**4.7 Perspectives by communities in Beitbridge on sustainability of interventions**

Minority farmer communities in Beitbridge district comprising the Venda, Suthu and Shangani generally believe their indigenous knowledge is least sustainable at 28% (**Figure 6**). Only 52% of the respondents believe indigenous knowledge is between sustainable to very sustainable. This could be because of environmental change resulting from climate change and variability. NGOs are the best rated in providing interventions against climate change and variability. Respondents gave NGOs a combined rating of 78% between sustainable and very sustainable against a government rating of 56%. This could mainly be because NGOs come to communities' rescue during the hyperinflationary period of the 2000–2009 decade which, combined with famine from recurrent droughts and floods during that period, threatened to wipe out these communities.

#### **4.8 Discussion**

*Climate Change and Agriculture*

chances of creeping out of poverty.

The dams also provide water for livestock.

**4.6 Initiatives by NGOs to help farmers cope with the impacts of climate change**

could not sustain it once the NGO had left due to high running costs.

projects in Beitbridge were already showing signs of collapse.

LDS, World Vision, Red Cross and CEZVI drilled boreholes.

In the western wards of Machuchuta, Masera and Maramani, CARE International, ICRISAT and ORAP established sale pens for livestock. This has helped farmers realise fairly reasonable prices from their livestock before they become very thin from lack of pasture, browse and water. During severe years, CARE International and World Food Programme provide food packs like cooking oil, soya beans, maize and samp to alleviate starvation. The most notable contribution to these western wards is Shashe Irrigation Scheme where government partnered SAFIRE and CEZVI to initiate the growing of citrus which when complete will cover 140 hectares. About 80 hectares are currently under irrigation. Farmers also grow wheat to cover for their family needs as well as for sale. World Vision built three small earth dams in ward 9 which helped farmers initiate community gardens.

In the eastern wards, CARE International supplied cooking oil and a bag of maize per household per month for 7 months from September 2012 to March 2013, while World Vision provided supplementary feeding for cattle, donkeys and goats.

In Beitbridge district, initiatives by NGOs to help communities cope with climate change and variability were non-existent between 1980 and 1999. The 2000–2009 decade, however, saw NGOs like Lutheran Development Society (LDS) and CARE International building earth dams to harness rain water for communities. They also introduced community gardens to help reduce malnutrition and food insecurity in general. LDS, CEZVI, Red Cross and World Vision sunk boreholes in various wards across the district and this improved water access for both domestic use and livestock watering. In an attempt to reduce deaths of livestock due to drought and improve the value of cattle for subsistence farmers, LDS introduced cattle fattening. The programme only became successful during the inception period but farmers

Community gardens and earth dam construction by CARE and LDS continued

In the central wards of Mtetengwe I, II and III, CARE International is the most active. It has helped villagers start community gardens and small irrigation schemes by providing fence, poles and seed packs. The gardening is mainly done by women who are organised in groups of 10. The NGO advise farmers on what to grow taking into account ambient climatic variability. Farmers in these wards, however, complained that although the NGO helps them cope with climate change, it is not a permanent solution because it only stays in an area for two or three seasons and leaves at critical times when they are mastering the new technologies introduced. During the time of the study, CARE had shifted to Masvingo Province and its

into the 2010–2013 period. During the same period, CARE, Southern Alliance for Indigenous Resources (SAFIRE), EU and LED collaboration with government initiated community orchards at Shashe Irrigation Scheme. These are expected to provide economic relief to the Shashe community once the trees start to bear fruits. Lutheran Development Services (LDS) has rehabilitated boreholes in northwestern wards of Dendele, Siyoka I and Siyoka II. World Vision and LDS drilled boreholes at primary schools which include Dendele, Madali and Vuturura. LDS also helped villagers initiate Phondongoma community garden in Vuturura village and Malusungane garden in Dendele ward. Villagers grow different types of vegetables and fruits like oranges, mangoes, peaches and guavas in an attempt to circumvent the effects of climate change and variability. LDS pays school fees for orphans from primary school up to Advanced Level as a way to increase their

