Operational Innovations That Transform or Advance Practice

**95**

**Chapter 6**

**Abstract**

education, administration

**1. Introduction**

major corporation.

Planning for Improvement:

University Administrators

leadership roles is likely to provide dividends to all involved.

one-fourth of chairs received more than a semester of mentorship.

*Tracy L. Morris and Joseph S. Laipple*

Leadership Development among

Information on the professional development of university administrators is relatively sparse, yet effective leadership and management are essential to sustaining high quality environments for faculty, staff, and students. This chapter discusses the use of professional development plans and multi-source feedback among higher education administrators. Results from a large national study of university deans and department chairs are presented and practical strategies for improving leadership development and fostering positive organizational change are illustrated through case examples. Given the high cost of failed leadership, greater attention to the preparation, support, and evaluation of individuals serving in administrative

**Keywords:** leadership, organizational change, professional development, higher

Few empirical studies have been conducted on the preparedness of university administrators (e.g., department chairs, directors, deans) or the strategies they use to improve their leadership skills. What is known is that few academic administrators have received any formal leadership training prior to commencing the leadership and ongoing systematic leadership development efforts are scarce [1–5]. In a recent study of chairs of departments of psychology [6], over half reported their institution provided no formal training for the role and only slightly more than

This state of affairs in higher education stands in stark contrast to the investment

The range of responsibilities of department chairs is often vast, encompassing financial management, mentoring, hiring and supervision of faculty and staff, mediating conflicts, courting donors, managing building space, classrooms, and laboratories, developing entrepreneurial revenue, course scheduling, and strategic planning to name a few. Yet department chairs are drawn from faculty—individuals who trained (and excelled) in their specific academic fields—not business executives or human resource officers. Imagine a mathematician or geologist suddenly

in leadership development initiatives in private sector settings [7, 8]. Leadership and management success is no less critical to the success of a university than it is to a

#### **Chapter 6**

## Planning for Improvement: Leadership Development among University Administrators

*Tracy L. Morris and Joseph S. Laipple*

#### **Abstract**

Information on the professional development of university administrators is relatively sparse, yet effective leadership and management are essential to sustaining high quality environments for faculty, staff, and students. This chapter discusses the use of professional development plans and multi-source feedback among higher education administrators. Results from a large national study of university deans and department chairs are presented and practical strategies for improving leadership development and fostering positive organizational change are illustrated through case examples. Given the high cost of failed leadership, greater attention to the preparation, support, and evaluation of individuals serving in administrative leadership roles is likely to provide dividends to all involved.

**Keywords:** leadership, organizational change, professional development, higher education, administration

#### **1. Introduction**

Few empirical studies have been conducted on the preparedness of university administrators (e.g., department chairs, directors, deans) or the strategies they use to improve their leadership skills. What is known is that few academic administrators have received any formal leadership training prior to commencing the leadership and ongoing systematic leadership development efforts are scarce [1–5]. In a recent study of chairs of departments of psychology [6], over half reported their institution provided no formal training for the role and only slightly more than one-fourth of chairs received more than a semester of mentorship.

This state of affairs in higher education stands in stark contrast to the investment in leadership development initiatives in private sector settings [7, 8]. Leadership and management success is no less critical to the success of a university than it is to a major corporation.

The range of responsibilities of department chairs is often vast, encompassing financial management, mentoring, hiring and supervision of faculty and staff, mediating conflicts, courting donors, managing building space, classrooms, and laboratories, developing entrepreneurial revenue, course scheduling, and strategic planning to name a few. Yet department chairs are drawn from faculty—individuals who trained (and excelled) in their specific academic fields—not business executives or human resource officers. Imagine a mathematician or geologist suddenly

thrust in an administrative leadership role: is it any wonder so many struggle with the transition? Now imagine those serving with a poorly prepared leader—and the effects on productivity and morale.

