**Table 2.**

*Indigenous household strategies for coping with climate change.*

*Climate Change and Agriculture*

**Figure 2.**

*Department, Harare.*

**4.2 Indigenous household strategies for coping with climate change**

In Beitbridge district, common indigenous coping strategies for coping with food insecurity associated with climate change include planting drought-resistant crops (94%) like sorghum and millet which are quite popular (**Table 2**). Rapoko is grown by few farmers. The semi-arid conditions of the district and the unpredictable and variable nature of the rainfall pattern forces farmers to practise probability planting which farmers gave a 72% frequency rating. Traditional adaptation mechanisms like collecting and drying wild fruits for future use, drying some crops for future use and eating wild fruits as household meals all have suppressed frequency ratings of 56 and 52%, respectively. This could be because crops like sweet reeds, groundnuts and watermelon which used to be dried for future use are no longer productively grown in the district because of inadequately distributed

*Mean annual rainfall-temperature graph for Beitbridge district (1982–2012). Data source: Meteorological* 

**42**

**Figure 3.**

*Mean annual coefficient of variation for Beitbridge district (1952–1982).*

When in season, minority women, girls and small boys gather fruits like umviyo, umqokolo, mtshwankela, amaganu, umkhomo, umkhemeswane and umhali as household food supplements. Wild vegetables like imbuya, idelele and ulude are important relish during the wet season. These, together with bean leaves, pumpkin leaves and garden vegetables are dried and preserved for use during drought or famine periods.

Locusts, inyeza (cicadas), inhlwa and mopane worms (amacimbi) are important among the Venda, Suthu and Shangani communities. Although mopane worms can be eaten while fresh, for future use, they are usually dried and roasted. Mopane worms are a regional delicacy in south-western Zimbabwe; hence, they are an important source of income. The income is used to purchase other important food items like mealie-meal and grain.

The Venda also gather roots like mutobhi, mukwikwi and mudzamoyo and add to their diet in drought periods. These onion-like roots are found in wet areas which because of climate change are now under severe threat of extinction.

#### **4.3 Coping strategies for livestock sustenance under climate change**

Indigenous minority communities in Beitbridge are sedentary pastoralists who depend heavily on livestock for their sustenance (**Table 3**). Their various types of livestock which include goats, sheep, donkeys and cattle are vulnerable to both climate change and environmental change.

In Beitbridge, with livestock being their major fallback cushion against poverty, communities have adopted means of sustaining their animals albeit with limited success. In the Shangani-dominated eastern wards of Dite I, Dite II and Chipise, farmers collect both wet and dry mopane, *mutsingidzi* and *murabva* leaves which they sprinkle with salt solution and give to cattle. Others mix dry leaves with molasses which they buy from Lutumba and feed their cattle.

In the Venda-dominated central wards of Mtetengwe I, Mtetengwe II and Mtetengwe III where pastures are now a problem, natural cattle husbandry is no longer practised because of heavily depleted pastures partly due to climate change. Farmers characteristically stock pile crop stover to feed cattle during drought periods. Such practice is new in a district known to be a natural pastoral region. Some farmers now sell part of their herd to raise money to buy stock feed for their cattle so that they survive the more frequent drought periods. Beitbridge experienced drought periods in the seasons 1982/1983, 1987/1988, 1991/1992, 1992/1993, 1996/1997, 1997/1998, 2001/2002, 2002/2003, 2004/2006, 2005/2006, 2011/2012 [17].


**45**

periods

*N = 100.*

**Table 4.**

*Beitbridge Minority Farmer Communities and Climate Change: Prospects for Sustainability*

Mr. Sibanda highlighted that in western wards (Machuchuta, Masera and Maramani) and north-western wards (Dendele, Siyoka I and Siyoka II), cattle deaths during drought periods are relatively lower. During the fast-track land reform programme communities generally agreed to repossess land from former white commercial farmers. However, they chose not to go and settle in most of those farms but reserved them as grazing areas (miraga) for their cattle during drought periods. Communities of Machuchuta, Masera and Maramani, for example, send their cattle to Shobi Block farm during dire periods. This explains why central and eastern wards which chose to go and settle in newly acquired farms record high figures of cattle losses to drought. These areas no longer have typical *miraga* (reserved natural pastures).

