**1. Introduction**

Climate change is a reality; according to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) fifth assessment report, humans are responsible for this unsustainable situation. From future climate change perspective, both human and natural systems are at risk [1]. It is a globally environmental challenge. Developing countries are more at risk due to a lower adaptive capacity and higher resource scarcity [2].

Climate change poses serious threats to Pakistan. Presently, climate change is considered one of the serious crises in Pakistan [3], as it is one of the most vulnerable countries, mostly due to its diverse geographical and climatic features [4]. As such, it has caused various disasters in the form of floods, droughts, and other

natural calamities in the country [5]. In the aftermath of the 2010 floods, one fifth of the country's land area was submerged; it severely damaged the economy and infrastructure, impacted livelihoods of millions of people, and left 90 million people food insecure [6]. Pakistan is among those countries which were badly affected in 2012 due to climate change [7].

Climate change is a great challenge for the agrarian economy of Pakistan [8]. The agriculture sector of Pakistan is highly vulnerable to climate change [9]. Livelihoods of millions of Pakistanis are dependent on agriculture sector which is highly sensitive to climate change [10].

This sector contributes approximately 25% to the national Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and it absorbs about 42% of the labor force [11]. The sector generates over 75% of export revenue and it is the largest employer sector in the country [12]. Agriculture sector in Pakistan faces serious challenges from climate changeinduced impacts, i.e., rising temperatures, floods, droughts and yield losses [13]. It is likely the variation in monsoons and increased temperature is a real challenge to the agriculture sector in Pakistan [14].

There are evidences that climate change will continuously pose threats throughout this century despite international efforts to curb greenhouse gas emissions [15]. In order to confront the challenge of climate change many efforts are made around the world. Various climate change policies are established at international, national, subnational, and local levels to address the impacts of climate change. Traditionally, the focus of such policies remained on mitigation instead of adaptation measures despite urgent requirements for adaptation strategies being emphasized [16]. Adaptation actions are important response to climate change as these actions help to reduce the vulnerabilities in the social and biological system [17]. One of the major objectives of adaptation measures is to build the resilient in societies to face climate change [18].

The need for adaptation policies and actions is increasingly recognized [19]. Governments are being forced to rethink their ways to manage climatic impacts and to focus not only on mitigation but also adaptation [20, 21]. Due to increasing public interests, the adaptation policies are being recognized and gaining space on policy agenda [22]. In case of most vulnerable countries to climate change, adaptation is the focus of their strategies to tackle the negative consequences of climate change. Many countries including Pakistan recognize the need to focus on adaptation strategies to effectively address the challenge of climate change.

To manage the potentially fatal issue of climate change, Pakistan responded with various initiatives, mainly on adaptation measures. These initiatives are in the form of climate change policies, implementation frameworks and some other measures. The national climate change policy of Pakistan says, "Adaptation efforts are the focus of this document." Pakistan is ranked in the list of the countries that have the least adaptive capacity due to extreme poverty and lack of physical and financial resources [10].

The subnational governments are key institutions for the effective implementation of climate change related policies. The subnational governments are important to helping curb climate change due to their proximity to the consequences of climate change [22]. Subnational governments in Pakistan have taken multiple initiatives to manage climate change. For instance, in Punjab a massive level awareness campaigns has been launched, establishment of provincial climate change policy, and establishment of linkage among the related departments in the province are some of notable initiatives among others.

Pakistan recognizes the important role of subnational governments/provinces for effective response to climate change. After 18th constitutional amendment in 2010, the responsibility of implementing climate change policies rests with respective provinces/subnational governments in the country. This study is conducted to understand the adaptation governance initiatives for agriculture

**71**

*Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation in Agricultural Sector: The Case of Local Responses…*

sector in the province of Punjab, Pakistan. This province is the major contributor of agriculture sector in Pakistan. The province accounts for 53% of the total GDP in the country. It is noted that agriculture adaptation actions reduce agricultural losses [23]. The subnational government of Punjab is taking adaptation steps to

The objective of this study is to understand how adaptation to climate change for agriculture sector is happening in Punjab province. The study mainly focuses on the key factors: (a) What are the different initiatives taken at the planned and autonomous level in the province? (b) What are the drivers behind the initiatives (c) How these initiatives are being transferred within farmers' community in Punjab and outside Punjab? and (d) What are major challenges for these farmers in adaptation

The study contributes to the literature on climate adaptation governance and adaptation policies for the agriculture sector at subnational level by exploration of hidden adaptation measures at subnational level. It essentially contributes to explore the drivers behind adaptation measures in the province. Moreover, it contributes by identifying policy needs and research gaps for climate adaptation at subnational level. Additionally, the study provides some replicable lessons for other developing countries while devising adaptation policies and action plans at subnational levels.

