needs, diet

can modulate various physiological functions and may play unfavorable or beneficial roles in some diseases. It is been seen recently the beginning of a new era in nutrition, reflected by changing the consumer' attitude and manifested through: awareness of the connection between physical and mental status, respectively food, as well as between diet, longevity and physical appearance; attention paid to health promoting compounds (antioxidants, vitamins, etc.); the belief that the diet can provide more promising health solutions than the medical cabinet.

Foods designed to improve people's health and for which claims on specific health effects are allowed were introduced on the market at the beginning of the functional foods era as Foods for Specified Health Use—FOSHU, specific criteria for their labeling being defined. According to European Commission [33], many definitions of functional foods are met worldwide, without being official or commonly accepted. A definition proposed by European Commission Concerted Action on Functional Food Science in Europe—FUFOSE (Consensus document on "Scientific Concepts of Functional Foods in Europe") [34] for functional foods is the following: "*food that beneficially affects one or more target functions in the body beyond adequate nutritional effects in a way that is relevant to either an improved state of health and well-being and/or reduction of risk of disease*". Costin and Segal [35], defined functional foods as "*food products and their compounds that improve the general health of the consumers, avoid the risk of illness, improve the physical or psychological quality of life, as well as the recovery capacity after extenuating exercise or various illnesses*".

There are more terms linking food and nutrition with health, such as *food supplements*/*dietary supplements*, *nutraceuticals/nutriceuticals*, *pharmafood*, *designer food*. Clear definition and consistent legislation are challenges for all parties (policy makers, producers, researchers and so on) involved in issues related to functional foods. Scientific substantiation of health claims through integration of different disciplines requires clinical studies to prove the effectiveness of functional foods on large-scale. The credibility of health claims is considered a condition for the success of functional foods in economically terms.

Mushrooms are well known for their nutritional value and health-promoting properties, being considered as both functional foods and a source of nutraceuticals [36]. This is due to biologically and physiologically active substances such as phenolic acids [37]. Recently, a growing interest related to mushroom's mechanisms of action was observed. Thus, it seemed that such mushrooms species can prevent diseases correlated with increased formation of free radicals and oxidative stress, due to their antioxidant capacity. It is reported that another bioactive property, the antimicrobial activity of mushroom extracts, could have a positive influence in evolution of chronic diseases (diabetes, cardiovascular diseases or various types of cancer) [38]. According with Kalaras et al. [39], mushroom consumption may be associated with reductions in oxidative stress-related diseases and disorder because mushrooms species (particularly the yellow oyster and porcini) are rich in glutathione (GSH) and sulfur-containing amino acid ergothioneine (ERGO), considered critical antioxidants. Part of them was determined as uniquely high in both GSH and ERGO. Not in the last, the antimicrobial activity of the mushrooms extracts and their phenolic acids was concretized in strong antibacterial and antifungal properties [40]. In several cases these ones were reported as higher than those of the antibiotics and antifungals frequently used. Some mushrooms species revealed demelanizing properties, in different proportions against different fungi. Their phenolic extracts showed highest demelanizing abilities [41].

In the past years, an increasing public awareness of potential health benefits of dietary fibers was observed. Thus, the food producers tried to fulfill the consumers' request by developing a wide range of fiber-enriched or fiber-fortified foods. In this context, edible mushrooms are taken into account as a rich source of some novel dietary

**19**

of probiotics.

*Correlation between Enzymatic and Non-Enzymatic Antioxidants in Several Edible Mushrooms…*

fibers (DF), with beneficial health effects to humans [42]. Health benefits associated to DF from mushrooms include blood glucose and lipid attenuation, antitumor activity as well as immune-enhancing. Immunomodulating and antitumor effects of mushrooms and their extracts are attributed primarily to content in beta-glucans or polysaccharideprotein complexes [8]. Part of health benefits are supported on the basis of *in vitro* and *in vivo* animal trials. Stronger health benefits/effects were reported for mushroom components/extracts than whole mushrooms in a small number of direct human trials. The mushrooms can be considered an important and valuable resource for practical applications in the area of functional food, not only as dietary food. An overview on this topic [43] pointed out that *Agaricus bisporus* combined with dried dates for producing white bread lead to the improvement of protein, iron and other nutrients in quantitative and qualitative terms. Addition of powder obtained from the same mushroom species to obtain sponge cakes exhibited acceptable sensory characteristics and a better nutritional value. An extruded cereal-based product obtained with *Cordyceps militaris* proved to have significant anti-fatigue property