**48**

In Beitbridge district, climate change is causing failed agricultural produce and reduced yields. These result from climate extremes like droughts, strong winds and floods which also destroy infrastructure like homes, bridges and schools. They also kill people and livestock. Many irrigation schemes in the district are not functional because of the 2000 and 2003 destruction by cyclones Eline and Japhet, respectively. This has negatively impacted households' livelihoods. Climate-dependent environmental endowments like the mopane worm (amacimbi), a southern district delicacy harvested from mopane trees, has become vulnerable because of climate variability. Mopane worms are an important source of livelihood in Beitbridge district. They are eaten in the household as relish or as a stand-alone meal in difficult times. They are also brisk business when sold in villages, along roadsides, at rural service centres or in towns as communities' source income to cushion themselves against poverty. Another traditionally important household cushion against hunger and starvation, amarula juice, is now only episodically produced as the fruit is also succumbing to climate change. Youths in Beitbridge no longer place their hope on their environment but on neighbouring South Africa. With their drift to South Africa, the youths miss out on cultural initiation which would otherwise equip them with their indigenous knowledge. This points to an imminent erosion of rich cultural values of the Venda, Suthu and Shangani communities.

**Figure 6.** *Interventions sustainability rating.*

#### *Climate Change and Agriculture*

Climate change is forcing communities to gradually lose confidence and trust in their generations-old indigenous knowledge systems of farming because of erratic rains which lead to reduced agro-ecological yields. Community trust and confidence on indigenous knowledge systems to support food security has now been eroded. Traditional food preparation and preservation are no longer systematic. This leads to loss of these skills by the new generation who traditionally would carry such indigenous knowledge to posterity. Some farmers have since abandoned dry land farming because of persistent droughts. Others have resorted to NGO-sponsored community gardening projects, for example, in Lutumba and Maramani wards. Given the uncertainty of such gardening projects, which usually collapse at the departure of benefactor NGOs, reliance solely on gardens drive households into deeper poverty.

Beitbridge is a livestock district and for most households, livestock is a store of wealth. Climate change induced extreme weather like droughts and floods which kill many animals [17]. Farmers then sell their livestock for very little to people from districts with better pastures. Most of the money that communities get from their livestock is used to buy items and goods from cross-border traders and traders from other districts. This means that even with the large herds of livestock, which can turn them into viable commercial livestock producers, minority community farmers remain poor subsistence livestock herders.

A viable indigenous coping strategy to climate change is, however, manifest in Maramani ward between Shashe and Limpopo Rivers. Both men and women hand-make hats, mats, brooms at Maramani ilala Project Craft Centre using the locally available *ilala* plant which they harvest from wetlands and river banks. They sell their products locally, in towns and even across the border in South Africa. The remote location of both the ward and craft centre, however, negatively affects this local initiative. Clients from outside the ward are few and those who endure the rough drive to the craft centre negotiate for very uneconomical bargains to the weavers. Maramani Ilala project is, however, an example of how communities can use their indigenous knowledge, raw materials from their immediate environment and their skills to cushion themselves against climate change impacts. Largely because of the Maramani Ilala project, climate change effects in Maramani ward are not very dire.

Western wards of Masera, Machuchuta and Maramani, which are rich in wildlife also, have the potential to counter detrimental climate change impacts through CAMPFIRE projects. Wildfire is a promising resource which, if well exploited, can boost tourism in a revamped CAMPFIRE programme. CAMPFIRE proceeds are meant to benefit these wards in infrastructural developments like roads, schools, clinics and bridges are currently inadequate. Communities no longer see any value in conserving wildlife. Some have resorted to poaching in wildlife conservation areas.

These wards are comparatively wetter and sustain more herds of livestock. The tragedy, however, is that they are isolated and have badly damaged roads. This results in poor markets for livestock. Although Beitbridge Rural District Council conducts cattle sales at selected 'central' points within the district, these points are in reality not central for most of the minority farmers in remote parts of the district. The selling points are located close to highways to attract buyers from towns and cities. Besides council-conducted cattle sales being a noble idea, council insists on farmers to have temporary cattle trading licences to conduct business. Most farmers cannot afford the money. Moreover, most of their cattle will be in bad shape and cannot give high returns. To raise the money for a council licence and for household needs, farmers are forced to sell many herd of cattle and at very low prices. In the eastern wards of Dite 1, Dite 2 and Chipise, for example, a mature cow or bull can sell for only US\$90. In drought years, government, through the Livestock Development Programme (LDP), advises farmers to sell their livestock and not

**51**

sustain themselves.