The scientific community concluded with a strong consensus that climate is changing. According to the fifth report of IPCC [24], climate change is taking place in the world and developing countries are especially expected to suffer more,

To manage the consequences of climate change, two fundamental societal response options emerged in the form of mitigation and adaptation [25]. Füssel [26] maintained that mitigation and adaptation are complementary rather than mutually exclusive. Historically, the focus to address climate change remained on mitigation measures [27]. However, a shift emerged and it became widely accepted that mitigation alone is unlikely to be sufficient to cope with climate change [28]. Adaptation to climate change is getting much attention in the scientific and policy debate [29, 30]. Adaptation is defined as: "adjustment in ecological, social or economic systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli and their effects or impacts" [31]. According to Stern, "adaptation will be crucial in reducing vulnerability to climate change and is the only way to cope with the impacts that are

Many countries have set their strategies to cope with climatic event at national, provincial, state, district and local levels [33]. The first time that the dilemma of adaptation for developing countries was recognized, was in 2001 at the Seventh

The important role of climate change adaptation as a policy is well considered and recognized internationally [35]. For instance, Article 4.1b of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change [36] states that parties are "committed to formulate and implement national and, where appropriate, regional programs containing measures to mitigate climate change and measures to facilitate adequate adaptation to climate change." Likewise, Article 10 of Kyoto Protocol also emphasized the promotion of adaptation and the incorporation of technological advancements for adaptation to overcome climate change [30]. Furthermore, in 2007 during the United Nations Conference on Climate Change in Bali, the need to enhance actions on

adaptation by Parties to the Convention was emphasized (UNFCCC [37]).

to the climate change and governance hurdles in the province?

**2. An overview of adaptation strategies**

compared to the developed world.

inevitable over the next few decades" [32].

Conference of the Parties in Morocco [34].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83553*

tackle climate change.

#### *Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation in Agricultural Sector: The Case of Local Responses… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83553*

sector in the province of Punjab, Pakistan. This province is the major contributor of agriculture sector in Pakistan. The province accounts for 53% of the total GDP in the country. It is noted that agriculture adaptation actions reduce agricultural losses [23]. The subnational government of Punjab is taking adaptation steps to tackle climate change.

The objective of this study is to understand how adaptation to climate change for agriculture sector is happening in Punjab province. The study mainly focuses on the key factors: (a) What are the different initiatives taken at the planned and autonomous level in the province? (b) What are the drivers behind the initiatives (c) How these initiatives are being transferred within farmers' community in Punjab and outside Punjab? and (d) What are major challenges for these farmers in adaptation to the climate change and governance hurdles in the province?

The study contributes to the literature on climate adaptation governance and adaptation policies for the agriculture sector at subnational level by exploration of hidden adaptation measures at subnational level. It essentially contributes to explore the drivers behind adaptation measures in the province. Moreover, it contributes by identifying policy needs and research gaps for climate adaptation at subnational level. Additionally, the study provides some replicable lessons for other developing countries while devising adaptation policies and action plans at subnational levels.

### **2. An overview of adaptation strategies**

The scientific community concluded with a strong consensus that climate is changing. According to the fifth report of IPCC [24], climate change is taking place in the world and developing countries are especially expected to suffer more, compared to the developed world.

To manage the consequences of climate change, two fundamental societal response options emerged in the form of mitigation and adaptation [25]. Füssel [26] maintained that mitigation and adaptation are complementary rather than mutually exclusive. Historically, the focus to address climate change remained on mitigation measures [27]. However, a shift emerged and it became widely accepted that mitigation alone is unlikely to be sufficient to cope with climate change [28].