Designing new functional foods from mushrooms supposes to preserve their biologically active compounds. Water or organic solvents used for conventional extractions could lead to noticeable degradation of these components. Because consumers asked "natural", "safe" and with "nutritional value" foods from plant materials, processed with sustainable methods [44], obtaining extracts through techniques aligned with the "green" concepts, such as microwave-assisted extraction, high-pressure assisted extraction, pulsed electric fields assisted extraction or ultrasound-assisted extraction [45] are preferred. These novel non-conventional methods, including also subcritical and supercritical fluid extraction or enzymeassisted extraction for recovery of valuable compounds from mushrooms, are environmentally friendly methods for production of nutraceuticals or various

Corrêa et al. [47] proposed the production of a natural extract rich in ergosterol as added-value food ingredient, by using a commercially discarded *Agaricus blazei* fruiting bodies. With a significant antioxidant and antimicrobial properties and showing no hepatotoxicity, this extract was used as fortifier ingredient for yogurts. According to authors, the circular bioeconomy concept is fulfilled too, having in view that *A. blazei* fruiting bodies are normally discarded, being inconsistent to the

Dried synbiotic foods, shelf stable and economical advantageous, were formulated by Moumita et al. [48], using *Enterococcus faecium* as probiotic and *Pleurotus florida* extract as prebiotic. Lyophilization and spray-drying lead to microcapsules added to different dry food matrices. Choosing to *Pleurotus florida* was due to its content in β-glucan, a well-known prebiotic which stimulates selectively the growth

The prebiotic potential of polysaccharides from different mushroom species was in focus for other researchers [49]. Thus, studying 53 wild-growing mushrooms, the authors found that the majority of their polysaccharides stimulated the growth of *Lactobacillus acidophilus* and *Lactobacillus rhamnosus* isolated from the human gastrointestinal tract. For this reason, the polysaccharides fractions from edible mushrooms could enhance the number of beneficial bacteria in the GI tract, being useful in producing functional foods and nutraceuticals. Microencapsulation of alcoholic extracts of *Agaricus bisporus* was made by spray-drying, using maltodextrin cross-linked with citric acid [50]. The microspheres with the extracts protected this way by degradation were used to obtain functionalized yogurts, with promising bioactive properties. Functional food products with better characteristics in terms of stability were obtained through addition of mushroom powder to meat emulsion (batters) [51].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82578*

compared to the product of cereal grains.

ingredients for functional foods [46].

commercial requirements of the market.

#### *Correlation between Enzymatic and Non-Enzymatic Antioxidants in Several Edible Mushrooms… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82578*

fibers (DF), with beneficial health effects to humans [42]. Health benefits associated to DF from mushrooms include blood glucose and lipid attenuation, antitumor activity as well as immune-enhancing. Immunomodulating and antitumor effects of mushrooms and their extracts are attributed primarily to content in beta-glucans or polysaccharideprotein complexes [8]. Part of health benefits are supported on the basis of *in vitro* and *in vivo* animal trials. Stronger health benefits/effects were reported for mushroom components/extracts than whole mushrooms in a small number of direct human trials.

The mushrooms can be considered an important and valuable resource for practical applications in the area of functional food, not only as dietary food. An overview on this topic [43] pointed out that *Agaricus bisporus* combined with dried dates for producing white bread lead to the improvement of protein, iron and other nutrients in quantitative and qualitative terms. Addition of powder obtained from the same mushroom species to obtain sponge cakes exhibited acceptable sensory characteristics and a better nutritional value. An extruded cereal-based product obtained with *Cordyceps militaris* proved to have significant anti-fatigue property compared to the product of cereal grains.

Designing new functional foods from mushrooms supposes to preserve their biologically active compounds. Water or organic solvents used for conventional extractions could lead to noticeable degradation of these components. Because consumers asked "natural", "safe" and with "nutritional value" foods from plant materials, processed with sustainable methods [44], obtaining extracts through techniques aligned with the "green" concepts, such as microwave-assisted extraction, high-pressure assisted extraction, pulsed electric fields assisted extraction or ultrasound-assisted extraction [45] are preferred. These novel non-conventional methods, including also subcritical and supercritical fluid extraction or enzymeassisted extraction for recovery of valuable compounds from mushrooms, are environmentally friendly methods for production of nutraceuticals or various ingredients for functional foods [46].

