**1. Introduction**

Sustainable development is a key agenda for present and future development and perhaps global concerted effort to reduce.

The concept of resilience in relation to ecology and ecosystem is defined as the ability of the ecosystem to absorb the disturbance without shifting to an alternative state and losing function and services [1]. It is often used to describe the characteristic features of a system that are related to sustainability, and the concept of resilience is used in various interdisciplinary works, particularly in addressing the interactions between people and nature. Resilience is also associated with the capacity of the

ecosystem to undergo disturbance and maintain its functions and controls [2]. For example, changes in grass species in the rangeland reduce its capacity to continue functioning ecologically (such as in water use and nutrient cycle) under heavy grazing by animals [3]. Ecosystem resilience can play a prime role in maintaining conditions that will sustain the provision of ecosystem services that contribute to the human well-being, in this case the well-being of coastal communities. The resilience of the ecosystem could directly affect the socioecological system. The objective of this chapter is to discuss the resilience of the coastal ecosystem of Terengganu, East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia, based on land use cover changes in Terengganu between years 2000 and 2017. Threats faced by the coastal ecosystem of Terengganu that may affect system resilience and ecosystem services are also discussed.

The ecosystem services concept was coined to address various benefits and values provided to humankind by ecosystems, which arise from ecological functions and biodiversity [4, 5]. The benefits and values could be direct or indirect, covering a wide range of vital goods and services that are classified into various ecological functions, for example, the provisioning service (such as providing goods or raw materials), regulatory services (such as air and water purification, water and nutrient cycling and regulation, soil formation and retention, atmospheric carbon sequestration) and supporting services. The last is the prerequisite for three other sets of ecosystem services (provisioning, regulating and cultural). However, the classification and typology of ecosystem services are varied and sometimes debatable in terms of application and relevance [6]. Nevertheless, ecosystem services as a concept are acknowledged to be an important tool to raise awareness on ecosystem's importance, particularly through identification of the goods and services made available by the ecosystem. The quantification of ecosystem services provide a monetary dimension, creating a potential link between biodiversity conservation and market value. In this chapter, we identify and discuss key ecosystem services of the coastal ecosystem of Terengganu and how it might have been interrupted by the changes.

Worldwide, coastal landscapes change tremendously due to urbanization and various other pressures both from anthropogenic-based and natural processes. Coastal landscapes are among the most densely populated zone as this zone provides enormous values and services to human population. Coastal ecosystem is commonly addressed together as 'estuarine and coastal ecosystems' (ECEs) due to their close connectivity and complexity in providing ecological services [7]. It not only holds high key economic values and vital ecosystem services but also supports integrated systems of social and ecological landscapes (SEL) [8]. At the global scale, coastal vegetation varies across geographical regions. In Malaysia and other tropical countries, there are three common vegetation types easily found in coastal zones, namely, mangroves, peat swamp forest and freshwater swamp. Coastal vegetation plays a significant role in stabilizing coastal ecosystems, for example, by modifying and stabilizing the physical environment [9]. The loss of coastal vegetation or changes in land use cover of terrestrial ecosystem could change the biomass and productivity leading to the changes in carbon cycling processes [10]. Coastal wetland reclamation causes loss in ecosystem services, for example, in Lianyungang Province in China [11]. Coastal wetland ecosystem varies in subtypes which comprises of estuaries, marshes, salt ponds, lagoons, mangroves, intertidal habitats and other coastal system subtypes. All wetland ecosystems vary in terms of unit value and ecosystem services rendered and even within the same eco-subtype; the unit value may vary with different space and time [4]. Thus, for the unit value of ecosystem services, different coastal wetland should be conserved and managed differently.

The East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia coastal plain is originated from marinebased deposit arranged in a series of ridge and depression parallel to the shoreline [12]. This soil formation is classified as "beach ridges interspersed with swales"

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*sand.*

**Figure 1.**

*Coastal Landscapes of Peninsular Malaysia: The Changes and Implications for Their Resilience…*

