**1. Introduction**

Climate change and variability are the real threats to agriculture and food security [1, 2]. Extreme weather events and uncertainty in rainfall patterns are negatively affecting the agricultural crops [3, 4]. The evidences of global trend in rainfall are unclear due to large regional gaps in spatial coverage and temporal shortfalls in the data. Owing to these changes, the drought is more prevailing in many regions of the world including Pakistan [5].

Finding evidences reported that high temperature and uneven distribution of rainfall have negative effects on crop productivity all over the world [6]. These changes in weather and climate are likely to affect the food security of developing world where a large fraction of ever-increasing population is already fronting hunger, insecure and unhealthy food [7]. Warming of weather and climate systems can

**54**

*Climate Change and Agriculture*

Society Workshop Report

University Press; 2012

Change Research; 2007

[5] Boko M, Niang I, Nyong A, Vogel C, Githeko A, Medany M, et al. Climate change 2007: Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. In: Parry ML, Canziani OF, Palutikof JP, van der Linden PJ, Hanson CE, editors. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge

Univ Press; 2007. pp. 433-467

Production. 2016;**113**:613-623

[6] Abid M, Shilling J, Scheffran J, Zulfiqar F. Climate change vulnerability, adaptation and risk perceptions at farm level in Punjab, Pakistan. Science of the Total Environment. 2016;**547**:447-460

[7] Masud MM, Al-Amin AQ, Junsheng H, Ahmed F, Yahaya SR, Akhtar R, et al. Climate change issue and theory of planned behavior: Relationship by empirical evidence. Journal of Cleaner

[8] Aklilu Y. In: JG MP, Little PD, editors. Pastoral Livestock Marketing in Eastern Africa: Research and Policy Challenges.

[1] Corbera E, Conway D, Goulden M, Vincent K. Climate Change in Africa: Linking Science and Policy for Adaptation. Norwich and London: The Tyndall Centre and IIED; 2006, Royal

Rugby, UK: Intermediate Technology Publications; 2006. pp. 187-202

[10] Masendeke D. Farmers perceptions of climate change in Zimbabwe. In: Building Capacity to Cope with Increasing Vulnerability Due to Climate Change. Bulawayo: ICRISAT; 2008

[11] Chagutah TC. Climate Change Vulnerability and Adaptation Preparedness in Southern Africa. Zimbabwe Country Report. Cape Town: Heinrich Boll Stiftung Southern Africa;

[12] Feresu SB, editor. Zimbabwe Environmental Change: Our

Environment, Everybody's Responsibility. Harare; 2010: Government of Zimbabwe's Third State of Environment Report

[13] Chenge M, Sola L, Paleczny D. The State of Zimbabwe's Environment. Harare: Ministry of Mines, Environment and Tourism. Government of Zimbabwe; 1998

[14] ZimStat. Census 2012 Provincial Report. Matabeleland South. Harare: Population Census Office; 2012

[15] Fraenkel JR, Wallen NE. How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-

[16] Matsa M, Matsa W. Bulilima's 'look south' policy: Gender and socio-economic implications. Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review.

[17] BBRDCSP. Beitbridge Rural District Council Strategic Plan (2011-2015). Beitbridge: Beitbridge Rural District

2011;**xxxvii**(1):85-106

Council; 2010

2010

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[9] Hirji R, Johnson P, Chauta TM, editors. Defining and Mainstreaming Environmental Sustainability in Water Management in Southern Africa. Harare: SADC/IUCN/SARDC; 2002

[2] Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation. New York, NY, USA: Cambridge

[3] USAID. Adaptation to Climate Change. A Guidance Manual for Development Planning. New York: USAID; 2007

[4] Salick J, Byg A. Indigenous Peoples and Climate Change, Report of a Symposium Held on 12-13 April 2007. Oxford: Tyndall Centre for Climate

**References**

results in highly corresponding changes in the occurrence of extreme events including rise in temperature, uneven rainfall patterns [4]. These extreme events occur due to shift in their distribution, or to change in the shape of distribution. Various studies suggest that a shift in mean accounts for much the change in observed temperature extremes [8]. Comparisons of various studies showed that both daily maximum (Tmax) and minimum (Tmin) temperatures have shifted toward higher values in all regions. These shift in temperatures and rainfall significantly effected the cropping patterns, crop yields and phenology [9].

The Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC) has found evidences of accelerated global warming, climate variability and change since the early 1990s. The IPCC reported that average global temperature in the last 100–150 years has increased by 0.76°C [10]. The variability in temperature altered the phenology of crop, i.e., leaf development, anthesis, harvest, fruit production and in asynchrony between anthesis and pollinators. The variable temperature range resulted in high respiration rates, reduction in pollen germination, shorter grain filling period, lesser biomass production and low yields [4]. High temperature above 35°C in combination with high humidity and low wind speed caused a 4°C increase in temperature, resulting in floret sterility in cereals and fruits [6]. Climate change impact assessment provides the scientific foundation for the development of adaptations to offset the negative impacts of climate change. Keeping in views, the current study was planned to assess the impacts of climate change and adaptations strategies for agronomics crops.

### **2. Projections of climate change across the globe especially in ASIA**

World faces dreadful challenges due to changing climate as it is indicated by climatic models that global surface temperature is likely to exceed 1.5°C relative to 1850–1900 for all representative concentration pathways (RCP) scenarios for the end of the twenty-first century [11]. It is likely to exceed 2°C for RCP 6.0 and RCP 8.5 and warming will continue beyond 2100 under all RCP scenarios. Increase of global mean surface temperatures for 2081–2100 relative to 1986–2005 is projected to likely be increased 0.3–1.0°C (RCP 2.6), 1.1–2.6°C (RCP 4.5), 1.4–3.1°C (RCP 6.0), 2.6–4.8°C (RCP 8.5) by the of the twenty-first century. It is projected that temperature will increase drastically in arid areas of Pakistan and India and western part of China [11]. Models predictions indicated that erratic rainfall with greater intensity would increase across the region, but higher intense rainfall will occur during summer monsoon season. Increase in aridity in South and Southeast Asia is projected due to decline in winter rainfall. Sea level will rise to 3–16 cm by 2030 and 7–50 cm by 2070 across the globe due to climatic abnormalities and in relation with regional sea level variability [11].

It is evident from the facts that lives of millions rural poorest people in Asia are highly vulnerable to climate change. There are evidences of prominent increase in intensity and frequency of many extreme events such as heat waves, erratic and uncertain rainfall patterns and more number of hot days, sustained dry spells, tropical cyclones and dust storms in the region. These countries accounted for 91% of the world's total death and 49% of the world's total damage due to natural disasters in the last century. South Asia is the most food insecure region with 262 million malnourished people in the world [6, 12]. Discussed facts showed (**Table 1**) that rural communities that already live in remote dry lands and deserts with inadequate natural resources are most prone to climate change. Agricultural systems being affected by abnormal climatic variables that disturbs the biological, physical and chemical processes of the systems. Number of hot days and warm nights are likely

**57**

**Table 1.**

*Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation Strategies for Agronomic Crops*

**Crops Country/continent Yield reduction (%) References** Wheat Australia −32 [13]

Rice India −7 [22]

Maize Portugal −17 [16]

Iran −37 [14] Worldwide −5.5 [7] Mexico +25 [15] China −17.5 [16] Asia −7.7 [17] India −5.2 [19] Pakistan −50 [20] Turkey −20 [21]

Indonesia −11 [23] India −8 [24] Asia −6.3 [25] Italy −12 [26] Japan −11.3 [27] Nepal −24 [28]

Ghana +12 [29] Africa −20 [30] USA −50 [31] Ethiopia −4.7 [32] China −46 [33] Africa −32 [34] Pakistan −27 [4] China −30 [35] USA −27 [36]

to increase in the Asia from 1961 to 2003 and reduction in cool days and nights was observed especially in the years after the start of El Nino [37]. Tropical cyclones frequency and intensity has increased in Pacific from last few decades [38].

