**2. The study area**

*Climate Change and Agriculture*

them to plant crops impulsively.

the sustainability of their own coping strategies.

Climate change defines alterations in the long-term average conditions of the climate, persisting for unusually longer periods, which can be decades or generations [3]. These changes may be due to natural or persistent anthropogenic alterations in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use. Climate variability, on the other hand, refers to unusual changes in the spatial and temporal state of climatic variables. Food is an incessant priority for subsistence for many indigenous minorities who are already vulnerable to changing environmental conditions. Due to a continuous dependence on agriculture for most livelihoods, the effects of climate change on productive croplands are likely to drastically threaten the wellbeing of the population [4]. The close relationship of minorities with their natural environments makes them mainly sensitive to the effects of climate change. One of the most outrageous examples of minorities' greater exposure to climate change is in India where indigenous minority groups known as Dalits, Adivass and Muslims were economically, physically and socially excluded from the rest of society [4]. As a result, they were worst hit by the abnormally severe monsoon floods in 2007.

Minority people tend to live close to nature, in relatively natural environments, rather than in cities, growing and making much of the food and other products that they need to survive [5]. This gives them an exceptionally intimate knowledge of local weather, plant and animal life. Customary wisdom on issues such as where to hunt for food or when to plant crops has been accrued over many generations, but now that the climate is shifting, some of those understandings are proving to be no longer applicable [6]. Masud et al. [7] also argue that some rainfall patterns have changed in line with what climate change scientists are predicting and, as a result, people's customary knowledge about when to plant crops is no longer consistent. Hence, the capability to accurately recognise the rainy season has suffered leading

Coping strategies means actions that reduce the actual and expected effects of climate change making people adapt to prevailing conditions. These coping strategies can actually take place at a local level where people make changes they can, independently of government. Coping strategies can also be introduced by governments and NGOs to indigenous minority people. For example, in the Arctic Sam reindeer, herders transport food to the reindeer in winters when the animals cannot reach the lichen [8]. They also reverse their traditional pattern and take their animals inland during the summer and to the coast in winter, where there is no snow and so grazing is less. However, the author further asserts that their ability to adapt is limited by lack of financial resources and technical expertise. There is so much that they cannot perform without government support, and as a result, this affects the sustainability of their own introduced coping strategies. In Kenya, some pastoralists have adapted to climate change by growing livestock fodder crops in wetter areas near rivers, selling some of their livestock rather than allowing them to die during droughts [8]. But their insufficient representation in national politics has smashed their capacity to cope with the increasingly harsh climate thereby affecting

Climate variability has always been experienced in Southern Africa. During the 1991–1992 drought in Zimbabwe, average annual precipitation fluctuated from 335 to 1004 mm and averaged 640 mm [9]. Recurrent droughts and sporadic seasonal floods that have been experienced in the region have resulted in the loss of human life, livestock and property. They have also caused severe localised shortages of the main cereal crops like maize and other food items. Implications of climate change for Zimbabwe are serious. The number of years with below average rainfall is increasing. A survey on farmers' perceptions of climate change in Zimbabwe by Masendeke [10] indicates that farmers have noticed changes in the quantity, quality and efficacy of rainfall. There is a general decline in the amount of rainfall, which is

**36**

Beitbridge lies in the Limpopo Valley, a paragneiss zone that stretches from the east of Chiredzi to the Border with Botswana. Mean annual rainfall for the district is between 300 and 600 mm [12]. Most of the rainfall is experienced in summer from October to March. Mean annual temperature is between 25 and 27.5°C. Soils in the district are varied, depending on the parent materials and age. On sedimentary formations, soils that occur in younger deposits are deep and often stratified. On levee deposits, soils are relatively light-textured with a high proportion of coarse sand of granitic origin. Basin areas have heavy-textured soils derived from fine materials deposited during floods. Vegetation varies from the savanna on deep fertile soils to shrub savanna on shallower ones. It is of lower stature of 2–6 m high with a sparse grass cover of mainly *Sporobolus* spp (love grass) and *Cynodon dactylon*. Common trees in this region include mopani, which is prevalent on salt-rich soils, baobab, *marula* and various species of combretum and acacia [13]. Apart from the urban setting of Beitbridge as a border town with South Africa, the west of Beitbridge district is semi-arid, remote and marginal. Farmers are generally sedentary pastoralists who practice dry land farming which concentrates on drought-tolerant small grains like sorghum, millet and rapoko. Communities in Beitbridge traditionally keep large heads of the indigenous thuli cattle and other breeds. They also keep large flocks of sheep and goats. The district has some natural salt pans where salt extraction takes place. Beitbridge has a heterogeneous population of marginalised minority farmer communities which include the Venda, Shangani and Suthu. There is no evidence of a concerted study which disaggregates the age-sex classes of each of these minority ethnic communities and this emphasises their social and economic vulnerability. However, Beitbridge district has a population of 80,083 (14) comprised mainly of these three ethnic groups whose combined population, together with other Bantuspeaking minority ethnic communities like the Tonga (Binga district) and Kalanga (Bulilima and Mangwe districts) is slightly over 1% of Zimbabwe's total population

**Figure 1.**

*Mean annual rainfall-temperature graph for Beitbridge district (1952–1982). Data source: Meteorological Department, Harare.*

of about 17 million. The population density of Beitbridge district is between 4.42 and 10.61 [14]. The district has 15 wards for administrative and developmental purposes (**Figure 1**).