Corrêa et al. [47] proposed the production of a natural extract rich in ergosterol as added-value food ingredient, by using a commercially discarded *Agaricus blazei* fruiting bodies. With a significant antioxidant and antimicrobial properties and showing no hepatotoxicity, this extract was used as fortifier ingredient for yogurts. According to authors, the circular bioeconomy concept is fulfilled too, having in view that *A. blazei* fruiting bodies are normally discarded, being inconsistent to the commercial requirements of the market.

Dried synbiotic foods, shelf stable and economical advantageous, were formulated by Moumita et al. [48], using *Enterococcus faecium* as probiotic and *Pleurotus florida* extract as prebiotic. Lyophilization and spray-drying lead to microcapsules added to different dry food matrices. Choosing to *Pleurotus florida* was due to its content in β-glucan, a well-known prebiotic which stimulates selectively the growth of probiotics.

The prebiotic potential of polysaccharides from different mushroom species was in focus for other researchers [49]. Thus, studying 53 wild-growing mushrooms, the authors found that the majority of their polysaccharides stimulated the growth of *Lactobacillus acidophilus* and *Lactobacillus rhamnosus* isolated from the human gastrointestinal tract. For this reason, the polysaccharides fractions from edible mushrooms could enhance the number of beneficial bacteria in the GI tract, being useful in producing functional foods and nutraceuticals. Microencapsulation of alcoholic extracts of *Agaricus bisporus* was made by spray-drying, using maltodextrin cross-linked with citric acid [50]. The microspheres with the extracts protected this way by degradation were used to obtain functionalized yogurts, with promising bioactive properties.

Functional food products with better characteristics in terms of stability were obtained through addition of mushroom powder to meat emulsion (batters) [51].

*Food Engineering*

can modulate various physiological functions and may play unfavorable or beneficial roles in some diseases. It is been seen recently the beginning of a new era in nutrition, reflected by changing the consumer' attitude and manifested through: awareness of the connection between physical and mental status, respectively food, as well as between diet, longevity and physical appearance; attention paid to health promoting compounds (antioxidants, vitamins, etc.); the belief that the diet can

Foods designed to improve people's health and for which claims on specific health effects are allowed were introduced on the market at the beginning of the functional foods era as Foods for Specified Health Use—FOSHU, specific criteria for their labeling being defined. According to European Commission [33], many definitions of functional foods are met worldwide, without being official or commonly accepted. A definition proposed by European Commission Concerted Action on Functional Food Science in Europe—FUFOSE (Consensus document on "Scientific Concepts of Functional Foods in Europe") [34] for functional foods is the following: "*food that beneficially affects one or more target functions in the body beyond adequate nutritional effects in a way that is relevant to either an improved state of health and well-being and/or reduction of risk of disease*". Costin and Segal [35], defined functional foods as "*food products and their compounds that improve the general health of the consumers, avoid the risk of illness, improve the physical or psychological quality of life, as well as the recovery capacity after extenuating exercise or various illnesses*". There are more terms linking food and nutrition with health, such as *food supplements*/*dietary supplements*, *nutraceuticals/nutriceuticals*, *pharmafood*, *designer food*. Clear definition and consistent legislation are challenges for all parties (policy makers, producers, researchers and so on) involved in issues related to functional foods. Scientific substantiation of health claims through integration of different disciplines requires clinical studies to prove the effectiveness of functional foods on large-scale. The credibility of health claims is considered a condition for the success