Adaptation to climate change is getting much attention in the scientific and policy debate [29, 30]. Adaptation is defined as: "adjustment in ecological, social or economic systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli and their effects or impacts" [31]. According to Stern, "adaptation will be crucial in reducing vulnerability to climate change and is the only way to cope with the impacts that are inevitable over the next few decades" [32].

Many countries have set their strategies to cope with climatic event at national, provincial, state, district and local levels [33]. The first time that the dilemma of adaptation for developing countries was recognized, was in 2001 at the Seventh Conference of the Parties in Morocco [34].

The important role of climate change adaptation as a policy is well considered and recognized internationally [35]. For instance, Article 4.1b of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change [36] states that parties are "committed to formulate and implement national and, where appropriate, regional programs containing measures to mitigate climate change and measures to facilitate adequate adaptation to climate change." Likewise, Article 10 of Kyoto Protocol also emphasized the promotion of adaptation and the incorporation of technological advancements for adaptation to overcome climate change [30]. Furthermore, in 2007 during the United Nations Conference on Climate Change in Bali, the need to enhance actions on adaptation by Parties to the Convention was emphasized (UNFCCC [37]).

*Climate Change and Agriculture*

tive to climate change [10].

affected in 2012 due to climate change [7].

the agriculture sector in Pakistan [14].

gies to effectively address the challenge of climate change.

natural calamities in the country [5]. In the aftermath of the 2010 floods, one fifth of the country's land area was submerged; it severely damaged the economy and infrastructure, impacted livelihoods of millions of people, and left 90 million people food insecure [6]. Pakistan is among those countries which were badly

Climate change is a great challenge for the agrarian economy of Pakistan [8]. The agriculture sector of Pakistan is highly vulnerable to climate change [9]. Livelihoods of millions of Pakistanis are dependent on agriculture sector which is highly sensi-

There are evidences that climate change will continuously pose threats throughout this century despite international efforts to curb greenhouse gas emissions [15]. In order to confront the challenge of climate change many efforts are made around the world. Various climate change policies are established at international, national, subnational, and local levels to address the impacts of climate change. Traditionally, the focus of such policies remained on mitigation instead of adaptation measures despite urgent requirements for adaptation strategies being emphasized [16]. Adaptation actions are important response to climate change as these actions help to reduce the vulnerabilities in the social and biological system [17]. One of the major objectives of adaptation measures is to build the resilient in societies to face climate change [18]. The need for adaptation policies and actions is increasingly recognized [19]. Governments are being forced to rethink their ways to manage climatic impacts and to focus not only on mitigation but also adaptation [20, 21]. Due to increasing public interests, the adaptation policies are being recognized and gaining space on policy agenda [22]. In case of most vulnerable countries to climate change, adaptation is the focus of their strategies to tackle the negative consequences of climate change. Many countries including Pakistan recognize the need to focus on adaptation strate-

To manage the potentially fatal issue of climate change, Pakistan responded with various initiatives, mainly on adaptation measures. These initiatives are in the form of climate change policies, implementation frameworks and some other measures. The national climate change policy of Pakistan says, "Adaptation efforts are the focus of this document." Pakistan is ranked in the list of the countries that have the least adaptive capacity due to extreme poverty and lack of physical and financial resources [10]. The subnational governments are key institutions for the effective implementation of climate change related policies. The subnational governments are important to helping curb climate change due to their proximity to the consequences of climate change [22]. Subnational governments in Pakistan have taken multiple initiatives to manage climate change. For instance, in Punjab a massive level awareness campaigns has been launched, establishment of provincial climate change policy, and establishment of linkage among the related departments in the province are some of

Pakistan recognizes the important role of subnational governments/provinces for effective response to climate change. After 18th constitutional amendment in 2010, the responsibility of implementing climate change policies rests with respective provinces/subnational governments in the country. This study is conducted to understand the adaptation governance initiatives for agriculture

This sector contributes approximately 25% to the national Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and it absorbs about 42% of the labor force [11]. The sector generates over 75% of export revenue and it is the largest employer sector in the country [12]. Agriculture sector in Pakistan faces serious challenges from climate changeinduced impacts, i.e., rising temperatures, floods, droughts and yield losses [13]. It is likely the variation in monsoons and increased temperature is a real challenge to

**70**

notable initiatives among others.