*Beitbridge Minority Farmer Communities and Climate Change: Prospects for Sustainability*

risk all of them being wiped out by the drought. Minority communities, therefore, have two hard choices for their livestock in drought years; either they sell them very cheaply to people from other districts for fattening and profit-making, or they

Even for these comparatively better environmentally endowed western wards, opportunities offered by government in the face of climate change are no longer enough to retain youths. This is because of the strong South African rand pull factor in the more affluent South African cities and farms. The sustainability of indigenous knowledge and local resources as cushions against climate change therefore

Pastures are generally a big problem in Beitbridge district, more so in the Vendadominated central wards of Mtetengwe1–3 and Eastern Shangani-dominated wards. Although these wards benefitted from the fast track land reform and resettlement programme, beneficiaries preferred to go and settle in the newly acquired areas. This led to quick environmental depletion due to large herds of livestock, clearing of large areas for settlement both of which were not complemented by climate variables, especially rainfall. Some of the resettled areas had over the years been used as *miraga* (winter grazing areas) by these minority farmers. The permanent occupation of such areas, therefore, deprived farmers of fallback options for their livestock in times of drought. Consequently, eastern and central wards lose high numbers of

By comparison, Suthu-dominated north-western wards of Dendele, Siyoka 1 and 2 and western wards of Machuchuta, Masera and Maramani, livestock deaths are not as devastating. In these areas, instead of occupying the farms they got from the fast track land reform and resettlement programme, communities were prudent enough to reserve most of the farms as *miraga* for their cattle. For example, Maramani, Masera and Machuchuta communities send their cattle to Shobi Block

While *miragas* are generally a viable solution to reduce cattle deaths, they come at a cost to farmers. For every 10 herd of cattle, farmers are obliged to part with one beast as payment to the custodians of respective grazing areas. Besides, at these grazing areas, cattle are not always safe. Cattle rustlers are a problem in the district, with some families losing as many as 50 head of cattle to them at *miraga yakholomo*

Minority Venda, Suthu and Shangani communities in Beitbridge rely on their traditional sorghum and millet varieties as their staple crops. They prepare and treat these seeds and store them in their traditional granaries for replanting. Instead of helping communities improve these local grain varieties through research, government seems determined to change these communities' traditional tastes by introducing maize as an alternative to these small grains. Government provides maize seed loans which farmers rarely pay back because of poor harvests caused mainly by reduced soil moisture content resulting from the changing climate. Government is, therefore, defeating the intentions of the developmental state theory which seeks to

NGOs are popular in Beitbridge. This is because they attend to the immediate and most pressing needs of the household through, for example, providing food, initiating and funding community gardens, paying fees for school children, fattening cattle during drought periods. NGOs, however, usually do not stay in any ward or district for long. They usually leave after the supposed summer harvest (even if some households do not harvest anything). NGOs usually leave before communities have mastered the art of self-sufficiency in the efficient management of projects. As a result of this pseudo-empowerment, communities fail to

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83816*

livestock to climate-change-related factors.

farm which is their winter grazing area.

(winter cattle grazing areas) in one season alone.

promote indigenous initiatives to development.

watch them die miserably.

remain threatened.

#### *Beitbridge Minority Farmer Communities and Climate Change: Prospects for Sustainability DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83816*

risk all of them being wiped out by the drought. Minority communities, therefore, have two hard choices for their livestock in drought years; either they sell them very cheaply to people from other districts for fattening and profit-making, or they watch them die miserably.

Even for these comparatively better environmentally endowed western wards, opportunities offered by government in the face of climate change are no longer enough to retain youths. This is because of the strong South African rand pull factor in the more affluent South African cities and farms. The sustainability of indigenous knowledge and local resources as cushions against climate change therefore remain threatened.

Pastures are generally a big problem in Beitbridge district, more so in the Vendadominated central wards of Mtetengwe1–3 and Eastern Shangani-dominated wards. Although these wards benefitted from the fast track land reform and resettlement programme, beneficiaries preferred to go and settle in the newly acquired areas. This led to quick environmental depletion due to large herds of livestock, clearing of large areas for settlement both of which were not complemented by climate variables, especially rainfall. Some of the resettled areas had over the years been used as *miraga* (winter grazing areas) by these minority farmers. The permanent occupation of such areas, therefore, deprived farmers of fallback options for their livestock in times of drought. Consequently, eastern and central wards lose high numbers of livestock to climate-change-related factors.

