*3.2.7.1 Winter dry and summer rainfall particularly from local thunderstorms with relative humidity of 40–60% (wtY)*

Gilgit district and Bunji, located close to Hunza and Indus Rivers, fall in this region. The annual total rainfall of the area varies from 5 to 10 inches. This sub-type receives both summer and winter rains with summer concentration particularly from local thunderstorms. The evapotranspiration of the area is 2.7 mm or 0.11 inches (Gilgit), with annual sunshine of 6.5 h/day and average day humidity of 40–60%. The summers are hot and moist, while the winters are cool and dry. The mean temperature of the region varies between 15 and 20°C, with 25–30°C maxima and 0–10°C minima. The mean daily range is 10–15°C, with 20–25°C daily maximum and 5–15°C daily minimum temperature. The highest maximum temperature of the region is 45–50°C, recorded in July and August, while the extreme minimum temperature is –5 to −15°C, recorded in December and January. The number of rainy days varies between 14 and 20 per year, with annual wind speed of 0–3 knots.

The region consists of major valleys and high permanent snowcapped mountains. Snowfall received is between 2 and 6 m/year. Vegetation at 3800-4000 meters is alpine scrub of small deciduous and evergreen forests. Between 3500 m and 3800 m,

#### *Climate Change and Agriculture*

vegetation is mixed coniferous forests. High alpine scrub is important for summer grazing, but livestock also enter the forests, and large tracts of forests have been cleared. Rainfed cultivation from the valleys and lower slopes is expanded upward, when fertile land is no more available in the valleys. The soil at foothills is usually fertile, but due to the lack of water, agriculture is confined to well-watered areas.

### *3.2.7.2 Uniform rains with summer concentration from local thunderstorms and relative humidity of 35–40% (Ustz')*

Chilas in the Northern Areas and parts of Kohistan district are included in this region, where the annual total rainfall varies between 5 and 10 inches. Rainfall is received both in summers and winters, with summer concentration especially from local thunderstorms. Physiography is rough with high barren mountains and glacial topography. The evapotranspiration of the region is 3.3 mm or 0.13 inches, with annual sunshine of 6.5 h/day and average day relative humidity of 35–40%. The mean temperature of the region is between 20 and 25°C, with 30 and 35°C maxima and 5 and 10°C minima. The mean daily range varies between 10 and 15°C, with 25–30°C daily maximum and 10–15°C daily minimum temperature. The highest maximum temperature of the region is 48.1°C, in August, and the lowest minimum is −4.4°C, recorded in January. The number of rainy days is 17.3 per year, with average wind speed of 1 knot.

The upper mountain slopes have poor soils, but the valley bottom has deep clayrich soils overlying the colluviums on lower slopes, fans, and terraces. Crops can be cultivated on these fertile fans and terraces, obviously irrigated by the streams. Slopes rely on rainfall to produce maize, wheat, and orchards of walnuts, apricots, and plums. The forests are usually deciduous with most of the barren mountains and lands. Agriculture is mostly confined to rainfed areas.

#### **4. Soil**

Agriculture and climate of the arid region have also been greatly influenced by the soil composition and structure. "The soil has three distinct constituents, which are solid particle, air, and water." These three major components have also great effects on the climate and crop productivity of a region. For example, salts, minerals, and organic matters help in the reflection, deflection, and absorption of solar radiation; consequently, the temperature of the earth surface and atmosphere fluctuates [3].

The arid region of Pakistan has peculiar types of soil due to its topography, climate, vegetation cover, parental materials, and time period of formation (main factors of soil formation). Based on structure and composition, the soil of the arid region can be classified into "soil of the flood plain, loamy soils of bar uplands, loamy and clayey, partly saline soils of the piedmont plains, rolling to hilly sandy soils of Aeolian desert, highlands, Baluchistan plateau." The soil of the floodplain is subclassified into loamy and some sandy stratified soil of recent river plains, mainly loamy and clayey soils of subrecent river plains, mainly loamy saline soils of estuary plains, and mainly salty and clayey wet saline soils of tidal plains.

The loamy and clayey soils are rich in soil contents and suitable for agriculture activities. Such soil is located at the bar upland in lower Punjab and also on both sides of the Indus River in Sind (arid region), and both of the areas produced a major part of the agriculture economy on national level. Most of the arid region of Baluchistan, eastern Sind, and lower eastern Punjab is characterized by the rolling to hilly sandy soils, which are poor for crop cultivation, while the remaining areas are converted to cultivated lands after establishment of better irrigation system that originated from Indus and its tributaries (**Figure 3**).

**103**

*Environment, Agriculture, and Land Use Pattern DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83850*

**5. Natural vegetation**

*Soil map of the arid region, GoP [15].*

**Figure 3.**

crop cultivation, production, and growth.