Mushrooms are well known for their nutritional value and health-promoting properties, being considered as both functional foods and a source of nutraceuticals [36]. This is due to biologically and physiologically active substances such as phenolic acids [37]. Recently, a growing interest related to mushroom's mechanisms of action was observed. Thus, it seemed that such mushrooms species can prevent diseases correlated with increased formation of free radicals and oxidative stress, due to their antioxidant capacity. It is reported that another bioactive property, the antimicrobial activity of mushroom extracts, could have a positive influence in evolution of chronic diseases (diabetes, cardiovascular diseases or various types of cancer) [38]. According with Kalaras et al. [39], mushroom consumption may be associated with reductions in oxidative stress-related diseases and disorder because mushrooms species (particularly the yellow oyster and porcini) are rich in glutathione (GSH) and sulfur-containing amino acid ergothioneine (ERGO), considered critical antioxidants. Part of them was determined as uniquely high in both GSH and ERGO. Not in the last, the antimicrobial activity of the mushrooms extracts and their phenolic acids was concretized in strong antibacterial and antifungal properties [40]. In several cases these ones were reported as higher than those of the antibiotics and antifungals frequently used. Some mushrooms species revealed demelanizing properties, in different proportions against different fungi.

Their phenolic extracts showed highest demelanizing abilities [41].

In the past years, an increasing public awareness of potential health benefits of dietary fibers was observed. Thus, the food producers tried to fulfill the consumers' request by developing a wide range of fiber-enriched or fiber-fortified foods. In this context, edible mushrooms are taken into account as a rich source of some novel dietary

provide more promising health solutions than the medical cabinet.

of functional foods in economically terms.

**18**

Mushrooms (*Agaricus bisporus*) were taken into account having in view by one hand their availability as plant protein source and by another hand the consumers' interest in a balanced ratio of plant/animal protein intake. Meat emulsions with 2% mushroom powder added were proved to lead to a well-ordered emulsion structure, due to their higher protein adsorption at the lipid interface. These ones exhibited heat resistance and higher gel-like behavior compared with other samples. Obtaining final products through cooking the meat emulsions, an improvement in textural properties was determined. Considering color as one of the most important properties from the consumers' viewpoint, so that they would like to purchase the final products of meat emulsions, the authors established, in the model meat emulsion (without addition of nitrite curing salt, spice mix or additive mix), that increasing the mushroom powder lead to increasing of the redness values of the emulsion and the decreasing of their lightness and yellowness.

The protein and soluble and insoluble dietary fiber content of mushroom was by interest for other researchers too. Thus, the mushroom powder was added to pasta, considered a nutritional imbalanced food [52]. This one lead not only to the deficiency made up, to decreasing of the extent of starch degradation, but also to production of food with health-promoting bioactive compounds. Thus, the mushroom powder was proved to confer healthier characteristics, such as improving antioxidant capacity and lowering the potential glycemic response when are incorporated into fresh semolina pasta.

A β-glucan composed mainly of polysaccharide with some proteins and a small amount of phenolic compounds, extracted from *Agaricus bisporus*, *Pleurotus ostreatus* and *Coprinus attrimentarius* was proved to have antioxidant activities and functional properties [53]. In terms of functional properties, the β-glucan from *C. attrimentarius* showed the highest fat binding, emulsifying properties and swelling power, while the one from *P. ostreatus* exhibited the highest foaming properties. In authors' opinion, this mushroom β-glucan could be an effective functional ingredient for food formulations and pharmaceutical ones too. The food applications of *Pleurotus* powder or β-glucan-rich fractions isolated from *Pleurotus* spp. are considered well known and described [54]. Emphasizing that the perspectives for *Pleurotus* spp. applications in functional foods are related to consumers' acceptability, the authors summarized its three main strategies of development, respectively the use as fortifying agent, as high-cost protein replacer and as prebiotic ingredient too. Consumption of functional foods containing specific extracts from mushrooms should be encouraged among people needed to lower their cholesterol levels in serum [55]. This statement is based on the *in vitro* and *in vivo* studies showing that fungal extracts obtained from edible mushrooms (β-glucans and other water-soluble compounds) might be able, as pharmaceutical drugs and functional foods, to modulate cholesterol levels.

The molecular basis underlying the biologically active compounds benefits to human health in the case of certain mushrooms species seems to be not yet elucidated. Examining the biological effects of the MeOH extract of *Morchella esculenta* L. (Morchellaceae), commonly known as morel mushroom (found throughout the world, widely distributed in Korea, China, Japan and Europe), Lee et al. [56] isolated eight compounds (three fatty acids and five sterols) that exhibited potent cytotoxicity to human lung cancer cell lines. In the authors' opinion, further evaluation would provide the evidence for the use of *M. esculenta* as functional food against cancer, with significant implications for cancer—the second leading cause of mortality worldwide—prevention and treatment. *Grifola frondosa* (known as maitake mushroom), used widely as a daily food, as food additive or for medicinal reasons, was investigated by Dissanayake et al. [57] with a view to evaluate its functional food value. The highly abundant phytochemicals determined (glycerides, sterols, a glucosylceramide, a α-glucose dimer, a phospholipid and α-glucans) seems to be