Adaptation is essentially important to avoid impacts of climate change otherwise these impacts happen gradually [28]. It has been projected by climate models that there would be more frequent devastating floods, high rainfall events, and heat waves. Therefore, this scenario of climatic impacts necessitates the incorporation of adaptation strategies. Adaptation is considered a promising step to strengthen local capacity to tackle the forecasted and unexpected climatic conditions [38].

In Paris Agreement 2015, the adaptation to climate change is much emphasized. Dessai et al. [38] argued that mitigation alone is not sufficient to address climate change effectively. Therefore, adaptation attempts are made around the world to curb the challenge of climate change.

Pakistan recognizes the importance of adaptation to climate change. Change adaptation strategies are important to deal the issue of climate change in Pakistan (Ali and Erenstein [39]). Pakistan's policy response prioritizes adaptation measures. For instance, national climate change policy is much focused on climate adaptation initiatives. Mumtaz [40] argued that climate adaptation measures are unavoidable for Pakistan keeping in view its high vulnerability to climate change. It is reported that these adaptation measures are important for all major sector including agriculture sector.

### **3. Climatic impacts on agriculture sector**

Agriculture is a sensitive sector to climate change and it is considered among the most vulnerable sectors to the impacts of climate change [35]. Extreme weather conditions and precipitation changes are affecting the crop development, growth and yield of crops [41]. Rise in temperature reduces the grain filling duration, caused the grains sterility and yield reduction [42].

For last few decades high temperature is reported in Asia and the Pacific regions [43]. The agriculture sector in these regions is more vulnerable considering that Asia and the Pacific are responsible for 37% of the total world emissions from agriculture production. Most vulnerable countries in these regions are: Bhutan, Indonesia, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Timor-Leste, Uzbekistan, and Vietnam [44]. It is also reported that agriculture sector may disturb the climate [45]. It is indicated that 14% of nitric oxide and methane is coming from the agriculture sector and 18% is due to deforestation for agriculture use [46].

Agriculture sector is the backbone of the economy of Pakistan. This sector in Pakistan faces serious challenges due to climate change which impacts in the form of rising temperatures, floods, droughts, and yield losses [13]. The continuously occurrence of floods in Pakistan and other climate change impacts is costing the country 14 billion dollars per year, which is around five% of gross domestic product (GDP) to its economy [47].

Agriculture sector feeds food to the fast growing population of Pakistan according to Economic Survey of 2010–2011. Climate change is a great challenge for Pakistan's agrarian economy [8]. Agriculture productivity is affected by various factors including rainfall pattern, variation in temperature, and variation in dates of harvesting and sowing, availability of water, and evaporation along with suitability of land [9]. It is projected with 1° C rise in temperature will cause (6–9%) decline in wheat productivity [48].

To face the risks in agriculture associated with climate change, adaptation is the key factor to address the negative impacts of climate change. Adaptation strategies are important opportunities to tackle climate change effectively and to sustain the crop production [49]. Adaptation is an important policy response to climate change in agriculture sector [31, 35]. The IPCC emphasizes that it is very fundamental for the agricultural sector to adapt to climate change.

**73**

*Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation in Agricultural Sector: The Case of Local Responses…*

During the last two decades, the role of subnational states in the realm of global climate governance has grown significantly [50]. They further pointed out that the role of subnational governments has been extended as influential actors in international climate change policies. It is normal to find subnational governments playing

The existing literature highlights the role of subnational policies for climate governance. As such, Jörgensen [52] argued that subnational state policies are a key aspect of climate governance and function as laboratories of experimentation which could promote policy change through policy-learning. Jänicke [53] considered that provincial (subnational) and state level activities for climate change have increased

Climate change adaptation poses many complex governance questions and has therefore been called a "wicked problem par excellence" [54, 55]. The "wicked problem" needs comprehensive and proper solutions. Adaptation governance faces many difficulties, hindrances and opportunities involved in dealing with the "wicked problems" [56]. They further argued that due to the novelty and complexity of adaptation governance, a number of fundamental governance dilemmas have to be (re)addressed in developing the governance of adaptation to climate change. For instance, which ministry or agency is responsible for climate policy in general and climate adaptation policy in particular? Are existing divisions of responsibili-

