**6. Discussion on key issues of climate change**

#### **6.1 Definition of climate smart**

Literature is full of definition of the concept of climate smart. Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is defined as agriculture that sustainably increases productivity and resilience and reduces or removes greenhouse gases while enhancing the achievement of national food security and development goals; see [8]. This concept is supported by international multilateral agencies such as the World Bank, International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), and Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), and practices have been documented; see [22].

It should be realized that prior to the implementation of CSA, one has to first understand what is climate change prior to talking of climate-smart agriculture. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) defines climate change as "a change of climate that is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and that is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods," see [7]. It is viewed as the greatest environmental challenge the world is facing in this century; see [29].

#### **6.2 Capacity development training for the officers and training for farmers**

It has been realized that it is imperative that technical advisors should be capacitated in the area of climate change. Literature shows that developing countries are

**227**

stration sites.

*Capacity Development for Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture Innovations*

**Adaptation needed Mitigation needed to be done**

putting efforts in this regard [6], while there are also pockets of areas where similar efforts are being done in the African continent. It is noted that extension functionaries have to be capacitated in this area with competencies that include communication, farming, science, social, technical, and methodological. In the past extension, advisors were not trained in the relevant areas that could be used to tackle climate

• Low carbon energy source • Energy efficiency

• Change in consumer behavior

fertilizer use

• Change of agricultural practices, e.g., judicious

Although some of these aspects may seem to be obvious, the effects of climate change may confuse the farmer and threaten his survival. It is this reason that a need for continuous training is found to be important. One example is that of tea farming in Kenya which the small-scale farmers have found themselves facing challenges such as having erratic rainfall, poor quality tea due to high temperatures, and other related challenges [10]. A training manual has been developed in order to equip extension technicians in skills that would be needed to mitigate the impact of climate change. Some of the examples that an extension advisor is expected to deliver in the case of challenges of tea farmers

**Table 1** shows examples of the knowledge needed by the agricultural advisor to assist small-scale tea farmers. He will be expected to understand the steps needed to help farmers to adapt as well as to mitigate on the other hand. It should be noted that the knowledge will play a huge role in helping farmers to make profit in their farming enterprise. A training like this was provided in the Horn of Africa by dif-

According to [12], such training was provided to technical advisors in order to enable them to have adequate technical knowledge and tools to better advice and train farmers and thus enhance their capacity to adapt to the effects of variability and climate change. The project will develop CSA technologies and CSA farms in vulnerable regions of Ethiopia and Sudan. The CSA farms will focus on integrating promising CSA technologies and creating synergies between the different technolo-

There are many organizations that contribute towards training technical advisors, and they have formed partnerships, for example, ICRISAT working in the Horn of Africa has formed partnerships with organizations like International Relief Development (IRD), Malian Agency for the Environment and Sustainable Development (AEDD), and Building Resilience and Adaptation to Climate Extreme

These technologies include improved crop varieties and land management, improved soil fertility management, integrated pest and weed management, agroforestry, and improved livestock systems. These CSA farms will also serve as research and training sites for students from the universities and be used as demon-

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84405*

• Improve resilience of social and physical

• Change of clones and agricultural practices • Improve water and soil management • Prepare for future pests and diseases • Manage existing environmental threats

*Climate change adaptation and mitigation.*

infrastructure

*Source: Cracknell [10].*

**Table 1.**

change-related aspects.

are shown in **Table 1**.

ferent partners as included in this work; see [9].

and Disasters Program (BRACED) [30, 32].

gies [30]. Training manuals have been developed [10, 31].