Research has shown that academic administrators who had completed undergraduate or graduate coursework in business administration, human resources/ leadership, industrial-organizational psychology, or behavioral psychology reported feeling more prepared for their subsequent leadership role and experienced higher levels of job satisfaction [4]. Of course, it is unreasonable to expect all new leaders to have competed such coursework. There are successful and satisfied leaders without such educational backgrounds (and vice versa). The point here is that inclusion of principles from such domains in leadership development efforts with deans and department chairs is beneficial—and much less risky than leaving proficiency up to chance.

Satisfaction with one's job is a key predictor of job turnover. Turnover can be quite disruptive and costly to an organization [9, 10]. Conducting a search for a new leader takes time away from the unit's core activities. Progress on departmental or institutional efforts often is stalled until well after the new leader is in place and acclimated. Approximately 20% of department chairs leave their position each year [4, 5, 11]. Some are selected to move upward in university administration; others come to the end of a planned term of appointment and return to the faculty or retire. A not insignificant number of academic leaders will abandon or be forced out of administration prematurely due to performance problems. For this latter group, insufficient preparation, high stress, and low job satisfaction are primary contributors to leadership derailment [12–14]. Issues of satisfaction and turnover go beyond the leader. Leader behaviors also influence turnover among employees [15–17]. Faculty turnover and intent to leave the university have been found to be predicted by the social skills, empathy, and situational awareness of their department chairs. Losing good faculty as a consequence of poor leadership is bad business with its concomitant cost of replacement, deleterious effects on students, and potential hit to research and academic rankings.

In addition to the provision of leadership development sessions, coaching, and mentoring, another improvement strategy higher education may borrow from contemporary corporate culture is the more extensive use of multi-source feedback for leaders. Though student ratings of instructors are routine in universities, frequent feedback is much less likely to be provided for department chairs, deans, or provosts. Multi-source feedback, also known as 360° feedback, includes soliciting performance ratings from subordinates, peers, and supervisors, as well as self-ratings. A critical component of the feedback review is examining areas of congruence and incongruence. Noting ways in which perceptions of others differs from one's perception of self can be an important developmental tool, fostering better social awareness and promoting positive change [18]. An intriguing finding from previous work [13] was that deans whose self-ratings were incongruous with ratings received from their department chairs perceived themselves to be much higher on leadership skills than deans who saw themselves more consistently with the way they were seen by chairs. Such incongruence may be reflective of poor self-appraisal and lower emotional intelligence—characteristics that likely interfere with receiving and acting on constructive feedback and increase the likelihood of leader derailment.

Human capital is the core of any educational institution. Unfortunately, a minority of academic administrators report feeling enthusiastic and good at their job every day [4]. Rather than expecting that academic administrators will merely sink or swim on their own, universities would do well to invest in leadership development. Anecdotal comments regarding such initiatives at various institutions as well as the recent report of a leadership development framework underway at

**97**

preparedness.

*Planning for Improvement: Leadership Development among University Administrators*

own to further improve their leadership performance are discussed.

Rutgers University [19] are heartening, but far too many people in leadership roles remain unserved. Later in this chapter strategies individuals may practice on their

Data reported here are drawn from a larger longitudinal study of academic administrators. In the first year of the study information was collected from a national sample of academic administrators on the level of preparation for, and experience of, their administrative roles and identified differences among department chairs and college deans on a number of leadership and management variables [4, 20]. In the second year, the relationship among leadership skills, organizational cultures, and job satisfaction [13] was explored. The subset of data discussed in this chapter focuses on strategies used by administrators to improve their leadership and management skills. The overarching goal of this series of studies is to inform practical efforts toward the better preparation and support of academic leaders, which in turn will have positive benefits for their faculty, students, and staff. Following the presentation of empirical results, practical strategies for implementing feedback