(**BRIS)** or locally known as *tanah beris* or *tanah bris*, where *tanah* is soil in Malay. BRIS soil formation is an oligotrophic type of soil, infertile and unsuitable for agriculture [13]. BRIS soil composes of more than 90% of sand (**Figure 1**). Despite that, it supports adapted and distinct vegetation formation which differs from common lowland tropical rainforest [14]. BRIS soil system occurs more abundant in the state of Terengganu relative to other states in the East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia, namely, Pahang, Kelantan and Johor. Coincidently, Terengganu also poses the longest coast compared to the other east coast states. Being one of the main oil-producing states in Malaysia, the coastal plain of Terengganu is already well developed with coastal road, settlement and infrastructures. However, it is a worrying fact that about 30% of Malaysia's coastlines are exposed to erosion [15]. More worrying is the fact that coastline erosion or accretion is not only caused by large monsoon waves but also by a more complicated interaction of offshore bottom bathymetry and island shelters, whereby these two components become a site-specific factor that helps to focus or disperse the energy of the monsoon waves to localize erosion or accretion [16]. Coastal erosion further became more frequent, subsequent to major

In the past decades, Terengganu has rapidly developed its overall economy through the federal government's East Coast Economic Region (ECER) Master Plan that was launched in 2008 headed by the East Coast Economic Region Development Council (ECERDC) [18]. The development programs and projects, among others, aim to raise the income levels and reduce poverty of the Terengganu population by expanding employment prospects in the east coast regions. Many of the projects take place along the coast itself, for example, development of a new central business district (CBD) at the north and south estuary of the Kuala Terengganu town centre and the planned development of the 600-km east coast rail line (ECRL) planned for linking key industrial hubs in Terengganu with Kuantan Port in Pahang and Port Klang in Selangor, both to its south. Some developments in Terengganu are located on the shoreline itself, for example, hipster concept restaurants along the coast of Tok Jembal, in Kuala Nerus district. Looking at this trend, the future outlook for Terengganu coastal ecosystem is rather challenging based on the worrying fact that about 30% of Malaysia coastlines are exposed to erosion [15]. Terengganu coastline erosion or accretion is not only caused by large monsoon wave but also by a more complicated interaction of offshore bottom bathymetry and island shelters [19]. Coastal erosion then becomes more frequent as a result of major sea reclamation for an airport runway upgrading in 2008 [17]. Further development in the coastal

*Examples of typical soil series (Rudua and Rhu Tapai soil series) under beach ridges interspersed with swales (BRIS) system in the East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia compose more than 90% of* 

sea reclamation for an airport runway upgrading in 2008 [17].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82155*

*Coastal Landscapes of Peninsular Malaysia: The Changes and Implications for Their Resilience… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82155*

(**BRIS)** or locally known as *tanah beris* or *tanah bris*, where *tanah* is soil in Malay. BRIS soil formation is an oligotrophic type of soil, infertile and unsuitable for agriculture [13]. BRIS soil composes of more than 90% of sand (**Figure 1**). Despite that, it supports adapted and distinct vegetation formation which differs from common lowland tropical rainforest [14]. BRIS soil system occurs more abundant in the state of Terengganu relative to other states in the East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia, namely, Pahang, Kelantan and Johor. Coincidently, Terengganu also poses the longest coast compared to the other east coast states. Being one of the main oil-producing states in Malaysia, the coastal plain of Terengganu is already well developed with coastal road, settlement and infrastructures. However, it is a worrying fact that about 30% of Malaysia's coastlines are exposed to erosion [15]. More worrying is the fact that coastline erosion or accretion is not only caused by large monsoon waves but also by a more complicated interaction of offshore bottom bathymetry and island shelters, whereby these two components become a site-specific factor that helps to focus or disperse the energy of the monsoon waves to localize erosion or accretion [16]. Coastal erosion further became more frequent, subsequent to major sea reclamation for an airport runway upgrading in 2008 [17].

In the past decades, Terengganu has rapidly developed its overall economy through the federal government's East Coast Economic Region (ECER) Master Plan that was launched in 2008 headed by the East Coast Economic Region Development Council (ECERDC) [18]. The development programs and projects, among others, aim to raise the income levels and reduce poverty of the Terengganu population by expanding employment prospects in the east coast regions. Many of the projects take place along the coast itself, for example, development of a new central business district (CBD) at the north and south estuary of the Kuala Terengganu town centre and the planned development of the 600-km east coast rail line (ECRL) planned for linking key industrial hubs in Terengganu with Kuantan Port in Pahang and Port Klang in Selangor, both to its south. Some developments in Terengganu are located on the shoreline itself, for example, hipster concept restaurants along the coast of Tok Jembal, in Kuala Nerus district. Looking at this trend, the future outlook for Terengganu coastal ecosystem is rather challenging based on the worrying fact that about 30% of Malaysia coastlines are exposed to erosion [15]. Terengganu coastline erosion or accretion is not only caused by large monsoon wave but also by a more complicated interaction of offshore bottom bathymetry and island shelters [19]. Coastal erosion then becomes more frequent as a result of major sea reclamation for an airport runway upgrading in 2008 [17]. Further development in the coastal

