**2. Changes in coastal landscapes and implications for ecosystem services**

#### **2.1 Ecosystem services of coastal landscapes**

Among the most significant ecosystem services of coastal landscapes is perhaps coastal protection. The coastlines of eastern Peninsular Malaysia are directly exposed to the South China Sea's strong winds and dynamic coastal processes. Coastal vegetation acts as a first line of defence from physical elements of wind and wave due to exposure to the annually occurring northeast monsoon. At the same time, coastal vegetation holds together structurally loose coastal sandy soil. The Terengganu coast is also blessed with a prominent stretch of pure stand of *Melaleuca cajuputi* trees which barricade strong wind, protecting its coast and inland [20]. Having soil attributes of beach ridge system or BRIS, many parts of the coast of Terengganu also support a seasonal freshwater swamp or often addressed locally as *paya gelam* (in Malay) or gelam swamp as this swamp is dominated by gelam or *M. cajuputi*. This swamp is a seasonal wetland where its volume of water is contributed mainly by rain and to some extent by the overflow of small river tributaries during the monsoon season. Gelam swamp could support up to a 2–4 metre depth of water which is closely related to its function of mitigating flood in coastal areas and inland, particularly in the rainy season during monsoon months. Swale element in beach ridge soil of the East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia coastal plain acts as a sponge to keep subterranean water source, thus regulating local hydrological cycle [21]. Supporting one of the rarest type of wetland, a freshwater seasonal wetland (e.g. in Tasik Berombak of Setiu Coast and Jambu Bongkok, Dungun) [22]. The BRIS soil formation system plays a critical role in the local hydrological cycle, since it stores underground water and a deep layer of sand (~15 m below ground as recorded in Tasik Berombak, Setiu, Terengganu) which then act as a natural water filter and storage for clean freshwater—an important source for nearby areas becoming a part of a complex hydrological system of the coastal plain [21]. Although this kind of regulatory services carried out by BRIS soil ecosystem is hardly visible, the effect on social resilience on the local community is profound. It plays a critical role in providing adequate amount of good quality freshwater to support local economic activities of the coastal community, for example, in the district of Setiu, where the brackish lagoon is heavily used for aquaculture activities.

Other than the hydrological aspect, some part of BRIS soil ecosystem is comprised of newly developed peat, which is an important form of carbon storage [23]. Soil carbon together with above and below ground biomass of plants is a very important carbon sink. Even though above ground carbon in the biomass of *M. cajuputi* on dune landscape of Terengganu is much lower than other common Malaysian tropical lowland forests [24], *M. cajuputi* tree stand still serves as an important local carbon stock that could help in mitigating climate change effect. Carbon fixed in the above and below ground biomass of *M. cajuputi* could help reduce carbon being released to the atmosphere, thus reducing the effect of global warming. The benefit of conserving forest for carbon stock is well discussed as part of many ecosystem services of forest [4]. Sparse natural vegetation growing on

**93**

*Coastal Landscapes of Peninsular Malaysia: The Changes and Implications for Their Resilience…*

the coastal plain of Terengganu plays a vital role in stabilizing the loose structure of coastal soil, growing on both ridge (dry area) and depression (swales or waterlogged areas) of sand dunes. On the ridge, vegetation is growing in the clump to optimize soil resources needed for growth and development. Removal of natural vegetation either by natural (e.g. wild fire) or anthropogenic activities (e.g. legal and illegal sand mining) may cause coastal erosion, leaving the soil prone to be invaded by exotic invasive species of *Acacia mangium* (Fabaceae) or indigenous species *Catunaregam tomentosa* (Rubiaceae) [25]. *Acacia mangium* is not yet declared as invasive species in Malaysia, but its ability to negatively affect and alter nearby plant composition in its presence, particularly through its allelopathic effect, is well known [26]. *Acacia mangium* can easily invade BRIS ecosystem due to open canopy and low stature of its vegetation that grows in clumping pattern. The abundance of *A. mangium* mother trees in and around the coastal ecosystem of Terengganu facilitates the dispersion of this species. The seed of *A. mangium* is dispersed by birds and wind and easily germinates underneath vegetation clump. Many degraded BRIS soil ecosystems along the coast of Terengganu are already invaded and totally taken over by this species [4, 20, 25]. It is well acknowledged that invasive plant species can decrease resilience by reducing the biodiversity in the ecosystem that is being invaded and eventually will interrupt key ecosystem services provided by one ecosystem [27]. However, for the coastal landscape of Terengganu, the lack of interest and awareness from local authorities may have contributed to the lack of