**21**

*Correlation between Enzymatic and Non-Enzymatic Antioxidants in Several Edible Mushrooms…*

responsible for the antiinflammatory and antioxidant activities of the fruiting body of *G. frondosa*. The authors concluded that health benefits and an improved quality of life could be achieved through a regular consumption of maitake mushroom. In order to provide the scientific evidence needed for the development of functional food for the management of certain health problems afflicting millions of people worldwide, the study of Akata et al. [58] showed that *Lycoperdon utriforme* and *Agaricus campestris*, due to their biologically active constituents, can be used for prevention of diabetes type II and Alzheimer's disease. Mushrooms that have demonstrated experimental or/and clinical anti-diabetic effectiveness are also *Tremella fuciformis* (berk), *Wolfiporia extensa* (Peck) Ginns, *Ganoderma lucidum* (Curtis) P. Karst, *Ganoderma applanatum* (Pers.) Pat., *Collybia confluens* (Pers.: Fr.) Kummer, *Auricularia auricula-judae* (Bull.), *Agaricus subrufescens* (Peck), *Inonotus obliquus* (L.), *Hericium erinaceus* (Bull.), *Agrocybe aegerita*, *Coprinus comatus*

Limited knowledge about the processing effects on the mushrooms biologically active compounds or the mushrooms and their derived products functional properties still persists, despite the advances in research from the last decades. Moreover, various interactions within the food matrices if mushrooms or their ingredients are

Nutrition represents a psycho-social act, because it cannot be understood only as a satisfaction of certain nutritional needs. Food means nourishment, stimulus for emotional tonus and a symbolic significance that the individual gives to food. Food

For these reasons, the sensory profile of food represents an overwhelming concern of all producers, so that to fulfill the consumers' needs. In this context and on the basis of the increased interest in mushrooms in terms of their nutritional and bioactive compounds, the research on their sensory properties is considered surprisingly scarce [60]. With a view to add knowledge in this gap, the authors processed edible mushrooms (*Boletus edulis*, *Cantharellus cibarius*, *Craterellus tubaeformis*, *Lactarius camphorates* and *Agaricus bisporus*) by sous vide cooking, frozen, pooled and tempered to 50–60°C. The sensory evaluation made by a trained panel revealed a moderately intense total odor for all samples. Weak cardboard-like, forest-like and earthy odor notes were defined for the mushroom species above mentioned. In terms of taste, *Agaricus bisporus* was moderately sweet and most intensively umami-like. *Boletus edulis* closely followed the umami intensity of *A. bisporus*, being also the sweetest sample. *Lactarius camphorates* was characterized as very different from other samples, due to its sensory profile, defined as intensively bitter and astringent. This curry milk cap, used in Finland often as spice unlike other mushroom species, was the only noticeably pungent sample. Aisala et al. [60] demonstrated, on the basis of projective mapping applied to three wild and three cultivated types of mushrooms blanched, frozen and thawed to ambient temperature, the major influence of processing on the sensory properties of the mushrooms. It seems that most consumers choose to avoid eating button mushroom because the fresh samples are linked to umami and mushroom descriptors. The other species were linked to umami and mushroom descriptors. Finally it was concluded that wild and cultivated mushrooms are different in sensory descriptors and their related intensities too. Varying profiles,

new innovative mushroom products and food ingredients could be designed. In order to meet the concern related to major nutritional problems in most countries (protein energy malnutrition and micronutrient deficiencies), Ishara et al. [61] tested the use of mushroom (*Agaricus bisporus* and *Pleurotus ostreatus*) flours in different blends with maize flour, in nutritional and functional terms. The mushrooms flours could serve as protein supplements and food fortification, due to their increased protein, fibers and mineral content. The composite flours noticed

(O.F. Mull), *Cordyceps sinensis* and *Grifola frondosa* (Dicks.) [59].

is to be enjoyed and the physiologically eating is a complicated process.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82578*

added, are yet unknown.