It is one of earth's most vital natural resources that provide food, fiber, and fuel for the sustainability of human life, while vegetation preserves biodiversity and soil and plays an outstanding role in the hydrological cycle. The inhabitants of the arid region of Pakistan have cleared the land surface by cutting the natural vegetation cover for the cultivation of crops. While the vegetation cover controls the soil erosion, storage and filtration of water, and wildlife habitat, playing a key role in the transfer of gasses between the atmosphere, soil, and water bodies is basic to the

Dense forests can influence the local climate to some extent. Temperature is lower in a region of dense forests, light is reduced greatly, and the soil is several degrees colder. Humidity is greater, and dew and fog are formed readily over the adjoining fields. Evapotranspiration from the soil and wind velocities under a forests covered area are greatly reduced and also increase the capacity of water storage

of the soil. The barren land and mountains have inverse climate condition. In arid region, there is a variety of natural vegetation due to variation in climates, topography, and soil condition. "Natural vegetation covers about 4.8% of the total area of Pakistan, while about 20–25% of forests are needed for the balanced economy of a country" [3]. The province-based distribution shows that Khyber Pukhtunkhwa has the leading percentage (15.6%), followed by Sind (2.1%), Gilgit-Baltistan (13.5%), and Azad Jammu and Kashmir (13.6%) and the remaining 55.2% in Punjab and Baluchistan province. The arid region has two distinct types of

forests, that is, natural vegetation and the plantation forests (**Figure 4**).

The natural vegetation consists of different type of forests including alpine forests, coniferous forests or subtropical pine forests, subtropical dry forests, tropical thorn forests, and coastal mangrove forests. Plantation forests are divided into riverine and irrigated forests that are located at the roadsides, canals, and rivers.

*Environment, Agriculture, and Land Use Pattern DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83850*

*Climate Change and Agriculture*

vegetation is mixed coniferous forests. High alpine scrub is important for summer grazing, but livestock also enter the forests, and large tracts of forests have been cleared. Rainfed cultivation from the valleys and lower slopes is expanded upward, when fertile land is no more available in the valleys. The soil at foothills is usually fertile, but due to the lack of water, agriculture is confined to well-watered areas.

*3.2.7.2 Uniform rains with summer concentration from local thunderstorms and* 

Chilas in the Northern Areas and parts of Kohistan district are included in this region, where the annual total rainfall varies between 5 and 10 inches. Rainfall is received both in summers and winters, with summer concentration especially from local thunderstorms. Physiography is rough with high barren mountains and glacial topography. The evapotranspiration of the region is 3.3 mm or 0.13 inches, with annual sunshine of 6.5 h/day and average day relative humidity of 35–40%. The mean temperature of the region is between 20 and 25°C, with 30 and 35°C maxima and 5 and 10°C minima. The mean daily range varies between 10 and 15°C, with 25–30°C daily maximum and 10–15°C daily minimum temperature. The highest maximum temperature of the region is 48.1°C, in August, and the lowest minimum is −4.4°C, recorded in January. The number of rainy days is 17.3 per year, with average wind speed of 1 knot. The upper mountain slopes have poor soils, but the valley bottom has deep clayrich soils overlying the colluviums on lower slopes, fans, and terraces. Crops can be cultivated on these fertile fans and terraces, obviously irrigated by the streams. Slopes rely on rainfall to produce maize, wheat, and orchards of walnuts, apricots, and plums. The forests are usually deciduous with most of the barren mountains

Agriculture and climate of the arid region have also been greatly influenced by the soil composition and structure. "The soil has three distinct constituents, which are solid particle, air, and water." These three major components have also great effects on the climate and crop productivity of a region. For example, salts, minerals, and organic matters help in the reflection, deflection, and absorption of solar radiation; consequently, the temperature of the earth surface and atmosphere fluctuates [3]. The arid region of Pakistan has peculiar types of soil due to its topography, climate, vegetation cover, parental materials, and time period of formation (main factors of soil formation). Based on structure and composition, the soil of the arid region can be classified into "soil of the flood plain, loamy soils of bar uplands, loamy and clayey, partly saline soils of the piedmont plains, rolling to hilly sandy soils of Aeolian desert, highlands, Baluchistan plateau." The soil of the floodplain is subclassified into loamy and some sandy stratified soil of recent river plains, mainly loamy and clayey soils of subrecent river plains, mainly loamy saline soils of estuary

The loamy and clayey soils are rich in soil contents and suitable for agriculture activities. Such soil is located at the bar upland in lower Punjab and also on both sides of the Indus River in Sind (arid region), and both of the areas produced a major part of the agriculture economy on national level. Most of the arid region of Baluchistan, eastern Sind, and lower eastern Punjab is characterized by the rolling to hilly sandy soils, which are poor for crop cultivation, while the remaining areas are converted to cultivated lands after establishment of better irrigation system that

*relative humidity of 35–40% (Ustz')*

and lands. Agriculture is mostly confined to rainfed areas.

plains, and mainly salty and clayey wet saline soils of tidal plains.

originated from Indus and its tributaries (**Figure 3**).

**102**

**4. Soil**

**Figure 3.** *Soil map of the arid region, GoP [15].*