**4.4 Constraints encountered by indigenous minority farmers in coping with** 

also experiencing challenges with changes in climatic phenomena.

**Strategy Frequency**

Sending cattle to far-off places for better pastures 96 96 4 4 Preserving crop residue after harvest 58 58 42 42 Sourcing tree leaves/twigs/fruits for livestock 80 80 20 20

**Helpful % Not** 

80 80 20 20

**helpful %**

Mr. Siziba of Vuturura village argued that although monthly council-administered cattle sales are a good idea which is supposed to help farmers creep out of poverty, the fact that council insist on farmers having temporary trading licences to conduct business at such sales renders the endeavour futile. Farmers do not raise much from the sales because their livestock will generally be in bad shape and yet goods sold by other traders are expensive. In the eastern wards (Dite I, Dite II and Chipise), for example, a mature cow or bull (or ox) could fetch as little as US\$90 according to Mrs. Simuta of Chaswingo village in Dite I ward. In group discussions, farmers from Chaswingo village thanked one white who they said 'helped' them by buying their very thin cattle which he would feed first before transporting them to

Attempts by farmers to cope with climate change in Beitbridge district are being hindered by a number of constraints. Both planting time (94%) and harvesting time (92%) are no longer predictable (**Table 4**). This is mainly because of the unpredictability and unreliability of seasonal rainfall patterns. A large section of the district, including places like Lutumba and Chaswingo, are generally dry with few rivers. This is the reason why 70% of the respondents describe water sources as being few and far from their homesteads. The national radio and television broadcaster, The Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation, covers only a small section of the district, in and around Beitbridge town. The larger area of the district, for example, Shashe, Chaswingo, Masera and Maramani either do not have this service or the signal is erratic and unreliable. This explains why 74% of the respondents do not have access to weather forecasts. Of the 26% who receive the signal, 24% of them describe weather forecasts provided as unreliable. This could be because the meteorological department itself is

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83816*

**climate change and variability**

his Matengeni farm in Mwenezi district.

Reducing the size of livestock herds during drought

*Constraints in coping with climate change.*

#### **Table 3.**

*Indigenous strategies for livestock sustenance under climate change.*

*Beitbridge Minority Farmer Communities and Climate Change: Prospects for Sustainability DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83816*

Mr. Sibanda highlighted that in western wards (Machuchuta, Masera and Maramani) and north-western wards (Dendele, Siyoka I and Siyoka II), cattle deaths during drought periods are relatively lower. During the fast-track land reform programme communities generally agreed to repossess land from former white commercial farmers. However, they chose not to go and settle in most of those farms but reserved them as grazing areas (miraga) for their cattle during drought periods. Communities of Machuchuta, Masera and Maramani, for example, send their cattle to Shobi Block farm during dire periods. This explains why central and eastern wards which chose to go and settle in newly acquired farms record high figures of cattle losses to drought. These areas no longer have typical *miraga* (reserved natural pastures).

### **4.4 Constraints encountered by indigenous minority farmers in coping with climate change and variability**

Attempts by farmers to cope with climate change in Beitbridge district are being hindered by a number of constraints. Both planting time (94%) and harvesting time (92%) are no longer predictable (**Table 4**). This is mainly because of the unpredictability and unreliability of seasonal rainfall patterns. A large section of the district, including places like Lutumba and Chaswingo, are generally dry with few rivers. This is the reason why 70% of the respondents describe water sources as being few and far from their homesteads. The national radio and television broadcaster, The Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation, covers only a small section of the district, in and around Beitbridge town. The larger area of the district, for example, Shashe, Chaswingo, Masera and Maramani either do not have this service or the signal is erratic and unreliable. This explains why 74% of the respondents do not have access to weather forecasts. Of the 26% who receive the signal, 24% of them describe weather forecasts provided as unreliable. This could be because the meteorological department itself is also experiencing challenges with changes in climatic phenomena.