By comparison, Suthu-dominated north-western wards of Dendele, Siyoka 1 and 2 and western wards of Machuchuta, Masera and Maramani, livestock deaths are not as devastating. In these areas, instead of occupying the farms they got from the fast track land reform and resettlement programme, communities were prudent enough to reserve most of the farms as *miraga* for their cattle. For example, Maramani, Masera and Machuchuta communities send their cattle to Shobi Block farm which is their winter grazing area.

While *miragas* are generally a viable solution to reduce cattle deaths, they come at a cost to farmers. For every 10 herd of cattle, farmers are obliged to part with one beast as payment to the custodians of respective grazing areas. Besides, at these grazing areas, cattle are not always safe. Cattle rustlers are a problem in the district, with some families losing as many as 50 head of cattle to them at *miraga yakholomo* (winter cattle grazing areas) in one season alone.

Minority Venda, Suthu and Shangani communities in Beitbridge rely on their traditional sorghum and millet varieties as their staple crops. They prepare and treat these seeds and store them in their traditional granaries for replanting. Instead of helping communities improve these local grain varieties through research, government seems determined to change these communities' traditional tastes by introducing maize as an alternative to these small grains. Government provides maize seed loans which farmers rarely pay back because of poor harvests caused mainly by reduced soil moisture content resulting from the changing climate. Government is, therefore, defeating the intentions of the developmental state theory which seeks to promote indigenous initiatives to development.

NGOs are popular in Beitbridge. This is because they attend to the immediate and most pressing needs of the household through, for example, providing food, initiating and funding community gardens, paying fees for school children, fattening cattle during drought periods. NGOs, however, usually do not stay in any ward or district for long. They usually leave after the supposed summer harvest (even if some households do not harvest anything). NGOs usually leave before communities have mastered the art of self-sufficiency in the efficient management of projects. As a result of this pseudo-empowerment, communities fail to sustain themselves.

*Climate Change and Agriculture*

remain poor subsistence livestock herders.

Climate change is forcing communities to gradually lose confidence and trust in their generations-old indigenous knowledge systems of farming because of erratic rains which lead to reduced agro-ecological yields. Community trust and confidence on indigenous knowledge systems to support food security has now been eroded. Traditional food preparation and preservation are no longer systematic. This leads to loss of these skills by the new generation who traditionally would carry such indigenous knowledge to posterity. Some farmers have since abandoned dry land farming because of persistent droughts. Others have resorted to NGO-sponsored community gardening projects, for example, in Lutumba and Maramani wards. Given the uncertainty of such gardening projects, which usually collapse at the departure of benefactor NGOs, reliance solely on gardens drive households into deeper poverty. Beitbridge is a livestock district and for most households, livestock is a store of wealth. Climate change induced extreme weather like droughts and floods which kill many animals [17]. Farmers then sell their livestock for very little to people from districts with better pastures. Most of the money that communities get from their livestock is used to buy items and goods from cross-border traders and traders from other districts. This means that even with the large herds of livestock, which can turn them into viable commercial livestock producers, minority community farmers

A viable indigenous coping strategy to climate change is, however, manifest in Maramani ward between Shashe and Limpopo Rivers. Both men and women hand-make hats, mats, brooms at Maramani ilala Project Craft Centre using the locally available *ilala* plant which they harvest from wetlands and river banks. They sell their products locally, in towns and even across the border in South Africa. The remote location of both the ward and craft centre, however, negatively affects this local initiative. Clients from outside the ward are few and those who endure the rough drive to the craft centre negotiate for very uneconomical bargains to the weavers. Maramani Ilala project is, however, an example of how communities can use their indigenous knowledge, raw materials from their immediate environment and their skills to cushion themselves against climate change impacts. Largely because of the Maramani Ilala project, climate change effects in Maramani ward are