Participants were 1142 academic leaders (716 department chairs/heads, 56 directors, 232 associate deans, 117 deans, and 21 associate provosts; 721 men, 421 women) surveyed from the Carnegie ranked U.S. public research institutions; 895 of these participants also had participated in the first year of the investigation and 247 were new participants for year two. Racial-ethnic composition was 89.5% white/European-American, 3.6% Asian, 2.9% Hispanic, 2% African-American,

The full survey consisted of 105 items. The first section included demographics (gender, age, etc.), background questions on administrative positions held (e.g., role, years of service) and strategies used to develop or improve leadership skills. Detailed results on job satisfaction and preparedness for the administrative role are reported elsewhere [4, 13, 20]. In this chapter, we focus on a subset of items related

*Feedback and development plans*. Six yes/no items inquired whether participants received formal annual evaluation of their leadership and administrative performance, made use of development plans (for themselves and their direct reports),

*Areas for improvement*. Four open-ended items asked participants to indicate (a) in which area they had improved over the past year, (b) what behaviors they wished to start doing over the next year to improve in leadership and management, (c) what behaviors they wished to stop doing over the next year, and (d) what strategies

*Preparation for administrative role*. Using a 5-point Likert-type scale participants rated the extent to which they felt prepared in 10 areas of responsibility prior to beginning their current administrative position (e.g., managing staff members, handling the financial budget). Higher scores represent greater perceptions of

0.6% American Indian/Alaskan Native, and 1.4% multiracial.

to planning for improvement. Key variables here included:

solicited regular feedback, or made use of 360° feedback methods.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83452*

and improvement plans are discussed.

**2. Method**

**2.1 Participants**

**2.2 Measures**

they used to inspire others.

Additional measures included:

#### *Planning for Improvement: Leadership Development among University Administrators DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83452*

Rutgers University [19] are heartening, but far too many people in leadership roles remain unserved. Later in this chapter strategies individuals may practice on their own to further improve their leadership performance are discussed.

Data reported here are drawn from a larger longitudinal study of academic administrators. In the first year of the study information was collected from a national sample of academic administrators on the level of preparation for, and experience of, their administrative roles and identified differences among department chairs and college deans on a number of leadership and management variables [4, 20]. In the second year, the relationship among leadership skills, organizational cultures, and job satisfaction [13] was explored. The subset of data discussed in this chapter focuses on strategies used by administrators to improve their leadership and management skills. The overarching goal of this series of studies is to inform practical efforts toward the better preparation and support of academic leaders, which in turn will have positive benefits for their faculty, students, and staff. Following the presentation of empirical results, practical strategies for implementing feedback and improvement plans are discussed.

#### **2. Method**

*Innovations in Higher Education - Cases on Transforming and Advancing Practice*

effects on productivity and morale.

proficiency up to chance.

to research and academic rankings.

thrust in an administrative leadership role: is it any wonder so many struggle with the transition? Now imagine those serving with a poorly prepared leader—and the

Research has shown that academic administrators who had completed undergraduate or graduate coursework in business administration, human resources/ leadership, industrial-organizational psychology, or behavioral psychology reported feeling more prepared for their subsequent leadership role and experienced higher levels of job satisfaction [4]. Of course, it is unreasonable to expect all new leaders to have competed such coursework. There are successful and satisfied leaders without such educational backgrounds (and vice versa). The point here is that inclusion of principles from such domains in leadership development efforts with deans and department chairs is beneficial—and much less risky than leaving

Satisfaction with one's job is a key predictor of job turnover. Turnover can be quite disruptive and costly to an organization [9, 10]. Conducting a search for a new leader takes time away from the unit's core activities. Progress on departmental or institutional efforts often is stalled until well after the new leader is in place and acclimated. Approximately 20% of department chairs leave their position each year [4, 5, 11]. Some are selected to move upward in university administration; others come to the end of a planned term of appointment and return to the faculty or retire. A not insignificant number of academic leaders will abandon or be forced out of administration prematurely due to performance problems. For this latter group, insufficient preparation, high stress, and low job satisfaction are primary contributors to leadership derailment [12–14]. Issues of satisfaction and turnover go beyond the leader. Leader behaviors also influence turnover among employees [15–17]. Faculty turnover and intent to leave the university have been found to be predicted by the social skills, empathy, and situational awareness of their department chairs. Losing good faculty as a consequence of poor leadership is bad business with its concomitant cost of replacement, deleterious effects on students, and potential hit