Mr. Siziba of Vuturura village argued that although monthly council-administered cattle sales are a good idea which is supposed to help farmers creep out of poverty, the fact that council insist on farmers having temporary trading licences to conduct business at such sales renders the endeavour futile. Farmers do not raise much from the sales because their livestock will generally be in bad shape and yet goods sold by other traders are expensive. In the eastern wards (Dite I, Dite II and Chipise), for example, a mature cow or bull (or ox) could fetch as little as US\$90 according to Mrs. Simuta of Chaswingo village in Dite I ward. In group discussions, farmers from Chaswingo village thanked one white who they said 'helped' them by buying their very thin cattle which he would feed first before transporting them to his Matengeni farm in Mwenezi district.


#### **Table 4.**

*Constraints in coping with climate change.*

*Climate Change and Agriculture*

items like mealie-meal and grain.

climate change and environmental change.

ses which they buy from Lutumba and feed their cattle.

*Indigenous strategies for livestock sustenance under climate change.*

When in season, minority women, girls and small boys gather fruits like umviyo, umqokolo, mtshwankela, amaganu, umkhomo, umkhemeswane and umhali as household food supplements. Wild vegetables like imbuya, idelele and ulude are important relish during the wet season. These, together with bean leaves, pumpkin leaves and garden vegetables are dried and preserved for use during drought or famine periods. Locusts, inyeza (cicadas), inhlwa and mopane worms (amacimbi) are important among the Venda, Suthu and Shangani communities. Although mopane worms can be eaten while fresh, for future use, they are usually dried and roasted. Mopane worms are a regional delicacy in south-western Zimbabwe; hence, they are an important source of income. The income is used to purchase other important food

The Venda also gather roots like mutobhi, mukwikwi and mudzamoyo and add to their diet in drought periods. These onion-like roots are found in wet areas which

Indigenous minority communities in Beitbridge are sedentary pastoralists who depend heavily on livestock for their sustenance (**Table 3**). Their various types of livestock which include goats, sheep, donkeys and cattle are vulnerable to both

In Beitbridge, with livestock being their major fallback cushion against poverty, communities have adopted means of sustaining their animals albeit with limited success. In the Shangani-dominated eastern wards of Dite I, Dite II and Chipise, farmers collect both wet and dry mopane, *mutsingidzi* and *murabva* leaves which they sprinkle with salt solution and give to cattle. Others mix dry leaves with molas-

In the Venda-dominated central wards of Mtetengwe I, Mtetengwe II and Mtetengwe III where pastures are now a problem, natural cattle husbandry is no longer practised because of heavily depleted pastures partly due to climate change. Farmers characteristically stock pile crop stover to feed cattle during drought periods. Such practice is new in a district known to be a natural pastoral region. Some farmers now sell part of their herd to raise money to buy stock feed for their cattle so that they survive the more frequent drought periods. Beitbridge experienced drought periods in the seasons 1982/1983, 1987/1988, 1991/1992, 1992/1993, 1996/1997, 1997/1998, 2001/2002, 2002/2003, 2004/2006, 2005/2006,

**Strategy Frequency**

Planting early maturing varieties of staple maize 68 68 32 32 Planting drought-resistant crops 94 94 6 6 Collecting and drying wild fruits for future use 56 56 44 44 Drying crops for future use 62 62 38 38 Probability planting 72 72 28 28 Eating wild fruits as household meals 52 52 48 48

**Helpful % Not** 

**helpful %**

because of climate change are now under severe threat of extinction.

**4.3 Coping strategies for livestock sustenance under climate change**

**44**

*N = 100.*

**Table 3.**

2011/2012 [17].