*Capacity Development for Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture Innovations DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84405*


#### **Table 1.**

*Climate Change and Agriculture*

There will be a high soil erosion and a washing away of the top soil by rainfall [24]. There are different types of soil erosion that will occur. The gullies and the dongas which will affect the top soil of farmers. The topsoil is rich in plant nutrients that are essential to different kinds of crops; see [25]. There will be a loss in different types of crop due to the effect of climate change. Other diversification method

The potential land in agriculture will be lost because 20% of the land will be turned into desertification [26]. In the field of agriculture, there will be new species that will become more resistant to a number of chemicals, and those insects will affect the quality of production in agriculture. Shortage of scientific knowledge in climate change causes farmers not to understand fully what is actually occurring around the globe [27]. Agronomists have concluded that there will be shortage of food by 2030. Climate change affects the entire farming systems and food security. Climate change will affect stable food of other countries. There will be shortages of

There are different approaches that could be used to gather data; however, for this exercise a literature review was adopted. Different search engines were used to search climate change and climate smart as well as capacity building in climatesmart agriculture (CSA). A number of documents were consulted, and related papers in journals and books were found and were consulted. All these documents were found useful in terms of expanding the frontier of knowledge on climate

Literature is full of definition of the concept of climate smart. Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is defined as agriculture that sustainably increases productivity and resilience and reduces or removes greenhouse gases while enhancing the achievement of national food security and development goals; see [8]. This concept is supported by international multilateral agencies such as the World Bank, International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), and Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), and practices have been docu-

It should be realized that prior to the implementation of CSA, one has to first understand what is climate change prior to talking of climate-smart agriculture. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) defines climate change as "a change of climate that is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and that is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods," see [7]. It is viewed as the greatest environmental challenge the world is facing in this

**6.2 Capacity development training for the officers and training for farmers**

It has been realized that it is imperative that technical advisors should be capacitated in the area of climate change. Literature shows that developing countries are

cannot be used due to the lack of rainfall received [25].

substitutes in the markets of stable products [28].

smart in agriculture. The findings are presented next.

**6. Discussion on key issues of climate change**

**5. Identification of key issues**

**6.1 Definition of climate smart**

mented; see [22].

century; see [29].

**226**

*Climate change adaptation and mitigation.*

putting efforts in this regard [6], while there are also pockets of areas where similar efforts are being done in the African continent. It is noted that extension functionaries have to be capacitated in this area with competencies that include communication, farming, science, social, technical, and methodological. In the past extension, advisors were not trained in the relevant areas that could be used to tackle climate change-related aspects.

Although some of these aspects may seem to be obvious, the effects of climate change may confuse the farmer and threaten his survival. It is this reason that a need for continuous training is found to be important. One example is that of tea farming in Kenya which the small-scale farmers have found themselves facing challenges such as having erratic rainfall, poor quality tea due to high temperatures, and other related challenges [10]. A training manual has been developed in order to equip extension technicians in skills that would be needed to mitigate the impact of climate change. Some of the examples that an extension advisor is expected to deliver in the case of challenges of tea farmers are shown in **Table 1**.

**Table 1** shows examples of the knowledge needed by the agricultural advisor to assist small-scale tea farmers. He will be expected to understand the steps needed to help farmers to adapt as well as to mitigate on the other hand. It should be noted that the knowledge will play a huge role in helping farmers to make profit in their farming enterprise. A training like this was provided in the Horn of Africa by different partners as included in this work; see [9].

According to [12], such training was provided to technical advisors in order to enable them to have adequate technical knowledge and tools to better advice and train farmers and thus enhance their capacity to adapt to the effects of variability and climate change. The project will develop CSA technologies and CSA farms in vulnerable regions of Ethiopia and Sudan. The CSA farms will focus on integrating promising CSA technologies and creating synergies between the different technologies [30]. Training manuals have been developed [10, 31].

There are many organizations that contribute towards training technical advisors, and they have formed partnerships, for example, ICRISAT working in the Horn of Africa has formed partnerships with organizations like International Relief Development (IRD), Malian Agency for the Environment and Sustainable Development (AEDD), and Building Resilience and Adaptation to Climate Extreme and Disasters Program (BRACED) [30, 32].