#### **3. Methodology**

The study used qualitative ethnographic research design to investigate coping strategies to climate change and climate variability by specific minority farmer communities. Communities borrow indigenous knowledge from their culture to adapt to their environment. Fraenkel and Wallen [15] submit that ethnography describes social groups or situations; delineating behaviour and shared beliefs of a particular group of people and in the process gaining an understanding of how and why the participants function and behave as they do in the context of their culture. Qualitative ethnographic design enabled the researcher to obtain in-depth data concerning minority farmer communities through interviews, focus group discussions and direct observations. It embraced their experiences, feelings and behaviour as they respond to climate change and climate variability issues.

An analysis of relevant documents in text format was done to gain preliminary knowledge of the minority communities in Beitbridge district. Documents analysed included scientific work published on the district and documents outlining the district's developmental plans. Secondary rainfall and temperature data from the Meteorological Department was also collected for analysis. Document analysis enabled the researcher to examine records and documents and to get an idea of past and present life of these communities in an unobtrusive manner [16]. In this study, interest was on determining coping strategies of minority communities to climate change and variability.

A total of 20 purposively selected farmers were subjected to in-depth interviews focusing on answering the research questions like environmental evidence which point to a changing climate; and community knowledge-based initiatives in place to cope with climate change impacts. The farmers are geographically intermingled, incorporating Venda, Suthu and Shangani communities and thus geographical differentiation was not an important variable in their selection. The snowball technique was used to ethnically but purposively select the 20 farmers (8 Venda, 6 Suthu and 6 Shangani) to give each ethnic group a voice. Chief

**39**

*Beitbridge Minority Farmer Communities and Climate Change: Prospects for Sustainability*

Executive Officer for Beitbridge Rural District Council was interviewed to get insight into government's involvement in climate change and climate variability issues in the district. A randomly selected traditional leader (local Chief) from the district was interviewed to get the traditional perception of climate change issues in relation to their respective areas of jurisdiction The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) country representative was also interviewed to find out the activities it is involved in which are aimed at climate change mitigation/adaptation as well as communities' response to their initiatives. ICRISAT is based in Zimbabwe's south-west district of Matobo (Matopos), some 40 km to the

Focus group discussions were used to give independent voice mainly to women, who because of patriarchal domination, do not usually narrate their experiences as they experience them, but instead answer questions as expected of them by society. Discussions on climate change issues and how communities are coping with them were initiated at social gatherings like food for-work programmes, boreholes, school development gatherings and similar gatherings to get communities' views. Focus group discussions, therefore, provided some quality controls on data collection in that participants were able to provide checks and balances on each other. This helped in weeding false or extreme views, and it was fairly easy for the researcher to assess the extent to which there was a relatively consistent or shared view among the participants. Focus groups allowed insight into the values, beliefs, fears and aspirations of the different communities regarding climate

Structured observation was used to verify communities coping strategies in situ. It was used to verify findings from interviews, questionnaires, focus group discussions and ethnography. Climate change and coping strategies-related evidence like drying of wetlands, state of pastures, traditionally preserved foods, etc., were observed. The researcher observed events or phenomena in the natural and social spheres without any manipulation, interference or intervention. All relevant

The questionnaire method was applied and analysed as a quantitative research method. A questionnaire with closed items which focussed on facts on evidence and impacts of climate change was developed for this study. The questionnaire survey was meant to collect as much data as possible from respondents on their coping strategies to climate change and climate variability. To ensure a 100% response rate and also to save on time, the questionnaire was administered in the form of an interview. Questionnaires were distributed to 10 randomly selected households per each of Beitbridge district's 15 wards to confirm or refute information obtained from in-depth interviews and other methods. This means 150 questionnaires were

To verify whether rainfall and temperature were changing over time in Beitbridge district, secondary data from the Meteorological Department were analysed in Microsoft Excel. Sum monthly rainfall totals from September to August were calculated and averaged. The sums of monthly maximum and minimum temperature were also calculated and averages computed in Microsoft Excel. The district's rainfall and temperature data were divided into three generations for the period 1922–2012.The data were obtained from the Meteorological Services Department in Harare. However, the first generation, 1922–1952, had inadequate data to make meaningful comparisons, so only data from generations 2 and 3 were used. Meteorological data were thus divided into 1952–1982 and 1982–2012 generations and rainfall-temperature compound time-series graphs were computed in order to compare rainfall and temperature variations which impact minority farmer

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83816*

change and variability.

south-east of Zimbabwe's second largest city, Bulawayo.

observations were noted on a coding sheet or checklist.

randomly administered across the district.

communities' livelihoods in Beitbridge.