In the western wards, farmers at Shashe and Toporo complained that although they sell cattle and goats every month, private buyers cheat them by buying their livestock at less than a dollar per kilogramme which is unsustainable. They appealed to government to re-introduce the Cold Storage Company which pays more sustainable prices. Even weavers at Maramani Craft Centre complained of unfair markets for their products. Despite all the time and effort invested, one broom would cost 2 South African rands and yet the buyer would sell the same broom at 20 rands. Buyers take advantage of the remote location of these wards in relation to Beitbridge town centre. Roads in rural Beitbridge are barely navigable. Feeding cattle with tree leaves requires considerable amount of labour which is in short supply in the district given that most young people migrate to South Africa. It also requires scotch-carts to transport leaves home. Families who do not have scotch-carts usually suffer heavier losses of livestock during drought periods. It is important to note that feeding livestock with leaves is only a stop gap measure to reduce livestock mortality. It does not prepare them for the market, neither is it sustainable if drought periods persist beyond a year.

All areas of the district bemoaned the prevalence of cattle rustlers who steal cattle, goats and sheep at night. They target mainly female-headed households where they know women would not go out for fear of possible harm or even death.

Although *miraga* (extensive natural rangelands) reduce cattle mortalities, farmers complained that they are expensive. Where these *miraga* are owned by private farmers, community farmers have to pay a single herd of cattle per every 10 herd of cattle. This is despite the fact that during severe drought years, cattle die even there and yet miraga owners will insist on their charge. Mrs. Muleya of Chaswingo, for example, lost 50 herds of cattle at the *muraga yakholomo* (cattle-dominated resettlement areas) during the severe 2012 drought. She only received cattle bells as evidence of cattle deaths. Cattle usually go to *miraga* in June/July when pastures have completely depleted and watering points have dried up.

In Beitbridge, minority farmer communities still have considerable faith in their traditional staples like sorghum and millet (**Figure 5**). A frequency of 50 for sorghum and 36 for millet show that the household granary provides most of the seeds grown, which are traditionally treated and carefully stored for replanting. Maize, the national staple crop, generally does not do well in Beitbridge district because of erratic and unreliable rainfall. Maize requires mean annual rainfall of between 600 and 800 mm which the district rarely gets. Farmers, however, insist on planting maize despite low yields because of its palatability which is more than that

**47**

*Beitbridge Minority Farmer Communities and Climate Change: Prospects for Sustainability*

of sorghum and millet. Most of the maize seed (frequency of 76%) is either bought or supplied by government through its grain loan scheme where farmers are given seeds and are expected to repay with maize grain after harvesting. The loans are

Maize is not a traditional Venda, Suthu or Shangani crop and hence these communities do not have traditionally time-tested ways of maize seed preservation as with sorghum and millet. This explains the granary's contribution to maize seed in the district. Though groundnuts require significant rainfall amounts for favourable harvests, households in Beitbridge grow them because of their multiple uses as relish, as relish enhancers or as body lotion. Farmers prefer traditionally prepared and preserved seed from the granary but if this is not available or is not enough, they

**4.5 Government initiatives to help farmers cope with the effects of climate** 

In Beitbridge district, questionnaire results show that government has not done much to help Venda, Suthu and Shangani farmers cope with climate change. Government initiatives cited include borehole drilling in wards 2, 3, 5 and 9. This stretched from the 1980 decade to the 1990s. In 2012, the severe drought which hit the district forced government to initiate a supplementary feeding scheme for cattle. This, however, came after many households had lost

Through the Livestock Development Programme (LDP), government advises farmers to sell some of their cattle to serve others. Government provides inputs like maize, sorghum and pearl millet seeds and fertilisers which farmers claim are common during election campaign periods at political rallies. The authorities also give drought relief at subsidised prices to farmers. Through AGRITEX, government educates farmers on helpful techniques to cope with climate change. For example, they are encouraged to practise dry planting to make maximum use of the early rains. During the 2012 drought, government availed supplementary feeding at subsidised prices where a 50 kg bag of 'beef survival' feed was sold at US\$6.50 instead of US\$14 from National Foods Limited. This assistance, however, was not

Farmers around Zhove Dam thanked government for the dam from which they get an alternative source of livelihood through fish projects. They sell fish to clients from as far afield as Gwanda, Bulawayo and to middlemen who sell along highways

