**4.1 Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents**

In Beitbridge district, a total of 100 respondents successfully answered questionnaires, 50 were males and another 50 females. Respondents' age-groups ranged between 26 and 105 years who had lived within the district for 30 years or more and were believed to have witnessed considerable climatic and environmental changes. Like in other border districts in the south-western part of Zimbabwe, it was, however, easier to find female respondents than male ones. Most males and the youth go to neighbouring South Africa and Botswana to look for better employment and livelihood opportunities [17]. About 68% of the respondents were married, 18% were single and 10% were widowed, while 4% were divorcees. The level of education in the district is generally low, with 30% of the respondents having acquired only primary education, another 30% lower secondary level and 28% basic secondary education. Only 2% had advanced secondary level of education and 10% had tertiary training, 8% of whom being teachers and 2% agricultural extension officers. Average family size in Beitbridge was 6. About 52% of the respondents were unemployed and were typical agro-pastoralists who relied mainly on livestock and subsistence crop farming for their day-to-day household livelihood. About 26% were in part-time employment which mainly involved cross-border trading in household goods between Zimbabwe and South Africa. This group would shuttle weekly or monthly, by hook or by crook, legally or illegally between the two countries for their household livelihood. Only 22% were in formal employment, most of them being teachers or employed in other government departments like agriculture or Beitbridge Rural District Council employees.

#### *4.1.1 Evidence attributable to climate change in south-west Zimbabwe*

In Beitbridge district, there is a high realisation that the rainy season is now starting late (100%) and yet ending early (94%) (**Table 1**). This could be linked to the change in wind patterns which 80% of the respondents identified as having changed. Summer season is becoming hotter (80%), while winter is becoming warmer (64%). The apparent rise in temperature could partly be the reason for the drying of perennial


**41**

the third generation (**Figure 4**).

*Beitbridge Minority Farmer Communities and Climate Change: Prospects for Sustainability*

rivers and springs (78%) through increased evapotranspiration. Increased temperature can also help explain diminishing pastures (88%) through depletion in soil moisture. In an interview, Beitbridge Rural District Council Officer in charge of the central wards of Mtetengwe I, II and III, Mr. Sibanda (65) observed that early summer rains which used to start in September/October are now starting in December. June and July which are supposedly the coldest months of the year are no longer very cold. Instead, February, which is characteristically a very rainy month, is turning out to be very cold. Drought is now more frequent and temperatures are no longer predictable. Mr. Mudawu (70), a Shashe village elder in the western ward of Maramani, added that when the rains come, they are uncharacteristically erratic and cause lots of damages to bridges, schools, homes and even kill people and livestock through very violent and strong winds, flooding, lightning and thunder. Mrs. Simuta (64) of Chaswingo village in Dite I ward concurs that seasons have changed but added that this confuses farmers as to when to plant. Pastures in the eastern wards of Beitbridge comprising Dite I, Dite II and the Shangani-dominated Chipise are now few even if it rains. This has resulted in

In the Suthu-dominated north-western wards of Siyoka I, Siyoka II and Dendele, environmental evidence attributable to climate change include heavy siltation of Umzingwane River which used to be perennial with multiple permanent pools. The river no longer has any pools. According to Mr. Siziba (70) of Vuturura village (Dendele ward), harvests are now very poor yet in yesteryears grain used *ukubola eziphaleni ngobunengi babo* (grain used to rot in granaries because of huge harvests). Places like Lutumba village in central Beitbridge which used to successfully produce more dry land maize than pearl millet and sorghum no longer produce maize because of unreliable rainfall. Amacimbi (mopane worms) used to be plentiful in the whole district but because of low and variable amounts of rainfall, amacimbi have become fewer, smaller and as a result fetch much less income for the farmers than before. In very dry years, amacimbi die before maturity. Amarula juice, the

most common fruit product in Lutumba, has become less common.

*4.1.2 Meteorological evidence of climate change in Beitbridge district*

district has, therefore, become drier and hotter in recent years.

Harvests used to take place up to August but now they end in May. Wildlife, which used to be a common sight in the wards, has also disappeared partly because of negative variations in climate change-related environmental modification.

**Figures 2** and **3** show some descriptive evidence that Beitbridge is generally a dry district. Only 2 years (1952 and 1957) received annual rainfall above 500 mm in the generation 1952–1982. Comparatively, the third generation (1982–2012) had only 1 year (2000) receiving annual rainfall above 500 mm. The second generation had 19 years which received mean annual rainfall figures of 300 mm and below compared to the third generation's 21 years. The two climate graphs (**Figures 2** and **3**) also show that temperature range for Beitbridge increased from 1.4°C in the second generation (1952–1982) to 3.3°C in the third generation (1982–2012). Beitbridge

Rainfall is the most important climate variable in south-western Zimbabwe because of minority farmers' reliance on semi-nomadic pastoralism and rain-fed crop farming. Mean annual rainfall coefficient of variation was calculated in SPSS version 20 to determine the percentage variation from one generation to the next. Beitbridge district's mean annual rainfall coefficient of variation for the second generation (**Figure 3**) varied from as low as 35% in the second generation to 53% in

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83816*

many livestock deaths in recent years.

#### **Table 1.**

*Environmental evidence indicative of climate change in Beitbridge district.*

#### *Beitbridge Minority Farmer Communities and Climate Change: Prospects for Sustainability DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83816*

rivers and springs (78%) through increased evapotranspiration. Increased temperature can also help explain diminishing pastures (88%) through depletion in soil moisture.