In addition to the provision of leadership development sessions, coaching, and mentoring, another improvement strategy higher education may borrow from contemporary corporate culture is the more extensive use of multi-source feedback for leaders. Though student ratings of instructors are routine in universities, frequent feedback is much less likely to be provided for department chairs, deans, or provosts. Multi-source feedback, also known as 360° feedback, includes soliciting performance ratings from subordinates, peers, and supervisors, as well as self-ratings. A critical component of the feedback review is examining areas of congruence and incongruence. Noting ways in which perceptions of others differs from one's perception of self can be an important developmental tool, fostering better social awareness and promoting positive change [18]. An intriguing finding from previous work [13] was that deans whose self-ratings were incongruous with ratings received from their department chairs perceived themselves to be much higher on leadership skills than deans who saw themselves more consistently with the way they were seen by chairs. Such incongruence may be reflective of poor self-appraisal and lower emotional intelligence—characteristics that likely interfere with receiving and acting on constructive feedback and increase the likelihood of leader derailment.

Human capital is the core of any educational institution. Unfortunately, a minority of academic administrators report feeling enthusiastic and good at their job every day [4]. Rather than expecting that academic administrators will merely sink or swim on their own, universities would do well to invest in leadership

development. Anecdotal comments regarding such initiatives at various institutions as well as the recent report of a leadership development framework underway at

**96**

#### **2.1 Participants**

Participants were 1142 academic leaders (716 department chairs/heads, 56 directors, 232 associate deans, 117 deans, and 21 associate provosts; 721 men, 421 women) surveyed from the Carnegie ranked U.S. public research institutions; 895 of these participants also had participated in the first year of the investigation and 247 were new participants for year two. Racial-ethnic composition was 89.5% white/European-American, 3.6% Asian, 2.9% Hispanic, 2% African-American, 0.6% American Indian/Alaskan Native, and 1.4% multiracial.

#### **2.2 Measures**

The full survey consisted of 105 items. The first section included demographics (gender, age, etc.), background questions on administrative positions held (e.g., role, years of service) and strategies used to develop or improve leadership skills. Detailed results on job satisfaction and preparedness for the administrative role are reported elsewhere [4, 13, 20]. In this chapter, we focus on a subset of items related to planning for improvement. Key variables here included:

*Feedback and development plans*. Six yes/no items inquired whether participants received formal annual evaluation of their leadership and administrative performance, made use of development plans (for themselves and their direct reports), solicited regular feedback, or made use of 360° feedback methods.

*Areas for improvement*. Four open-ended items asked participants to indicate (a) in which area they had improved over the past year, (b) what behaviors they wished to start doing over the next year to improve in leadership and management, (c) what behaviors they wished to stop doing over the next year, and (d) what strategies they used to inspire others.

Additional measures included:

*Preparation for administrative role*. Using a 5-point Likert-type scale participants rated the extent to which they felt prepared in 10 areas of responsibility prior to beginning their current administrative position (e.g., managing staff members, handling the financial budget). Higher scores represent greater perceptions of preparedness.

*Leadership skills*. Participants provided self-ratings for 15 specific behavioral categories (e.g., setting clear expectations, providing helpful feedback). These items were drawn from extensive literature review and have been used extensively in a consulting context across a broad range of management and leadership development interventions. Responses were rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale. Higher scores represent greater skill endorsement.