Beitbridge has abundant wildlife which most rural farmer communities manage under Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE) projects which can be very useful in helping communities cope with climate change and climate variability through giving hunting quotas to professional hunters. CAMPFIRE is a government-initiated strategy designed to help rural communities manage their resources for the development of their localities. It was initiated in 1986. CAMPFIRE programmes are run by local authorities (rural

Assistant to Chief Executive Officer (Administration) Ms. Ponela revealed that all CAMPFIRE projects in the district face the danger of being rendered unviable by climate change. The signs are already showing in that the district is always hit by all forms of drought, that is, meteorological, agricultural, hydrological and socioeconomic droughts. When there is no surface water in rivers and pools, wildlife migrate to South Africa or Mozambique. This results in reduced safari hunting and

district councils) and are therefore an arm of central government.

consequently reduced dividends to communities.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83816*

rarely repaid because of persistent poor harvests.

buy from seed houses or from other households.

very helpful since most farmers could still not afford.

**change**

large herds of cattle.

and in villages.

**Figure 5.** *Frequency of household sources of seed in Beitbridge district (%).*

*Beitbridge Minority Farmer Communities and Climate Change: Prospects for Sustainability DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83816*

of sorghum and millet. Most of the maize seed (frequency of 76%) is either bought or supplied by government through its grain loan scheme where farmers are given seeds and are expected to repay with maize grain after harvesting. The loans are rarely repaid because of persistent poor harvests.

Maize is not a traditional Venda, Suthu or Shangani crop and hence these communities do not have traditionally time-tested ways of maize seed preservation as with sorghum and millet. This explains the granary's contribution to maize seed in the district. Though groundnuts require significant rainfall amounts for favourable harvests, households in Beitbridge grow them because of their multiple uses as relish, as relish enhancers or as body lotion. Farmers prefer traditionally prepared and preserved seed from the granary but if this is not available or is not enough, they buy from seed houses or from other households.

### **4.5 Government initiatives to help farmers cope with the effects of climate change**

In Beitbridge district, questionnaire results show that government has not done much to help Venda, Suthu and Shangani farmers cope with climate change. Government initiatives cited include borehole drilling in wards 2, 3, 5 and 9. This stretched from the 1980 decade to the 1990s. In 2012, the severe drought which hit the district forced government to initiate a supplementary feeding scheme for cattle. This, however, came after many households had lost large herds of cattle.

Through the Livestock Development Programme (LDP), government advises farmers to sell some of their cattle to serve others. Government provides inputs like maize, sorghum and pearl millet seeds and fertilisers which farmers claim are common during election campaign periods at political rallies. The authorities also give drought relief at subsidised prices to farmers. Through AGRITEX, government educates farmers on helpful techniques to cope with climate change. For example, they are encouraged to practise dry planting to make maximum use of the early rains. During the 2012 drought, government availed supplementary feeding at subsidised prices where a 50 kg bag of 'beef survival' feed was sold at US\$6.50 instead of US\$14 from National Foods Limited. This assistance, however, was not very helpful since most farmers could still not afford.

Farmers around Zhove Dam thanked government for the dam from which they get an alternative source of livelihood through fish projects. They sell fish to clients from as far afield as Gwanda, Bulawayo and to middlemen who sell along highways and in villages.

Beitbridge has abundant wildlife which most rural farmer communities manage under Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE) projects which can be very useful in helping communities cope with climate change and climate variability through giving hunting quotas to professional hunters. CAMPFIRE is a government-initiated strategy designed to help rural communities manage their resources for the development of their localities. It was initiated in 1986. CAMPFIRE programmes are run by local authorities (rural district councils) and are therefore an arm of central government.

Assistant to Chief Executive Officer (Administration) Ms. Ponela revealed that all CAMPFIRE projects in the district face the danger of being rendered unviable by climate change. The signs are already showing in that the district is always hit by all forms of drought, that is, meteorological, agricultural, hydrological and socioeconomic droughts. When there is no surface water in rivers and pools, wildlife migrate to South Africa or Mozambique. This results in reduced safari hunting and consequently reduced dividends to communities.

