6. Conclusion

During the kneading process, an amount of air is included in the dough, required to meet its rheological attributes. The physical processes that take place in the dough at its kneading are the mechanical action during the kneading that ensures the water penetration into the flour mass and the temperature increase of the dough [116]. During the process of kneading itself, wet clumps of flour stick together under the influence of the mechanical kneading action, surface water penetrates deep, proteins become hydrated, the amount of bound water increases, and the dough increases its consistency and gradually

The fermenting operation is aimed at obtaining a risen dough that would produce suitable well-risen products with the right volume, as well as a porous and elastic core. Therefore, during this operation, various dough substances are accumulated in the dough, which impart the taste and aroma of bakery products. During dough fermentation, the yeast multiplication process continues, the predominant process being alcoholic fermentation, which releases carbon dioxide, ethyl alcohol,

A well-risen product can only be obtained if the dough forms large amounts of gas. Ultimate leavening is the operation where the leavening of the dough reaches the maximum. The gases formed affect the gluten skeleton and thus the porosity of the dough by increasing or decreasing mesh size [116]. The biochemical processes formed during fermentation are hydrolysis of starch and gluten amylolysis or proteolysis, respectively. The microbiological processes refer to the multiplication of yeasts and their fermentative activity, as well as that of lactic bacteria that make up dough microbiota. Colloidal processes are the continuation of the gluten-forming process and gluten peptization [115]. Some of the gas present in the dough is lost during modeling, and as a result, the spongy structure of the dough is largely destroyed, the internal surface is

A significant part of the carbon dioxide accumulated in the dough is eliminated

subjected to a new fermentation for the restoration of its porous structure. As such, the products rise and the volume develops [116]. The main goal of the final leavening of the dough is the rise by the accumulation of carbon dioxide that is formed during yeast alcoholic fermentation and conditions the volume and structure of the

Colloidal processes condition the dough to be transformed into the inner

exhibiting a higher moisture than the initial humidity of the dough, appears dry due to thermal hydrophilic modifications. During coagulation, protein clotting and the gelatinization of starch occur [116]. The protein coagulation process starts at temperatures slightly above 50° C and proceeds at a maximum speed of 60–70° C, thus accelerating to continue the heating of the dough. After coagulation, proteins become more easily attackable by enzymes, both digestive enzymes and the proteolytic ones in the dough. The gelatinization of the starch takes place in two stages: granule swelling and gelatinization itself. Swelling occurs due to the penetration of water groups within the starch granule that distances the protein chains. This is achieved by increasing the kinetic energy of water molecules by heating the dough. The gelatinization is accomplished by breaking the existing H2 bonds between the amylose and amylopectin chains and dispersing these chains between the molecules of water previously penetrated into the granule. Biochemical processes formed during baking are amylolysis and proteolysis. Microbial processes during baking include alcoholic

during the division and modeling operations. Therefore, the dough must be

crumb and modify the water binding state so that the crumb, although

acquires its elastic properties [117].

Food Engineering

and a small amount of heat [116].

porosity of products [115].

reduced, and its specific weight increased [115].

fermentation and lactic fermentation [117].

120

The benefits of food fortification positively impact the entire life cycle of mankind. Thus, food fortification may be one of the most effective ways to overcome malnutrition and various diseases, especially in children and pregnant women and their children, preventing the birth of intellectually impaired children with malformations or deficiencies. Efforts to fortify food must be integrated in the context of each country's public health and nutrition plans and as part of a comprehensive strategy to include different micronutrients in staple foods to meet the social, physiological, and economic goals of millions of people worldwide.

Food Engineering