*Burnout*. Job burnout was measured through the 16 items of the Maslach Burnout Inventory-General Survey (MBI-GS) [21]. The MBI-GS includes three scales: Exhaustion, Cynicism, and Professional Efficacy. The MBI has been extensively validated and is the most widely used measure of burnout. Lower scores are preferable for Exhaustion and Cynicism; higher scores are better for Professional Efficacy.

*Job satisfaction*. Six items, rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale, addressed satisfaction with administrative role (e.g., feeling happy and fulfilled, high degree of autonomy, adequate compensation). Higher scores represent greater satisfaction.

#### **2.3 Procedure**

Email addresses were obtained from university websites for all department chairs and deans of Colleges of Arts and Sciences in all public research universities ranked by the Carnegie Foundation. Potential participants were sent an email message describing the study and inviting their voluntary participation through SurveyMonkey, an online survey management tool. A single automated reminder was sent if no response had occurred within 14 days. Participant representation was obtained from all 145 U.S. Carnegie ranked public research institutions.

Individuals who had participated in year one of the study were asked to indicate whether they had changed administrative positions within the past 12 months and provide background information related to the new position. Participants who indicated that they had retired within the past year were presented with an abbreviated set of items. When a participant indicated they were no longer serving in the same position as they had been in year one, the person who replaced them in that position was identified from the university website and new chairs/deans were sent an invitation to join the study in year two.

#### **3. Results**

Mean age of participants was 56.5 years (range 39–74). Mean number of years in current position was 4.74 (SD 4.31, range 1–35). The majority (83.7%) remained in the same administrative role they held in the previous year; 8.1% had started a new administrative position within the past 12 months (with 93.1% of those within the same institution), and 8.1% no longer served in any administrative capacity. Of those who reported they no longer served in an administrative capacity, the reasons cited were: wishing to return to a faculty position full time (56.3%), retirement (11.3%), involuntary-not renewed (11.3%), end of term with no option for renewal (8.5%), and other-personal leaves, etc. (12.7%).

Those who had left administration by year two reported being less well prepared, less skilled, and more distressed on the initial survey than those who remained in an administrative role in year two (*F* = 5.56; *p* < 0.01). For those continuing to serve in a leadership role, burnout increased—and job satisfaction decreased—from year one to year two for 73.9% of participants.

The most commonly reported strategy for improving leadership skills was to seek advice from senior colleagues (endorsed by 91% of participants), followed by reading about leadership and administration (68%). Approximately half the

**99**

*Planning for Improvement: Leadership Development among University Administrators*

sample had participated in related seminars at their home institution and 41% had taken workshops through professional organizations. Few (4%) had sought the services of a paid professional consultant. Perhaps disconcertingly, over 3% reported that they had not participated in any form of leadership development

The majority of participants (72.9%) received an annual evaluation of their leadership/administrative performance. However, only a minority reported having a development plan or goals document (35.1%) or use of 360° feedback methods (13.1%). These rates did not vary by gender, but deans were more likely to receive a

Open-ended responses to the question of which area they had demonstrated the most improvement in over the past year were coded into the following categories (percent endorsement follows in parentheses): time management (27.4%), perspective/stress management (23.8%), leading/managing (22.9%), managing conflict (12.7%), financial aspects (4.7%), research productivity (1.5%), and "other" (2.6%). Sadly, 4.4% reported that they had not improved in any area or had actually regressed. Areas of improvement did not vary by gender. However, those who said they improved most in leading/managing reported the highest job satisfaction scores and burnout was highest among those who said they either had not improved

Open-ended responses to the question of what participants would start doing over the next year to improve in leadership and management were coded into the following categories (percent endorsement follows in parentheses): time management (15.4%), professional development activities such as workshops (12.6%), better self-care (11.5%), delegate more of the work (9.4%), planning ahead (8.3%), emotion regulation (6.4%), allocate more time for thinking (5.2%), improve listening and communication (4.7%), seek feedback (3.7%), and spend more time mentoring faculty (3.5%). Woefully, 15.1% reported they were unsure what they could start doing to improve, or would do nothing at all, and 2.2% said the best