*Climate Change and Agriculture*

In the western wards, farmers at Shashe and Toporo complained that although they sell cattle and goats every month, private buyers cheat them by buying their livestock at less than a dollar per kilogramme which is unsustainable. They appealed to government to re-introduce the Cold Storage Company which pays more sustainable prices. Even weavers at Maramani Craft Centre complained of unfair markets for their products. Despite all the time and effort invested, one broom would cost 2 South African rands and yet the buyer would sell the same broom at 20 rands. Buyers take advantage of the remote location of these wards in relation to Beitbridge town centre. Roads in rural Beitbridge are barely navigable. Feeding cattle with tree leaves requires considerable amount of labour which is in short supply in the district given that most young people migrate to South Africa. It also requires scotch-carts to transport leaves home. Families who do not have scotch-carts usually suffer heavier losses of livestock during drought periods. It is important to note that feeding livestock with leaves is only a stop gap measure to reduce livestock mortality. It does not prepare them for the market, neither is it sustainable if drought periods persist beyond a year. All areas of the district bemoaned the prevalence of cattle rustlers who steal cattle, goats and sheep at night. They target mainly female-headed households where they know women would not go out for fear of possible harm or even death. Although *miraga* (extensive natural rangelands) reduce cattle mortalities, farmers complained that they are expensive. Where these *miraga* are owned by private farmers, community farmers have to pay a single herd of cattle per every 10 herd of cattle. This is despite the fact that during severe drought years, cattle die even there and yet miraga owners will insist on their charge. Mrs. Muleya of Chaswingo, for example, lost 50 herds of cattle at the *muraga yakholomo* (cattle-dominated resettlement areas) during the severe 2012 drought. She only received cattle bells as evidence of cattle deaths. Cattle usually go to *miraga* in June/July when pastures

have completely depleted and watering points have dried up.

*Frequency of household sources of seed in Beitbridge district (%).*

In Beitbridge, minority farmer communities still have considerable faith in their traditional staples like sorghum and millet (**Figure 5**). A frequency of 50 for sorghum and 36 for millet show that the household granary provides most of the seeds grown, which are traditionally treated and carefully stored for replanting. Maize, the national staple crop, generally does not do well in Beitbridge district because of erratic and unreliable rainfall. Maize requires mean annual rainfall of between 600 and 800 mm which the district rarely gets. Farmers, however, insist on planting maize despite low yields because of its palatability which is more than that

**46**

**Figure 5.**

### **4.6 Initiatives by NGOs to help farmers cope with the impacts of climate change**

In Beitbridge district, initiatives by NGOs to help communities cope with climate change and variability were non-existent between 1980 and 1999. The 2000–2009 decade, however, saw NGOs like Lutheran Development Society (LDS) and CARE International building earth dams to harness rain water for communities. They also introduced community gardens to help reduce malnutrition and food insecurity in general. LDS, CEZVI, Red Cross and World Vision sunk boreholes in various wards across the district and this improved water access for both domestic use and livestock watering. In an attempt to reduce deaths of livestock due to drought and improve the value of cattle for subsistence farmers, LDS introduced cattle fattening. The programme only became successful during the inception period but farmers could not sustain it once the NGO had left due to high running costs.

Community gardens and earth dam construction by CARE and LDS continued into the 2010–2013 period. During the same period, CARE, Southern Alliance for Indigenous Resources (SAFIRE), EU and LED collaboration with government initiated community orchards at Shashe Irrigation Scheme. These are expected to provide economic relief to the Shashe community once the trees start to bear fruits.

Lutheran Development Services (LDS) has rehabilitated boreholes in northwestern wards of Dendele, Siyoka I and Siyoka II. World Vision and LDS drilled boreholes at primary schools which include Dendele, Madali and Vuturura. LDS also helped villagers initiate Phondongoma community garden in Vuturura village and Malusungane garden in Dendele ward. Villagers grow different types of vegetables and fruits like oranges, mangoes, peaches and guavas in an attempt to circumvent the effects of climate change and variability. LDS pays school fees for orphans from primary school up to Advanced Level as a way to increase their chances of creeping out of poverty.