#### *Correlation between Enzymatic and Non-Enzymatic Antioxidants in Several Edible Mushrooms… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82578*

responsible for the antiinflammatory and antioxidant activities of the fruiting body of *G. frondosa*. The authors concluded that health benefits and an improved quality of life could be achieved through a regular consumption of maitake mushroom.

In order to provide the scientific evidence needed for the development of functional food for the management of certain health problems afflicting millions of people worldwide, the study of Akata et al. [58] showed that *Lycoperdon utriforme* and *Agaricus campestris*, due to their biologically active constituents, can be used for prevention of diabetes type II and Alzheimer's disease. Mushrooms that have demonstrated experimental or/and clinical anti-diabetic effectiveness are also *Tremella fuciformis* (berk), *Wolfiporia extensa* (Peck) Ginns, *Ganoderma lucidum* (Curtis) P. Karst, *Ganoderma applanatum* (Pers.) Pat., *Collybia confluens* (Pers.: Fr.) Kummer, *Auricularia auricula-judae* (Bull.), *Agaricus subrufescens* (Peck), *Inonotus obliquus* (L.), *Hericium erinaceus* (Bull.), *Agrocybe aegerita*, *Coprinus comatus* (O.F. Mull), *Cordyceps sinensis* and *Grifola frondosa* (Dicks.) [59].

Limited knowledge about the processing effects on the mushrooms biologically active compounds or the mushrooms and their derived products functional properties still persists, despite the advances in research from the last decades. Moreover, various interactions within the food matrices if mushrooms or their ingredients are added, are yet unknown.

Nutrition represents a psycho-social act, because it cannot be understood only as a satisfaction of certain nutritional needs. Food means nourishment, stimulus for emotional tonus and a symbolic significance that the individual gives to food. Food is to be enjoyed and the physiologically eating is a complicated process.

For these reasons, the sensory profile of food represents an overwhelming concern of all producers, so that to fulfill the consumers' needs. In this context and on the basis of the increased interest in mushrooms in terms of their nutritional and bioactive compounds, the research on their sensory properties is considered surprisingly scarce [60]. With a view to add knowledge in this gap, the authors processed edible mushrooms (*Boletus edulis*, *Cantharellus cibarius*, *Craterellus tubaeformis*, *Lactarius camphorates* and *Agaricus bisporus*) by sous vide cooking, frozen, pooled and tempered to 50–60°C. The sensory evaluation made by a trained panel revealed a moderately intense total odor for all samples. Weak cardboard-like, forest-like and earthy odor notes were defined for the mushroom species above mentioned. In terms of taste, *Agaricus bisporus* was moderately sweet and most intensively umami-like. *Boletus edulis* closely followed the umami intensity of *A. bisporus*, being also the sweetest sample. *Lactarius camphorates* was characterized as very different from other samples, due to its sensory profile, defined as intensively bitter and astringent. This curry milk cap, used in Finland often as spice unlike other mushroom species, was the only noticeably pungent sample. Aisala et al. [60] demonstrated, on the basis of projective mapping applied to three wild and three cultivated types of mushrooms blanched, frozen and thawed to ambient temperature, the major influence of processing on the sensory properties of the mushrooms. It seems that most consumers choose to avoid eating button mushroom because the fresh samples are linked to umami and mushroom descriptors. The other species were linked to umami and mushroom descriptors. Finally it was concluded that wild and cultivated mushrooms are different in sensory descriptors and their related intensities too. Varying profiles, new innovative mushroom products and food ingredients could be designed.

In order to meet the concern related to major nutritional problems in most countries (protein energy malnutrition and micronutrient deficiencies), Ishara et al. [61] tested the use of mushroom (*Agaricus bisporus* and *Pleurotus ostreatus*) flours in different blends with maize flour, in nutritional and functional terms. The mushrooms flours could serve as protein supplements and food fortification, due to their increased protein, fibers and mineral content. The composite flours noticed

*Food Engineering*

Mushrooms (*Agaricus bisporus*) were taken into account having in view by one hand their availability as plant protein source and by another hand the consumers' interest in a balanced ratio of plant/animal protein intake. Meat emulsions with 2% mushroom powder added were proved to lead to a well-ordered emulsion structure, due to their higher protein adsorption at the lipid interface. These ones exhibited heat resistance and higher gel-like behavior compared with other samples. Obtaining final products through cooking the meat emulsions, an improvement in textural properties was determined. Considering color as one of the most important properties from the consumers' viewpoint, so that they would like to purchase the final products of meat emulsions, the authors established, in the model meat emulsion (without addition of nitrite curing salt, spice mix or additive mix), that increasing the mushroom powder lead to increasing of the redness values of the