Open-ended responses to the question of what participants would stop doing over the next year in order to improve were coded into the following categories (percent endorsement follows in parentheses): affect-related (e.g., stop getting upset/angry; 27.5%), getting overextended (13.2%), procrastinating, (12.5%), putting out fires (7.9%), electronic time sinks (e.g., email, surfing online, etc.; 5.7%), doing what should be delegated (4.4%), having too many meetings (3.7%), and health-related behaviors (2.6%). However, the second most frequently reported response category was that they were unsure or there was nothing they could stop doing in order to improve their performance (19.7%). A significant gender difference was noted with more women providing affect-related responses than men

Open-ended responses to the question of how participants worked to inspire others were coded into the following categories (percent endorsement in parentheses): by example (56.1%), encouraging/praising (22.1%), vision/high goals (5.0%), being present (3.9%), communicating rules/expectations (3.9%), creating opportunities/playing to their strengths (3.1%), humor (1.1%), tangible rewards (0.6%) and 4.2% of participants said that they do not inspire others (with some adding that they did not believe it was their job to do so). Gender differences were noted on strategies for inspiring others with men more likely to report using tangible rewards than women (60.3% vs. 49.4%) and women more likely than men to report creating opportunities/playing to their strengths (29.9% vs. 18.5%). Inspirational strategies

= 16.21, *df* = 8, *p* < 0.05.

thing they could do was quit the administrative position.

= 21.518 *df* = 10, *p* < 0.05.

did not differ by administrative role type, X<sup>2</sup>

= 13.656

360° evaluation (25%) than associate deans (15.6%), or chairs (10.9%); *X*<sup>2</sup>

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83452*

activities.

df = 2 *p* < 0.001.

in any area or had regressed.

(32.6% vs. 24%), *X*<sup>2</sup>

#### *Planning for Improvement: Leadership Development among University Administrators DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83452*

sample had participated in related seminars at their home institution and 41% had taken workshops through professional organizations. Few (4%) had sought the services of a paid professional consultant. Perhaps disconcertingly, over 3% reported that they had not participated in any form of leadership development activities.

The majority of participants (72.9%) received an annual evaluation of their leadership/administrative performance. However, only a minority reported having a development plan or goals document (35.1%) or use of 360° feedback methods (13.1%). These rates did not vary by gender, but deans were more likely to receive a 360° evaluation (25%) than associate deans (15.6%), or chairs (10.9%); *X*<sup>2</sup> = 13.656 df = 2 *p* < 0.001.

Open-ended responses to the question of which area they had demonstrated the most improvement in over the past year were coded into the following categories (percent endorsement follows in parentheses): time management (27.4%), perspective/stress management (23.8%), leading/managing (22.9%), managing conflict (12.7%), financial aspects (4.7%), research productivity (1.5%), and "other" (2.6%). Sadly, 4.4% reported that they had not improved in any area or had actually regressed. Areas of improvement did not vary by gender. However, those who said they improved most in leading/managing reported the highest job satisfaction scores and burnout was highest among those who said they either had not improved in any area or had regressed.

Open-ended responses to the question of what participants would start doing over the next year to improve in leadership and management were coded into the following categories (percent endorsement follows in parentheses): time management (15.4%), professional development activities such as workshops (12.6%), better self-care (11.5%), delegate more of the work (9.4%), planning ahead (8.3%), emotion regulation (6.4%), allocate more time for thinking (5.2%), improve listening and communication (4.7%), seek feedback (3.7%), and spend more time mentoring faculty (3.5%). Woefully, 15.1% reported they were unsure what they could start doing to improve, or would do nothing at all, and 2.2% said the best thing they could do was quit the administrative position.

