*4.11.1 Solanum torvum Swartz*

*S. torvum* is an evergreen, widely branched, prickly shrub that grows up to 5 m tall [110]. The fruits of *S. torvum* are edible and commonly available in the markets for incorporation into stews and soups across West-Africa. A decoction of the fruits is given for cough ailments and is considered useful in cases of liver and spleen enlargement. The plant is used as a sedative and diuretic and the leaves are used as a

 hemostatic. The ripened fruits are used in the preparation of tonic and hemopoietin agents and also for the treatment for pain. It has antioxidant properties. It is intensively used worldwide in traditional medicine as a poison anti-dote and for the treatment of fever, wounds, tooth decay, reproductive problems and arterial hypertension [17, 111–113]. *S. torvum* fruits are reported to contain alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, tannins, glycosides, fixed oil, vitamin B group, vitamin C and iron salts. It also has number of chemical constituents like neochlorogenin 6-O-β-D-quinovo-pyranoside, neochlorogenin 6-O-β-D-xylopyranosyl-(1 → 3)-β-D-quinovopyranoside, neochlorogenin 6-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 3)-β-Dquinovopyranoside, sola-genin 6-O-β-D-quinovopyranoside, solagenin 6-O-α-Lrhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 3)-β-Dquinovopyranoside, isoquercetin, rutin, kaempferol and quercetin [16, 113, 114]. *S. torvum* also possesses antimicrobial, antiviral, immuno-secretory, antioxidant, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anti-ulcerogenic activities, cardiovascular, nephroprotective, antidiabetic, angiotensin and erotonin receptor blocking activities [110]. It is reported to be used in a concoction to nourish pregnant and lactating mothers with vitamins and proteins and to enhance lactation [115].

### **4.12 Verbanaceae**

## *4.12.1 Lippia multiflora Moldenke*

 *L. multiflora* is an aromatic, perennial plant with woody stems growing up to 3 m high [53]. The plant is locally harvested in Ghana and Benin and the leaves are steeped in hot water for tea. It is used in the treatment of stomach aches, nausea and fever. The leaves and immature flowering stems have anti-biotic, laxative and vermifuge activities [116]. The leaves contain limonene, a-caryophyllene, transfarnesene, caryophyllene oxide and farnesol [117]. Tea infusion of plant is used for the treatment of arterial hypertension in Ghana [118]. A herbal extract of the plant exhibits anti-malarial, anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, diuretic, laxative, muscle relaxant and is also used in lactation failure [22]. Lippia oil is effective topically gram-negative bacteria [117] and body lice, head lice, scabies' mites [119]. This plant possesses a tranquilizer and analgesic activities as diazepam [118].

## **4.13 Zingiberaceae**

#### *4.13.1 Aframomum melegueta (Roscoe) K. Schum*

*A. melegueta* is commonly known as grains of paradise or alligator pepper. It is a spicy edible perennial fruit which grows to about 1 m high. *A. melegueta* produces reddish-brown seeds, which have a strong aromatic flavor and a pungent taste. These seeds are widely employed as spices and it is also an ingredient in numerous West African ethno medical practices. *A. melegueta* is a remedy for a number of diseases such as constipation, rheumatic pains and fever [120, 121]. The medicinal uses of *A. melegueta* also include its use as an aphrodisiac, measles and leprosy. It is also taken to treat excessive lactation, post partem hemorrhage, purgation and used as a galactagogue, anthelmintic and hemostatic [122]. *A. melegueta* exhibits anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant and anti-tumor effects [123, 124] as well as antiprotozoal activity against schistosomes [22]. The phytochemical constituents are essential oils—such as gingerol, shagaol, paradol. Alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, tannins, cardiac glycosides, terpenoids, steroids [125] as well as essential oils and resins have also been identified in this plant [126]. The LD₅₀ of 273.86 mg/kg body weight and lower than normal hemoglobin and red blood cells in animal studies seems to confirm the possibility of toxicity from this plant [125].