#### *Beitbridge Minority Farmer Communities and Climate Change: Prospects for Sustainability DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83816*

Executive Officer for Beitbridge Rural District Council was interviewed to get insight into government's involvement in climate change and climate variability issues in the district. A randomly selected traditional leader (local Chief) from the district was interviewed to get the traditional perception of climate change issues in relation to their respective areas of jurisdiction The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) country representative was also interviewed to find out the activities it is involved in which are aimed at climate change mitigation/adaptation as well as communities' response to their initiatives. ICRISAT is based in Zimbabwe's south-west district of Matobo (Matopos), some 40 km to the south-east of Zimbabwe's second largest city, Bulawayo.

Focus group discussions were used to give independent voice mainly to women, who because of patriarchal domination, do not usually narrate their experiences as they experience them, but instead answer questions as expected of them by society. Discussions on climate change issues and how communities are coping with them were initiated at social gatherings like food for-work programmes, boreholes, school development gatherings and similar gatherings to get communities' views. Focus group discussions, therefore, provided some quality controls on data collection in that participants were able to provide checks and balances on each other. This helped in weeding false or extreme views, and it was fairly easy for the researcher to assess the extent to which there was a relatively consistent or shared view among the participants. Focus groups allowed insight into the values, beliefs, fears and aspirations of the different communities regarding climate change and variability.

Structured observation was used to verify communities coping strategies in situ. It was used to verify findings from interviews, questionnaires, focus group discussions and ethnography. Climate change and coping strategies-related evidence like drying of wetlands, state of pastures, traditionally preserved foods, etc., were observed. The researcher observed events or phenomena in the natural and social spheres without any manipulation, interference or intervention. All relevant observations were noted on a coding sheet or checklist.

The questionnaire method was applied and analysed as a quantitative research method. A questionnaire with closed items which focussed on facts on evidence and impacts of climate change was developed for this study. The questionnaire survey was meant to collect as much data as possible from respondents on their coping strategies to climate change and climate variability. To ensure a 100% response rate and also to save on time, the questionnaire was administered in the form of an interview. Questionnaires were distributed to 10 randomly selected households per each of Beitbridge district's 15 wards to confirm or refute information obtained from in-depth interviews and other methods. This means 150 questionnaires were randomly administered across the district.

To verify whether rainfall and temperature were changing over time in Beitbridge district, secondary data from the Meteorological Department were analysed in Microsoft Excel. Sum monthly rainfall totals from September to August were calculated and averaged. The sums of monthly maximum and minimum temperature were also calculated and averages computed in Microsoft Excel. The district's rainfall and temperature data were divided into three generations for the period 1922–2012.The data were obtained from the Meteorological Services Department in Harare. However, the first generation, 1922–1952, had inadequate data to make meaningful comparisons, so only data from generations 2 and 3 were used. Meteorological data were thus divided into 1952–1982 and 1982–2012 generations and rainfall-temperature compound time-series graphs were computed in order to compare rainfall and temperature variations which impact minority farmer communities' livelihoods in Beitbridge.

*Climate Change and Agriculture*

purposes (**Figure 1**).

*Department, Harare.*

**Figure 1.**

**3. Methodology**

change and variability.

of about 17 million. The population density of Beitbridge district is between 4.42 and 10.61 [14]. The district has 15 wards for administrative and developmental

*Mean annual rainfall-temperature graph for Beitbridge district (1952–1982). Data source: Meteorological* 

The study used qualitative ethnographic research design to investigate coping strategies to climate change and climate variability by specific minority farmer communities. Communities borrow indigenous knowledge from their culture to adapt to their environment. Fraenkel and Wallen [15] submit that ethnography describes social groups or situations; delineating behaviour and shared beliefs of a particular group of people and in the process gaining an understanding of how and why the participants function and behave as they do in the context of their culture. Qualitative ethnographic design enabled the researcher to obtain in-depth data concerning minority farmer communities through interviews, focus group discussions and direct observations. It embraced their experiences, feelings and behaviour

An analysis of relevant documents in text format was done to gain preliminary knowledge of the minority communities in Beitbridge district. Documents analysed included scientific work published on the district and documents outlining the district's developmental plans. Secondary rainfall and temperature data from the Meteorological Department was also collected for analysis. Document analysis enabled the researcher to examine records and documents and to get an idea of past and present life of these communities in an unobtrusive manner [16]. In this study, interest was on determining coping strategies of minority communities to climate

A total of 20 purposively selected farmers were subjected to in-depth interviews focusing on answering the research questions like environmental evidence which point to a changing climate; and community knowledge-based initiatives in place to cope with climate change impacts. The farmers are geographically intermingled, incorporating Venda, Suthu and Shangani communities and thus geographical differentiation was not an important variable in their selection. The snowball technique was used to ethnically but purposively select the 20 farmers (8 Venda, 6 Suthu and 6 Shangani) to give each ethnic group a voice. Chief

as they respond to climate change and climate variability issues.

**38**