Western wards of Masera, Machuchuta and Maramani, which are rich in wildlife

also, have the potential to counter detrimental climate change impacts through CAMPFIRE projects. Wildfire is a promising resource which, if well exploited, can boost tourism in a revamped CAMPFIRE programme. CAMPFIRE proceeds are meant to benefit these wards in infrastructural developments like roads, schools, clinics and bridges are currently inadequate. Communities no longer see any value in conserving wildlife. Some have resorted to poaching in wildlife conservation areas. These wards are comparatively wetter and sustain more herds of livestock. The tragedy, however, is that they are isolated and have badly damaged roads. This results in poor markets for livestock. Although Beitbridge Rural District Council conducts cattle sales at selected 'central' points within the district, these points are in reality not central for most of the minority farmers in remote parts of the district. The selling points are located close to highways to attract buyers from towns and cities. Besides council-conducted cattle sales being a noble idea, council insists on farmers to have temporary cattle trading licences to conduct business. Most farmers cannot afford the money. Moreover, most of their cattle will be in bad shape and cannot give high returns. To raise the money for a council licence and for household needs, farmers are forced to sell many herd of cattle and at very low prices. In the eastern wards of Dite 1, Dite 2 and Chipise, for example, a mature cow or bull can sell for only US\$90. In drought years, government, through the Livestock Development Programme (LDP), advises farmers to sell their livestock and not

**50**

not very dire.

#### **4.9 Conclusion**

All three minority communities (Venda, Suthu and Shangani) that populate Beitbridge are at the mercy of climate change and climate variability. Although they receive some assistance from government and non-governmental organisations, they all have considerable faith in their own indigenous coping strategies to fight the climate change scourge. There is need to recognise, respect and improve their indigenous knowledge systems. A deliberate effort must also be made to integrate this local traditional knowledge with modern technologies to build even stronger resilience and sustainability options.

The case of Beitbridge's minority farmer communities suffering from climate change and climate variability is one of lack of financial and technical resources and to some extent human resources because of an acute outmigration by the youth. Beitbridge is not a poor district from a natural resources' point of view. The district is a livestock region and all minority farmer communities generally have livestock like cattle, goats and sheep. The management of these in the face of climate change is, however, a serious issue as most of them, especially cattle, succumb in large numbers to climate-change-induced droughts and associated hazards like diseases and surface water shortages.

The study acknowledges efforts being initiated by both government and NGOs to reduce effects of climate change in Beitbridge. However, given the rich soils in parts of the district, the palatable pastures and browse, the diverse livestock varieties and abundant surface water potential for both damming and extraction through piping, the minority farmer communities of the district can significantly be better empowered for sustainability. Farmers should not be basket cases but should be helped to develop sustainable strategies and techniques to help them build resilience regardless of climatic hazards.

The interplay of government and NGO assistance on the communities in Beitbridge District risk disorienting the minds of these communities from their traditional cultural beliefs as their political orientation may be influenced by those who feed them. Apart from simply being natural hazardous phenomena, climate change and climate variability may end up being tools of political and economic manipulation of such minority farmer communities by both the rich and humanitarian service providers like NGOs and government through food politics where assistance may only be given to those who comply with the status quo.

#### **4.10 Recommendations**


**53**

provided the original work is properly cited.

Mark Matsa\* and Beauty Dzawanda

Midlands State University, Gweru, Zimbabwe

\*Address all correspondence to: matsam@staff.msu.ac.zw

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

*Beitbridge Minority Farmer Communities and Climate Change: Prospects for Sustainability*

can turn the whole district into a green belt. Government and other development partners should work towards the possible realisation of this possible

despite the fact that it falls in agro-ecological region 5 with an average rainfall of 300 mm [17]. Lack of fully functional and efficient irrigation schemes has negative implications on food security within the district especially among minority farmer communities who are on the fringes of development. Beitbridge Rural District Council should partner other arms of government like the irrigation department and AGRITEX to resuscitate and improve

• Emphasis of the district's irrigation schemes is on subsistence farming rather than on commercialisation. Average irrigation plot sizes range between 0.1 and 0.3 hectares which is relatively small [17]. Though this approach used to be sustainable several decades ago, and had stuck in the mindset of communal minority farmers, the advent of climate change and its destructive effects has rendered subsistence farming unsustainable. Government and NGO initiatives have not helped much with their food handouts which are only temporary and do not guarantee food security. Better coordination of the farmers by AGRITEX, NGOs and even among themselves is required to make irrigation

The authors would like to thank all research participants for their generous

contributions and also for allowing us to use their names in this chapter.

• Only 20% of the irrigation schemes in Beitbridge district are functional

capacity utilisation of irrigation schemes in the district.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83816*

schemes commercially successful.

**Acknowledgements**

**Author details**

dream.

*Beitbridge Minority Farmer Communities and Climate Change: Prospects for Sustainability DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83816*

can turn the whole district into a green belt. Government and other development partners should work towards the possible realisation of this possible dream.