These technologies include improved crop varieties and land management, improved soil fertility management, integrated pest and weed management, agroforestry, and improved livestock systems. These CSA farms will also serve as research and training sites for students from the universities and be used as demonstration sites.

#### **6.3 Types of innovations**

Different types of technologies exist such as those that are related to water which may be called water-smart technologies. There are five types of technologies of which two are discussed, while the other three are presented in **Table 1**; see [33]. According to [33] these are the kind of interventions that reduce water requirements to produce the same or a higher level of yield.

Rainwater may need to be managed such as harvesting it either from rain or from the runoff by using different tools. Water management is another issue that needs more attention. The impact of 2015/2016 drought in Western Cape Province of South Africa has led to the major dams to become dry. The dam levels were estimated to be 30–40% [34]. In situ rainwater storage in rice paddies with 20–25 cm bunds can also be regarded as technology. It is believed that this technique is for rice only [33].

Another technology is called laser land leveling. In this technology the land is leveled with a laser this is done by a laser leveler. This kind of technology has been found suitable in rice fields which is a system of rice intensification; in this technology 7- to 10-day-old seedlings are transplanted at 20 cm spacing with 1–2 seedlings per hill. The other technologies are presented in **Table 2**.

These technologies include improved crop varieties and land management, improved soil fertility management, integrated pest and weed management, agroforestry, and improved livestock systems [12]. It should be taken seriously that these technologies are not exhaustive, but they can form a base to create awareness in the manner how farmers can benefit from them, if the advisor can use them to guide the farmers. The challenge is that advisors may not see their usefulness until a farmer is threatened by the effects of negative climate change. In this case an advisor needs to be trained to quickly identify the scenarios which he can make his positive contribution to solve farmer's problems; see [10].

#### **6.4 Strategies of scaling up of approaches**

In order to increase our understanding and actions about the technologies, one has to link a number of facts. Few of the challenges are discussed next.

#### *6.4.1 Policy match*

Earlier studies have shown that the capital cost of the technology has a great bearing on technology adoption [35]. Thus, if the cost of adoption is totally private, the technology will be implemented if the private returns from investment are more than the private costs. If this is not the case, the adoption of technologies may be deferred until the benefits exceed the cost.

#### *6.4.2 Financial support*

Most of the small and marginal farmers may not have access to the formal credit system. Studies have established that increased access to credit helps farmers overcome short-term liquidity constraints and increase technology adoption.

#### *6.4.3 Strengthening capacity of institution*

Access to information is a key element in the adoption of new technologies; a farmer will adopt a technology that will maximize his food security. It is therefore

**229**

**6.5 Mitigation**

*Capacity Development for Scaling Up Climate-Smart Agriculture Innovations*

• Direct-seeded rice Dry seeds are sown either by broadcasting or drilling in line

• Direct-seeded rice Dry seeds are sown either by broadcasting or drilling in line

and enrich carbon in the soil

advisories to farmers

weather

layers

economy and soil health/quality

• Green manure Cultivation of legumes in a cropping system. This practice improves nitrogen

affecting productivity and improve soil health • Leaf color chart Standardized color charts are used to identify nutrient deficiency to estimate fertilizer doses in different field locations

• Crop insurance Crop-specific insurance to compensate income loss due vagaries of weather • Weather advisories Information and communication technology-based forecasting about the

• Drought-tolerant variety Seed variety that is tolerant to drought or relatively dry weather conditions

crops

only

crops

only

Technologies that help reduce energy consumption during land preparation without affecting yield levels. These also help reduce water requirements for

The crop is seeded through a seeder in an untilled field, and the crop residue is incorporated into the soil. At present, this technique is limited to wheat

Technologies that help reduce energy consumption during land preparation without affecting yield levels. These also help reduce water requirements for

The crop is seeded through a seeder in an untilled field, and the crop residue is incorporated into the soil. At present, this technique is limited to wheat

Technologies that save/supplement/avoid chemical fertilizer use for crops

Integrated use of organic and chemical fertilizers to partially (25–50%) reduce NPK (nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) requirements without