It is evident that nation states, multilateral and bilateral development organizations, citizen's groups and communities are expected to respond to the negative impacts of a changing climate. There is a consensus in adaptation/adaptive capacity literature that there is a need to build adaptive capacity in the form of free flow of ideas, knowledge and technology, capable institution and government schemes, and other policies for an effective response to climate change [57]. They further highlighted that it is significantly unclear that how this adaptive capacity is actually

To deal with the complex issue of climate change, equally complex solutions are required which involve several fields of human activity and different stakeholders. Multiple stakeholders, such as civil society, research institutions, universities, private sectors, etc., play an important role in the production of responses to the climate crisis together with governmental representatives [58]. The linkage of subnational/local governments with international networks provides a great potential for the development of effective policies and actions as responses to

Presently, the subnational or local level governments have an important governance role to tackle climate change in general and climate change adaptation in particular. However, there has been relatively little research in the area of adaptation policies especially in developing countries. There are studies in Pakistan which highlight the need for adaptation action but actual field-based studies for adaptation responses to climate change are rare [10]. The need for field-based studies is increasingly recognized as important for better understanding of the local level vulnerability and adaptation responses to climate change [60]. Therefore, this study is important to highlight the responses of subnational

This study was conducted for the period of November 2016–April 2017. Apart from desk research, 30 in-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted with

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83553*

a leading role in climate change policies [51].

ties adequate for tackling climate adaptation issues?

significantly in the recent years.

built or enhanced.

climate change [59].

governments for climate adaptation.

**4. Climate adaptation in Punjab**

#### *Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation in Agricultural Sector: The Case of Local Responses… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83553*

During the last two decades, the role of subnational states in the realm of global climate governance has grown significantly [50]. They further pointed out that the role of subnational governments has been extended as influential actors in international climate change policies. It is normal to find subnational governments playing a leading role in climate change policies [51].

The existing literature highlights the role of subnational policies for climate governance. As such, Jörgensen [52] argued that subnational state policies are a key aspect of climate governance and function as laboratories of experimentation which could promote policy change through policy-learning. Jänicke [53] considered that provincial (subnational) and state level activities for climate change have increased significantly in the recent years.

Climate change adaptation poses many complex governance questions and has therefore been called a "wicked problem par excellence" [54, 55]. The "wicked problem" needs comprehensive and proper solutions. Adaptation governance faces many difficulties, hindrances and opportunities involved in dealing with the "wicked problems" [56]. They further argued that due to the novelty and complexity of adaptation governance, a number of fundamental governance dilemmas have to be (re)addressed in developing the governance of adaptation to climate change. For instance, which ministry or agency is responsible for climate policy in general and climate adaptation policy in particular? Are existing divisions of responsibilities adequate for tackling climate adaptation issues?

It is evident that nation states, multilateral and bilateral development organizations, citizen's groups and communities are expected to respond to the negative impacts of a changing climate. There is a consensus in adaptation/adaptive capacity literature that there is a need to build adaptive capacity in the form of free flow of ideas, knowledge and technology, capable institution and government schemes, and other policies for an effective response to climate change [57]. They further highlighted that it is significantly unclear that how this adaptive capacity is actually built or enhanced.

To deal with the complex issue of climate change, equally complex solutions are required which involve several fields of human activity and different stakeholders. Multiple stakeholders, such as civil society, research institutions, universities, private sectors, etc., play an important role in the production of responses to the climate crisis together with governmental representatives [58]. The linkage of subnational/local governments with international networks provides a great potential for the development of effective policies and actions as responses to climate change [59].

Presently, the subnational or local level governments have an important governance role to tackle climate change in general and climate change adaptation in particular. However, there has been relatively little research in the area of adaptation policies especially in developing countries. There are studies in Pakistan which highlight the need for adaptation action but actual field-based studies for adaptation responses to climate change are rare [10]. The need for field-based studies is increasingly recognized as important for better understanding of the local level vulnerability and adaptation responses to climate change [60]. Therefore, this study is important to highlight the responses of subnational governments for climate adaptation.