Global atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases have significantly increased relative to pre-industrial times [13, 39, 40]. As a result, greenhouse gas forcing is the main cause of the warming of the atmosphere during the past decades [14, 41, 42]. This warming is expected to substantially alter the climate system and change global food production, mainly because temperatures are predicted to increase which in turn will alter the precipitation pattern and increase the frequency of extreme events such as drought [15, 43–45]. Man-made greenhouse gas emissions as a result of industrialization and urbanization have made significant

**3. Impact of climate change on crop production**

*Impact of climate change on cereal crop production.*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82697*


#### *Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation Strategies for Agronomic Crops DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82697*

#### **Table 1.**

*Climate Change and Agriculture*

agronomics crops.

sea level variability [11].

the cropping patterns, crop yields and phenology [9].

results in highly corresponding changes in the occurrence of extreme events including rise in temperature, uneven rainfall patterns [4]. These extreme events occur due to shift in their distribution, or to change in the shape of distribution. Various studies suggest that a shift in mean accounts for much the change in observed temperature extremes [8]. Comparisons of various studies showed that both daily maximum (Tmax) and minimum (Tmin) temperatures have shifted toward higher values in all regions. These shift in temperatures and rainfall significantly effected

The Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC) has found evidences of accelerated global warming, climate variability and change since the early 1990s. The IPCC reported that average global temperature in the last 100–150 years has increased by 0.76°C [10]. The variability in temperature altered the phenology of crop, i.e., leaf development, anthesis, harvest, fruit production and in asynchrony between anthesis and pollinators. The variable temperature range resulted in high respiration rates, reduction in pollen germination, shorter grain filling period, lesser biomass production and low yields [4]. High temperature above 35°C in combination with high humidity and low wind speed caused a 4°C increase in temperature, resulting in floret sterility in cereals and fruits [6]. Climate change impact assessment provides the scientific foundation for the development of adaptations to offset the negative impacts of climate change. Keeping in views, the current study was planned to assess the impacts of climate change and adaptations strategies for

**2. Projections of climate change across the globe especially in ASIA**

World faces dreadful challenges due to changing climate as it is indicated by climatic models that global surface temperature is likely to exceed 1.5°C relative to 1850–1900 for all representative concentration pathways (RCP) scenarios for the end of the twenty-first century [11]. It is likely to exceed 2°C for RCP 6.0 and RCP 8.5 and warming will continue beyond 2100 under all RCP scenarios. Increase of global mean surface temperatures for 2081–2100 relative to 1986–2005 is projected to likely be increased 0.3–1.0°C (RCP 2.6), 1.1–2.6°C (RCP 4.5), 1.4–3.1°C (RCP 6.0), 2.6–4.8°C (RCP 8.5) by the of the twenty-first century. It is projected that temperature will increase drastically in arid areas of Pakistan and India and western part of China [11]. Models predictions indicated that erratic rainfall with greater intensity would increase across the region, but higher intense rainfall will occur during summer monsoon season. Increase in aridity in South and Southeast Asia is projected due to decline in winter rainfall. Sea level will rise to 3–16 cm by 2030 and 7–50 cm by 2070 across the globe due to climatic abnormalities and in relation with regional

It is evident from the facts that lives of millions rural poorest people in Asia are highly vulnerable to climate change. There are evidences of prominent increase in intensity and frequency of many extreme events such as heat waves, erratic and uncertain rainfall patterns and more number of hot days, sustained dry spells, tropical cyclones and dust storms in the region. These countries accounted for 91% of the world's total death and 49% of the world's total damage due to natural disasters in the last century. South Asia is the most food insecure region with 262 million malnourished people in the world [6, 12]. Discussed facts showed (**Table 1**) that rural communities that already live in remote dry lands and deserts with inadequate natural resources are most prone to climate change. Agricultural systems being affected by abnormal climatic variables that disturbs the biological, physical and chemical processes of the systems. Number of hot days and warm nights are likely

**56**

*Impact of climate change on cereal crop production.*

to increase in the Asia from 1961 to 2003 and reduction in cool days and nights was observed especially in the years after the start of El Nino [37]. Tropical cyclones frequency and intensity has increased in Pacific from last few decades [38].