#### **Figure 1.**

*Landscape Reclamation - Rising From What's Left*

ecosystem to undergo disturbance and maintain its functions and controls [2]. For example, changes in grass species in the rangeland reduce its capacity to continue functioning ecologically (such as in water use and nutrient cycle) under heavy grazing by animals [3]. Ecosystem resilience can play a prime role in maintaining conditions that will sustain the provision of ecosystem services that contribute to the human well-being, in this case the well-being of coastal communities. The resilience of the ecosystem could directly affect the socioecological system. The objective of this chapter is to discuss the resilience of the coastal ecosystem of Terengganu, East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia, based on land use cover changes in Terengganu between years 2000 and 2017. Threats faced by the coastal ecosystem of Terengganu

that may affect system resilience and ecosystem services are also discussed.

Terengganu and how it might have been interrupted by the changes.

different coastal wetland should be conserved and managed differently.

The East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia coastal plain is originated from marinebased deposit arranged in a series of ridge and depression parallel to the shoreline [12]. This soil formation is classified as "beach ridges interspersed with swales"

Worldwide, coastal landscapes change tremendously due to urbanization and various other pressures both from anthropogenic-based and natural processes. Coastal landscapes are among the most densely populated zone as this zone provides enormous values and services to human population. Coastal ecosystem is commonly addressed together as 'estuarine and coastal ecosystems' (ECEs) due to their close connectivity and complexity in providing ecological services [7]. It not only holds high key economic values and vital ecosystem services but also supports integrated systems of social and ecological landscapes (SEL) [8]. At the global scale, coastal vegetation varies across geographical regions. In Malaysia and other tropical countries, there are three common vegetation types easily found in coastal zones, namely, mangroves, peat swamp forest and freshwater swamp. Coastal vegetation plays a significant role in stabilizing coastal ecosystems, for example, by modifying and stabilizing the physical environment [9]. The loss of coastal vegetation or changes in land use cover of terrestrial ecosystem could change the biomass and productivity leading to the changes in carbon cycling processes [10]. Coastal wetland reclamation causes loss in ecosystem services, for example, in Lianyungang Province in China [11]. Coastal wetland ecosystem varies in subtypes which comprises of estuaries, marshes, salt ponds, lagoons, mangroves, intertidal habitats and other coastal system subtypes. All wetland ecosystems vary in terms of unit value and ecosystem services rendered and even within the same eco-subtype; the unit value may vary with different space and time [4]. Thus, for the unit value of ecosystem services,

The ecosystem services concept was coined to address various benefits and values provided to humankind by ecosystems, which arise from ecological functions and biodiversity [4, 5]. The benefits and values could be direct or indirect, covering a wide range of vital goods and services that are classified into various ecological functions, for example, the provisioning service (such as providing goods or raw materials), regulatory services (such as air and water purification, water and nutrient cycling and regulation, soil formation and retention, atmospheric carbon sequestration) and supporting services. The last is the prerequisite for three other sets of ecosystem services (provisioning, regulating and cultural). However, the classification and typology of ecosystem services are varied and sometimes debatable in terms of application and relevance [6]. Nevertheless, ecosystem services as a concept are acknowledged to be an important tool to raise awareness on ecosystem's importance, particularly through identification of the goods and services made available by the ecosystem. The quantification of ecosystem services provide a monetary dimension, creating a potential link between biodiversity conservation and market value. In this chapter, we identify and discuss key ecosystem services of the coastal ecosystem of

**90**

*Examples of typical soil series (Rudua and Rhu Tapai soil series) under beach ridges interspersed with swales (BRIS) system in the East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia compose more than 90% of sand.*

zone of Terengganu needs in-depth analysis on the current physical setting to reduce impact on coastal environment and community. This paper discusses coastal changes in Terengganu by looking at land use changes in terms of vegetation cover, urbanization and water body from the years 2000 to 2017 and the impact of these changes to Terengganu coastal ecosystem resilience and ecosystem services.