In an interview, Beitbridge Rural District Council Officer in charge of the central wards of Mtetengwe I, II and III, Mr. Sibanda (65) observed that early summer rains which used to start in September/October are now starting in December. June and July which are supposedly the coldest months of the year are no longer very cold. Instead, February, which is characteristically a very rainy month, is turning out to be very cold. Drought is now more frequent and temperatures are no longer predictable. Mr. Mudawu (70), a Shashe village elder in the western ward of Maramani, added that when the rains come, they are uncharacteristically erratic and cause lots of damages to bridges, schools, homes and even kill people and livestock through very violent and strong winds, flooding, lightning and thunder. Mrs. Simuta (64) of Chaswingo village in Dite I ward concurs that seasons have changed but added that this confuses farmers as to when to plant. Pastures in the eastern wards of Beitbridge comprising Dite I, Dite II and the Shangani-dominated Chipise are now few even if it rains. This has resulted in many livestock deaths in recent years.

In the Suthu-dominated north-western wards of Siyoka I, Siyoka II and Dendele, environmental evidence attributable to climate change include heavy siltation of Umzingwane River which used to be perennial with multiple permanent pools. The river no longer has any pools. According to Mr. Siziba (70) of Vuturura village (Dendele ward), harvests are now very poor yet in yesteryears grain used *ukubola eziphaleni ngobunengi babo* (grain used to rot in granaries because of huge harvests).

Places like Lutumba village in central Beitbridge which used to successfully produce more dry land maize than pearl millet and sorghum no longer produce maize because of unreliable rainfall. Amacimbi (mopane worms) used to be plentiful in the whole district but because of low and variable amounts of rainfall, amacimbi have become fewer, smaller and as a result fetch much less income for the farmers than before. In very dry years, amacimbi die before maturity. Amarula juice, the most common fruit product in Lutumba, has become less common.

Harvests used to take place up to August but now they end in May. Wildlife, which used to be a common sight in the wards, has also disappeared partly because of negative variations in climate change-related environmental modification.

#### *4.1.2 Meteorological evidence of climate change in Beitbridge district*

**Figures 2** and **3** show some descriptive evidence that Beitbridge is generally a dry district. Only 2 years (1952 and 1957) received annual rainfall above 500 mm in the generation 1952–1982. Comparatively, the third generation (1982–2012) had only 1 year (2000) receiving annual rainfall above 500 mm. The second generation had 19 years which received mean annual rainfall figures of 300 mm and below compared to the third generation's 21 years. The two climate graphs (**Figures 2** and **3**) also show that temperature range for Beitbridge increased from 1.4°C in the second generation (1952–1982) to 3.3°C in the third generation (1982–2012). Beitbridge district has, therefore, become drier and hotter in recent years.

Rainfall is the most important climate variable in south-western Zimbabwe because of minority farmers' reliance on semi-nomadic pastoralism and rain-fed crop farming. Mean annual rainfall coefficient of variation was calculated in SPSS version 20 to determine the percentage variation from one generation to the next.

Beitbridge district's mean annual rainfall coefficient of variation for the second generation (**Figure 3**) varied from as low as 35% in the second generation to 53% in the third generation (**Figure 4**).

*Climate Change and Agriculture*

**4.1 Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents**

*4.1.1 Evidence attributable to climate change in south-west Zimbabwe*

*Environmental evidence indicative of climate change in Beitbridge district.*

In Beitbridge district, there is a high realisation that the rainy season is now starting late (100%) and yet ending early (94%) (**Table 1**). This could be linked to the change in wind patterns which 80% of the respondents identified as having changed. Summer season is becoming hotter (80%), while winter is becoming warmer (64%). The apparent rise in temperature could partly be the reason for the drying of perennial

**Ward number Ward name Ward number Ward name** Chipise 9 Machuchuta Dite 1 10 Dendele Dite 2 11 Siyoka 2 Mtetengwe 1 12 Siyoka 1 Mtetengwe 2 13 Leasnth Mtetengwe 3 14a Bishopstone Masera 14b Bishopstone Maramani 15 Old Tuli

In Beitbridge district, a total of 100 respondents successfully answered questionnaires, 50 were males and another 50 females. Respondents' age-groups ranged between 26 and 105 years who had lived within the district for 30 years or more and were believed to have witnessed considerable climatic and environmental changes. Like in other border districts in the south-western part of Zimbabwe, it was, however, easier to find female respondents than male ones. Most males and the youth go to neighbouring South Africa and Botswana to look for better employment and livelihood opportunities [17]. About 68% of the respondents were married, 18% were single and 10% were widowed, while 4% were divorcees. The level of education in the district is generally low, with 30% of the respondents having acquired only primary education, another 30% lower secondary level and 28% basic secondary education. Only 2% had advanced secondary level of education and 10% had tertiary training, 8% of whom being teachers and 2% agricultural extension officers. Average family size in Beitbridge was 6. About 52% of the respondents were unemployed and were typical agro-pastoralists who relied mainly on livestock and subsistence crop farming for their day-to-day household livelihood. About 26% were in part-time employment which mainly involved cross-border trading in household goods between Zimbabwe and South Africa. This group would shuttle weekly or monthly, by hook or by crook, legally or illegally between the two countries for their household livelihood. Only 22% were in formal employment, most of them being teachers or employed in other government departments like agriculture or Beitbridge Rural District Council

**4. Results**

employees.

**40**

*N = 100.*

**Table 1.**

*Source: generated by author.*

**Figure 2.** *Mean annual rainfall-temperature graph for Beitbridge district (1982–2012). Data source: Meteorological Department, Harare.*