In the central wards of Mtetengwe I, II and III, CARE International is the most active. It has helped villagers start community gardens and small irrigation schemes by providing fence, poles and seed packs. The gardening is mainly done by women who are organised in groups of 10. The NGO advise farmers on what to grow taking into account ambient climatic variability. Farmers in these wards, however, complained that although the NGO helps them cope with climate change, it is not a permanent solution because it only stays in an area for two or three seasons and leaves at critical times when they are mastering the new technologies introduced. During the time of the study, CARE had shifted to Masvingo Province and its projects in Beitbridge were already showing signs of collapse.

In the western wards of Machuchuta, Masera and Maramani, CARE International, ICRISAT and ORAP established sale pens for livestock. This has helped farmers realise fairly reasonable prices from their livestock before they become very thin from lack of pasture, browse and water. During severe years, CARE International and World Food Programme provide food packs like cooking oil, soya beans, maize and samp to alleviate starvation. The most notable contribution to these western wards is Shashe Irrigation Scheme where government partnered SAFIRE and CEZVI to initiate the growing of citrus which when complete will cover 140 hectares. About 80 hectares are currently under irrigation. Farmers also grow wheat to cover for their family needs as well as for sale. World Vision built three small earth dams in ward 9 which helped farmers initiate community gardens. The dams also provide water for livestock.

In the eastern wards, CARE International supplied cooking oil and a bag of maize per household per month for 7 months from September 2012 to March 2013, while World Vision provided supplementary feeding for cattle, donkeys and goats. LDS, World Vision, Red Cross and CEZVI drilled boreholes.

**49**

**Figure 6.**

*Interventions sustainability rating.*

*Beitbridge Minority Farmer Communities and Climate Change: Prospects for Sustainability*

**4.7 Perspectives by communities in Beitbridge on sustainability of interventions**

Minority farmer communities in Beitbridge district comprising the Venda, Suthu and Shangani generally believe their indigenous knowledge is least sustainable at 28% (**Figure 6**). Only 52% of the respondents believe indigenous knowledge is between sustainable to very sustainable. This could be because of environmental change resulting from climate change and variability. NGOs are the best rated in providing interventions against climate change and variability. Respondents gave NGOs a combined rating of 78% between sustainable and very sustainable against a government rating of 56%. This could mainly be because NGOs come to communities' rescue during the hyperinflationary period of the 2000–2009 decade which, combined with famine from recurrent droughts and floods during that period,

In Beitbridge district, climate change is causing failed agricultural produce and reduced yields. These result from climate extremes like droughts, strong winds and floods which also destroy infrastructure like homes, bridges and schools. They also kill people and livestock. Many irrigation schemes in the district are not functional because of the 2000 and 2003 destruction by cyclones Eline and Japhet, respectively. This has negatively impacted households' livelihoods. Climate-dependent environmental endowments like the mopane worm (amacimbi), a southern district delicacy harvested from mopane trees, has become vulnerable because of climate variability. Mopane worms are an important source of livelihood in Beitbridge district. They are eaten in the household as relish or as a stand-alone meal in difficult times. They are also brisk business when sold in villages, along roadsides, at rural service centres or in towns as communities' source income to cushion themselves against poverty. Another traditionally important household cushion against hunger and starvation, amarula juice, is now only episodically produced as the fruit is also succumbing to climate change. Youths in Beitbridge no longer place their hope on their environment but on neighbouring South Africa. With their drift to South Africa, the youths miss out on cultural initiation which would otherwise equip them with their indigenous knowledge. This points to an imminent erosion of rich cultural values of the

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83816*

threatened to wipe out these communities.

Venda, Suthu and Shangani communities.

**4.8 Discussion**

*Beitbridge Minority Farmer Communities and Climate Change: Prospects for Sustainability DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83816*