Open-ended responses to the question of what participants would stop doing over the next year in order to improve were coded into the following categories (percent endorsement follows in parentheses): affect-related (e.g., stop getting upset/angry; 27.5%), getting overextended (13.2%), procrastinating, (12.5%), putting out fires (7.9%), electronic time sinks (e.g., email, surfing online, etc.; 5.7%), doing what should be delegated (4.4%), having too many meetings (3.7%), and health-related behaviors (2.6%). However, the second most frequently reported response category was that they were unsure or there was nothing they could stop doing in order to improve their performance (19.7%). A significant gender difference was noted with more women providing affect-related responses than men (32.6% vs. 24%), *X*<sup>2</sup> = 21.518 *df* = 10, *p* < 0.05.

Open-ended responses to the question of how participants worked to inspire others were coded into the following categories (percent endorsement in parentheses): by example (56.1%), encouraging/praising (22.1%), vision/high goals (5.0%), being present (3.9%), communicating rules/expectations (3.9%), creating opportunities/playing to their strengths (3.1%), humor (1.1%), tangible rewards (0.6%) and 4.2% of participants said that they do not inspire others (with some adding that they did not believe it was their job to do so). Gender differences were noted on strategies for inspiring others with men more likely to report using tangible rewards than women (60.3% vs. 49.4%) and women more likely than men to report creating opportunities/playing to their strengths (29.9% vs. 18.5%). Inspirational strategies did not differ by administrative role type, X<sup>2</sup> = 16.21, *df* = 8, *p* < 0.05.

*Innovations in Higher Education - Cases on Transforming and Advancing Practice*

scores represent greater skill endorsement.

an invitation to join the study in year two.

(8.5%), and other-personal leaves, etc. (12.7%).

**2.3 Procedure**

**3. Results**

*Leadership skills*. Participants provided self-ratings for 15 specific behavioral categories (e.g., setting clear expectations, providing helpful feedback). These items were drawn from extensive literature review and have been used extensively in a consulting context across a broad range of management and leadership development interventions. Responses were rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale. Higher

*Burnout*. Job burnout was measured through the 16 items of the Maslach Burnout

Inventory-General Survey (MBI-GS) [21]. The MBI-GS includes three scales: Exhaustion, Cynicism, and Professional Efficacy. The MBI has been extensively validated and is the most widely used measure of burnout. Lower scores are preferable for Exhaustion and Cynicism; higher scores are better for Professional Efficacy. *Job satisfaction*. Six items, rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale, addressed satisfaction with administrative role (e.g., feeling happy and fulfilled, high degree of autonomy, adequate compensation). Higher scores represent greater satisfaction.

Email addresses were obtained from university websites for all department chairs and deans of Colleges of Arts and Sciences in all public research universities ranked by the Carnegie Foundation. Potential participants were sent an email message describing the study and inviting their voluntary participation through SurveyMonkey, an online survey management tool. A single automated reminder was sent if no response had occurred within 14 days. Participant representation was

Individuals who had participated in year one of the study were asked to indicate whether they had changed administrative positions within the past 12 months and provide background information related to the new position. Participants who indicated that they had retired within the past year were presented with an abbreviated set of items. When a participant indicated they were no longer serving in the same position as they had been in year one, the person who replaced them in that position was identified from the university website and new chairs/deans were sent

Mean age of participants was 56.5 years (range 39–74). Mean number of years in current position was 4.74 (SD 4.31, range 1–35). The majority (83.7%) remained in the same administrative role they held in the previous year; 8.1% had started a new administrative position within the past 12 months (with 93.1% of those within the same institution), and 8.1% no longer served in any administrative capacity. Of those who reported they no longer served in an administrative capacity, the reasons cited were: wishing to return to a faculty position full time (56.3%), retirement (11.3%), involuntary-not renewed (11.3%), end of term with no option for renewal

Those who had left administration by year two reported being less well prepared, less skilled, and more distressed on the initial survey than those who remained in an administrative role in year two (*F* = 5.56; *p* < 0.01). For those continuing to serve in a leadership role, burnout increased—and job satisfaction

The most commonly reported strategy for improving leadership skills was to seek advice from senior colleagues (endorsed by 91% of participants), followed by reading about leadership and administration (68%). Approximately half the

decreased—from year one to year two for 73.9% of participants.

obtained from all 145 U.S. Carnegie ranked public research institutions.