Provisioning services of the coastal landscape of the East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia are closely related to support livelihoods of its fishery communities, for example, the utilization of the most abundant plant resources, *M. cajuputi* (Gelam) wood and other parts. Woods of *M. cajuputi* are processed for charcoal and poles which are used as construction material and in scaffolding for small-scale construction such as for fishing jetty and port. The bark of gelam is traditionally used to seal boat walls (caulking) [28], assisted by waterproof properties of the bark. Gelam tree is also widely planted as ornamental tree in urban areas and public parks throughout the country. The potential value of gelam in provisioning service includes the use of gelam in greening effort [29]. The tiny and abundant seed can germinate and grow well into seedlings, or vegetatively it can propagate easily using its root suckers [30]. Fire resistance of this tree provides an advantage for using this species in restoration effort. In the wild and on BRIS ecosystem disturbed habitat, postfire recovery of gelam is quickly taking place by regenerating coppice shoots, which originated from its apical buds underneath the bark [31]. Gelam provides a renewable resource of woods and poles and potentially can be used to produce *cajuput* oil, a secondary compound from its leaves which may be useful for pharmaceutical industry. The 'cajuput' oil industry is surviving well in Indonesia [32] and Thailand [33]. However, similar industry is still untapped in Malaysia or Terengganu, possibly due to low essential oil content in its leaves, about <1% of it dry weight [34]. Although *M. cajuputi* has low yield of essential oil, it is still a promising natural plant extract and is a far more environmentally friendly consumer product to

Indirect use of pure Gelam stand supports healthy populations of bees and stingless bees, giving a source of sought after honey, collected by the local fishermen as their side income [36]. In swampy part of coastal plain, gelam trees act as a key species in the swampy part of coastal plain, supporting a healthy population of freshwater fishes that are commonly caught by the locals for their ornamental (e.g. tigerbarb) and also for nutritional values (e.g. catfish, snake head and climbing perch). The fishes are abundant during the monsoon season in Terengganu. There are more than 60 species of ornamental freshwater fishes recorded in the

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82155*

research funding to address this issue.

replace chemical-based products [35].

### *Coastal Landscapes of Peninsular Malaysia: The Changes and Implications for Their Resilience… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82155*

the coastal plain of Terengganu plays a vital role in stabilizing the loose structure of coastal soil, growing on both ridge (dry area) and depression (swales or waterlogged areas) of sand dunes. On the ridge, vegetation is growing in the clump to optimize soil resources needed for growth and development. Removal of natural vegetation either by natural (e.g. wild fire) or anthropogenic activities (e.g. legal and illegal sand mining) may cause coastal erosion, leaving the soil prone to be invaded by exotic invasive species of *Acacia mangium* (Fabaceae) or indigenous species *Catunaregam tomentosa* (Rubiaceae) [25]. *Acacia mangium* is not yet declared as invasive species in Malaysia, but its ability to negatively affect and alter nearby plant composition in its presence, particularly through its allelopathic effect, is well known [26]. *Acacia mangium* can easily invade BRIS ecosystem due to open canopy and low stature of its vegetation that grows in clumping pattern. The abundance of *A. mangium* mother trees in and around the coastal ecosystem of Terengganu facilitates the dispersion of this species. The seed of *A. mangium* is dispersed by birds and wind and easily germinates underneath vegetation clump. Many degraded BRIS soil ecosystems along the coast of Terengganu are already invaded and totally taken over by this species [4, 20, 25]. It is well acknowledged that invasive plant species can decrease resilience by reducing the biodiversity in the ecosystem that is being invaded and eventually will interrupt key ecosystem services provided by one ecosystem [27]. However, for the coastal landscape of Terengganu, the lack of interest and awareness from local authorities may have contributed to the lack of research funding to address this issue.

Provisioning services of the coastal landscape of the East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia are closely related to support livelihoods of its fishery communities, for example, the utilization of the most abundant plant resources, *M. cajuputi* (Gelam) wood and other parts. Woods of *M. cajuputi* are processed for charcoal and poles which are used as construction material and in scaffolding for small-scale construction such as for fishing jetty and port. The bark of gelam is traditionally used to seal boat walls (caulking) [28], assisted by waterproof properties of the bark. Gelam tree is also widely planted as ornamental tree in urban areas and public parks throughout the country. The potential value of gelam in provisioning service includes the use of gelam in greening effort [29]. The tiny and abundant seed can germinate and grow well into seedlings, or vegetatively it can propagate easily using its root suckers [30]. Fire resistance of this tree provides an advantage for using this species in restoration effort. In the wild and on BRIS ecosystem disturbed habitat, postfire recovery of gelam is quickly taking place by regenerating coppice shoots, which originated from its apical buds underneath the bark [31]. Gelam provides a renewable resource of woods and poles and potentially can be used to produce *cajuput* oil, a secondary compound from its leaves which may be useful for pharmaceutical industry. The 'cajuput' oil industry is surviving well in Indonesia [32] and Thailand [33]. However, similar industry is still untapped in Malaysia or Terengganu, possibly due to low essential oil content in its leaves, about <1% of it dry weight [34]. Although *M. cajuputi* has low yield of essential oil, it is still a promising natural plant extract and is a far more environmentally friendly consumer product to replace chemical-based products [35].