The protein and soluble and insoluble dietary fiber content of mushroom was by interest for other researchers too. Thus, the mushroom powder was added to pasta, considered a nutritional imbalanced food [52]. This one lead not only to the deficiency made up, to decreasing of the extent of starch degradation, but also to production of food with health-promoting bioactive compounds. Thus, the mushroom powder was proved to confer healthier characteristics, such as improving antioxidant capacity and lowering the potential glycemic response when are

A β-glucan composed mainly of polysaccharide with some proteins and a small amount of phenolic compounds, extracted from *Agaricus bisporus*, *Pleurotus ostreatus* and *Coprinus attrimentarius* was proved to have antioxidant activities and functional properties [53]. In terms of functional properties, the β-glucan from *C. attrimentarius* showed the highest fat binding, emulsifying properties and swelling power, while the one from *P. ostreatus* exhibited the highest foaming properties. In authors' opinion, this mushroom β-glucan could be an effective functional ingredient for food formulations and pharmaceutical ones too. The food applications of *Pleurotus* powder or β-glucan-rich fractions isolated from *Pleurotus* spp. are considered well known and described [54]. Emphasizing that the perspectives for *Pleurotus* spp. applications in functional foods are related to consumers' acceptability, the authors summarized its three main strategies of development, respectively the use as fortifying agent, as high-cost protein replacer and as prebiotic ingredient too. Consumption of functional foods containing specific extracts from mushrooms should be encouraged among people needed to lower their cholesterol levels in serum [55]. This statement is based on the *in vitro* and *in vivo* studies showing that fungal extracts obtained from edible mushrooms (β-glucans and other water-soluble compounds) might be able, as

pharmaceutical drugs and functional foods, to modulate cholesterol levels.

The molecular basis underlying the biologically active compounds benefits to human health in the case of certain mushrooms species seems to be not yet elucidated. Examining the biological effects of the MeOH extract of *Morchella esculenta* L. (Morchellaceae), commonly known as morel mushroom (found throughout the world, widely distributed in Korea, China, Japan and Europe), Lee et al. [56] isolated eight compounds (three fatty acids and five sterols) that exhibited potent cytotoxicity to human lung cancer cell lines. In the authors' opinion, further evaluation would provide the evidence for the use of *M. esculenta* as functional food against cancer, with significant implications for cancer—the second leading cause of mortality worldwide—prevention and treatment. *Grifola frondosa* (known as maitake mushroom), used widely as a daily food, as food additive or for medicinal reasons, was investigated by Dissanayake et al. [57] with a view to evaluate its functional food value. The highly abundant phytochemicals determined (glycerides, sterols, a glucosylceramide, a α-glucose dimer, a phospholipid and α-glucans) seems to be

emulsion and the decreasing of their lightness and yellowness.

incorporated into fresh semolina pasta.

**20**

through an increased water retention capacity, water absorption capacity, foaming capacity, fat absorption capacity and a decreased bulk density and syneresis. These data indicated that mushroom flours can be very suitable in human diet.

Drying methods (convective drying, freeze-drying, vacuum microwave drying and a combination of convective predrying and vacuum microwave finish drying) were tested in order to evaluate their influence on the sensory profile and implicitly on the quality of the oyster mushrooms (*Pleurotus ostreatus* Jacq.) [62]. The total concentration of aroma/volatiles compounds of fresh mushroom was reduced significantly by all drying treatments. However, the combined treatment mentioned above leads to obtaining products with a sensory profile closer to the fresh mushrooms. Nonthermal plasma technology (NTPT) was investigated in order to better understanding of the mechanism of interaction of food bioactive compounds and plasma and consequently its successful adoption by industry. Reviewing the influence of NTPT on functional food components, Muhammad et al. [63] showed that the plasma activated water (PAW) has the effect of increasing the antioxidant activity and the concentration of ascorbic acid of button mushroom. The antioxidant activity was extended with increases in PAW processing time.