Interventions that provide services related to financial security and weather

Tolerant crops withstand biotic and abiotic stresses, and crop diversification reduces water demands and helps in harnessing nutrients from different soil

Rice is replaced by maize on part of the land to economize on water use

recommended to create institutions to build capacity among technology developers, disseminators, and farmers [10]. Farmers and other role players should be made

According to [36] mitigation refers to the efforts undertaken to "reduce anthropogenic [greenhouse gas] emissions or to enhance natural sinks of greenhouse gases" [36]. In agriculture, mitigation generally refers to the sequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) in plant tissue through photosynthesis and its storage in soil organic matter and the reduction in direct emissions from fossil fuel

aware that technologies should be adopted [32].

*Selected technology options for choice experiment.*

usage and energy intensive inputs.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84405*

**Type of technology Definition**

1. Energy-smart technologies

tillage

tillage

3. Nutrient-smart technologies

4. Weather-smart instruments

5. Introduction of stress-tolerant crops and diversification

*Source: Taneja et al. [33].*

**Table 2.**

• Crop diversification (maize-wheat cropping)

2. Energy-smart technologies

• Zero tillage/minimum

• Zero tillage/minimum

• Integrated nutrient management


#### **Table 2.**

*Climate Change and Agriculture*

**6.3 Types of innovations**

technique is for rice only [33].

lems; see [10].

*6.4.1 Policy match*

*6.4.2 Financial support*

Different types of technologies exist such as those that are related to water which

Rainwater may need to be managed such as harvesting it either from rain or from the runoff by using different tools. Water management is another issue that needs more attention. The impact of 2015/2016 drought in Western Cape Province of South Africa has led to the major dams to become dry. The dam levels were estimated to be 30–40% [34]. In situ rainwater storage in rice paddies with 20–25 cm bunds can also be regarded as technology. It is believed that this

Another technology is called laser land leveling. In this technology the land is leveled with a laser this is done by a laser leveler. This kind of technology has been found suitable in rice fields which is a system of rice intensification; in this technology 7- to 10-day-old seedlings are transplanted at 20 cm spacing with 1–2 seedlings

These technologies include improved crop varieties and land management, improved soil fertility management, integrated pest and weed management, agroforestry, and improved livestock systems [12]. It should be taken seriously that these technologies are not exhaustive, but they can form a base to create awareness in the manner how farmers can benefit from them, if the advisor can use them to guide the farmers. The challenge is that advisors may not see their usefulness until a farmer is threatened by the effects of negative climate change. In this case an advisor needs to be trained to quickly identify the scenarios which he can make his positive contribution to solve farmer's prob-

In order to increase our understanding and actions about the technologies, one

Earlier studies have shown that the capital cost of the technology has a great bearing on technology adoption [35]. Thus, if the cost of adoption is totally private, the technology will be implemented if the private returns from investment are more than the private costs. If this is not the case, the adoption of technologies may be

Most of the small and marginal farmers may not have access to the formal credit system. Studies have established that increased access to credit helps farmers overcome short-term liquidity constraints and increase technology adoption.

Access to information is a key element in the adoption of new technologies; a farmer will adopt a technology that will maximize his food security. It is therefore

has to link a number of facts. Few of the challenges are discussed next.

may be called water-smart technologies. There are five types of technologies of which two are discussed, while the other three are presented in **Table 1**; see [33]. According to [33] these are the kind of interventions that reduce water require-

ments to produce the same or a higher level of yield.

per hill. The other technologies are presented in **Table 2**.

**6.4 Strategies of scaling up of approaches**

deferred until the benefits exceed the cost.

*6.4.3 Strengthening capacity of institution*

**228**

*Selected technology options for choice experiment.*

recommended to create institutions to build capacity among technology developers, disseminators, and farmers [10]. Farmers and other role players should be made aware that technologies should be adopted [32].