Indirect use of pure Gelam stand supports healthy populations of bees and stingless bees, giving a source of sought after honey, collected by the local fishermen as their side income [36]. In swampy part of coastal plain, gelam trees act as a key species in the swampy part of coastal plain, supporting a healthy population of freshwater fishes that are commonly caught by the locals for their ornamental (e.g. tigerbarb) and also for nutritional values (e.g. catfish, snake head and climbing perch). The fishes are abundant during the monsoon season in Terengganu. There are more than 60 species of ornamental freshwater fishes recorded in the

*Landscape Reclamation - Rising From What's Left*

**2.1 Ecosystem services of coastal landscapes**

**services**

zone of Terengganu needs in-depth analysis on the current physical setting to reduce impact on coastal environment and community. This paper discusses coastal changes in Terengganu by looking at land use changes in terms of vegetation cover, urbanization and water body from the years 2000 to 2017 and the impact of these changes to Terengganu coastal ecosystem resilience and ecosystem services.

**2. Changes in coastal landscapes and implications for ecosystem** 

Among the most significant ecosystem services of coastal landscapes is perhaps coastal protection. The coastlines of eastern Peninsular Malaysia are directly exposed to the South China Sea's strong winds and dynamic coastal processes. Coastal vegetation acts as a first line of defence from physical elements of wind and wave due to exposure to the annually occurring northeast monsoon. At the same time, coastal vegetation holds together structurally loose coastal sandy soil. The Terengganu coast is also blessed with a prominent stretch of pure stand of *Melaleuca cajuputi* trees which barricade strong wind, protecting its coast and inland [20]. Having soil attributes of beach ridge system or BRIS, many parts of the coast of Terengganu also support a seasonal freshwater swamp or often addressed locally as *paya gelam* (in Malay) or gelam swamp as this swamp is dominated by gelam or *M. cajuputi*. This swamp is a seasonal wetland where its volume of water is contributed mainly by rain and to some extent by the overflow of small river tributaries during the monsoon season. Gelam swamp could support up to a 2–4 metre depth of water which is closely related to its function of mitigating flood in coastal areas and inland, particularly in the rainy season during monsoon months. Swale element in beach ridge soil of the East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia coastal plain acts as a sponge to keep subterranean water source, thus regulating local hydrological cycle [21]. Supporting one of the rarest type of wetland, a freshwater seasonal wetland (e.g. in Tasik Berombak of Setiu Coast and Jambu Bongkok, Dungun) [22]. The BRIS soil formation system plays a critical role in the local hydrological cycle, since it stores underground water and a deep layer of sand (~15 m below ground as recorded in Tasik Berombak, Setiu, Terengganu) which then act as a natural water filter and storage for clean freshwater—an important source for nearby areas becoming a part of a complex hydrological system of the coastal plain [21]. Although this kind of regulatory services carried out by BRIS soil ecosystem is hardly visible, the effect on social resilience on the local community is profound. It plays a critical role in providing adequate amount of good quality freshwater to support local economic activities of the coastal community, for example, in the district of Setiu, where the brackish lagoon is heavily used for aquaculture activities. Other than the hydrological aspect, some part of BRIS soil ecosystem is comprised of newly developed peat, which is an important form of carbon storage [23]. Soil carbon together with above and below ground biomass of plants is a very important carbon sink. Even though above ground carbon in the biomass of *M. cajuputi* on dune landscape of Terengganu is much lower than other common Malaysian tropical lowland forests [24], *M. cajuputi* tree stand still serves as an important local carbon stock that could help in mitigating climate change effect. Carbon fixed in the above and below ground biomass of *M. cajuputi* could help reduce carbon being released to the atmosphere, thus reducing the effect of global warming. The benefit of conserving forest for carbon stock is well discussed as part of many ecosystem services of forest [4]. Sparse natural vegetation growing on

**92**

riverine system and swamps of Terengganu [37, 38]. Other than supporting freshwater fishes, gelam swamp provides habitat for hydrophytes (submerged, emergent, floating rooted) and woody and nonwoody associated plants. Carnivorous plants of *Nepenthes*, *Drosera* and *Utricularia* are also common at the fringe of the swamp offering a view of a montane or heath kind of flora on the lowland that is easily accessible for ecotourism or showcase [39]. A far more puzzling flora in the gelam swamp of Terengganu is the occurrence of an endemic sedge species of Peninsular Malaysia, *Websteria confervoides* (Cyperaceae), which is so far only recorded in Lake Bera (Pahang) dan Jambu Bongkok, Dungun (Terengganu). This plant depends greatly on the existence of the coastal wetland of gelam swamp and only abundant during high water level (0.5–2 m) [24]. The mechanism of how this plant could maintain its population in the dry swamp after a long drought in the dry season or non-monsoon months is still understudied and worth exploring. In Malaysia in general, intensive research on forest and vegetation are primarily focused on the dipterocarp forest for the inland forest and mangroves in the coast. It is worrying that lack of research in this similar kind of vegetation on the coastal plain of Malaysia will contribute to the poor understanding on how this ecosystem function provides key ecosystem services. Consequently, lack of knowledge about the ecosystem function may prevent us from building the resilience of this disappearing coastal ecosystem.

The ridge areas on the dune which are dryer due to its loose sandy structure surprisingly support quite a number of adapted coastal vegetation [25], including more than 30 species of wild orchids [40](**Figure 2**). Thus, the Terengganu coastal plain could be an important gene bank for wild orchids that could support commercial orchid industry, one of the option values under the total economic valuation (TEV) [5]. The aesthetic value of this coastal ecosystem together with its natural flora, fauna and landscapes could potentially be conserved and highlighted as one of the many ecotourism products for Terengganu to add to the economic benefit to the coastal communities. This value could be a monetary trade-off for conserving Terengganu BRIS ecosystem. With all the outlined ecological values, services and potentials, gelam forest is no doubt a valuable premise for Terengganu's coastal ecosystem resilience. Maintaining healthy Gelam forests will help maintain their ecological services for the benefit of the coastal environment that supports the livelihoods of coastal communities. Rather than being seen as unproductive and unimportant, gelam forest should be conserved for their values and services. Awareness on the importance of gelam forests to the sustainability of coastal ecosystem and people should be intensified. Factors contributing to the risk faced by the Gelam forest are outlined in the next section.

#### **Figure 2.**

*Natural vegetation on dry part (ridge) of BRIS soil ecosystem on Terengganu coast with a clumping pattern of vegetation (left image) and wild orchid species,* Phalaenopsis pulcherrima*, thriving well underneath vegetation clump (right image).*

**95**

**Figure 3.**

*row, right image).*

*Coastal Landscapes of Peninsular Malaysia: The Changes and Implications for Their Resilience…*

The coastal ecosystem of Terengganu is at risk of disappearing if there is no effort in conserving or managing this ecosystem in a sustainable way. Fragmentations of Terengganu coastal ecosystem are mainly due to reclaimation for housing or settlement on a private land, or a development of new township and infrastructure on the state owned land. This is primarily due to its strategic location along the main coastal road, as well as on the lower terrain. Failure in seeing the values of natural ecosystem, shadowed by the lack of value for agriculture, and BRIS soil ecosystem is considered as a barren land and wasteland that deserve to be converted to other land uses. This ecosystem is also threatened by illegal chemical and solid waste dumping, as observed in many areas along the coast of Setiu (north of Kuala Terengganu) and Marang (south of Kuala Terengganu) (**Figure 3**). The lack of public knowledge about the values of BRIS soil coastal ecosystem and low civic mindedness are identified as primary causes to this problem. Lack of human presence and visible activities in the ecosystem itself also encourage the act of illegal dumping. Frequent monitoring by local authority could help reduce the incidence

BRIS soil vegetation can easily catch fire, particularly in non-monsoon months or drought season (**Figure 3**) which can be of natural process and human induced. High incidence of sunray and high temperature of sandy soil surface may initiate fire naturally. Fire can also occur simply from human reckless behaviour, for example, by throwing cigarette butts into the dry and sparse vegetation on BRIS soil ecosystem. There was an extensive fire occurrence recorded along Terengganu coast [41] and several places along coastal road in Setiu experiencing fire in 2016, coinciding with low rainfall and drought in 2014–2016 [30]. Fire is one of driven factors for ecological succession [42] and sometimes needed for vegetation regeneration [43]. However, with the presence of fire-adapted species, ecosystem resilience is negatively affected [44]. This brings us to the next threat faced by Terengganu

*Threats to coastal ecosystem of Terengganu, frequent fire occurrence particularly during drought or nonmonsoon months (top row images), illegal sand mining (bottom row, left image) and illegal dumping (bottom* 

**2.2 Threats to gelam forest and coastal landscape of Terengganu**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82155*

of illegal waste dumping [20, 25].

*Coastal Landscapes of Peninsular Malaysia: The Changes and Implications for Their Resilience… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82155*