**98**

#### **4. Discussion**

This study provides descriptive data on leadership development strategies employed by academic administrators, use of development plans and multi-source feedback, and targets for improvement as well as predictive associations among preparation for leadership, burnout and turnover rates, and job satisfaction across a 1 year interval. Our sample is representative of leaders within U.S. research institutions and thus may not be entirely applicable to all organizational settings. Though we assert that findings from leadership research conducted in corporate settings are largely transferable to academic institutions, there may be unique features of higher education systems that merit specific focus. Our findings also may be limited by the self-report nature of the survey. The research discussed here is part of a larger multi-year investigation of academic leadership. Additional results from year one and year two of the longitudinal study are reported elsewhere [4, 13, 20]. Notably leadership skill was predicted by administrative preparedness, self-awareness, and self-regulation and job satisfaction was predicted by leadership skill and the working culture of the organization.

A minority of participants reported use of formal performance feedback mechanisms. Among higher education administrators it is not uncommon for evaluative feedback to be solicited only during a perfunctory 5-year review. This is in contrast to the private sector in which the use of multi-source feedback surveys is more widespread. Further, leaders who wish to have more positive impact would do well to shift from merely providing feedback to requesting feedback.

The top three areas for which participants reported they had most improved over the past year were time management, stress management and leading/managing. It is promising that individuals are reporting progress in these areas and they provide a roadmap for others seeking to improve. Improvement in leading/managing is a bright spot in the findings particularly given the reported higher rate of job satisfaction for those who have seen improvement in this area. Ideally, organizations and teams can put strategies into practice that increase the chances of improvement in leading/managing. In the absence of organizations taking the lead on implementation of such strategies, individuals or subgroups of individuals can take action now using quick, practical strategies to improve leading and managing. Building these changes into a daily or weekly operating rhythm can also help ensure these changes are sustained.

Improvements in stress management can be leveraged to address primary areas reported under the "stop doing" targets for change (affect related, being overextended, and putting out fires). Using a growth mindset [22, 23] can encourage wider adoption of change strategies that have an impact on the leadership capabilities of administers and their teams. Given the relatively high rate of participants who were unsure what to start doing in order to improve—or who reported that they planned to do nothing—shifts toward a growth mindset may lead to positive change. The research on growth mindset also offers a point of view on the need for planning for continuous improvement.

The finding that more than half of all respondents inspire others "by example" perpetuates the challenges of leading in administrative roles. If the most frequently reported strategy for inspiring others is to do so by example, let us look at the quality of the actions that are observed. Administrators are self-reporting challenges of the job and leading others. If those inspiring "by example" are doing so with less than effective leadership models, potentially ineffective actions are being perpetuated.

Results of prior research [20] demonstrated that deans who engaged in inspirational motivation had chairs who were higher in leadership skills and professional efficacy. Conversely, chairs reporting higher levels of burnout had deans who

**101**

*Planning for Improvement: Leadership Development among University Administrators*

engaged in passive leadership styles. Such effects are likely transactional; part cause and part selection. Unengaged leaders have a ripple effect across the individuals they supervise—and the faculty and students with whom they come in contact in turn. One means by which such effects perpetuate is through processes of

Self-awareness is a necessary component of effective self-regulation [24]. Self-awareness entails not only recognizing one's affective states, but how they fit within a chain of behavioral antecedents and consequences [25]. Such skills have been found to more prevalent among transformational leaders [26]. Self-regulation involves establishing internal standards of performance, evaluating discrepancies between those standards and outcomes, and formulating steps for resolving such

The findings from our empirical work lead to a number of practical suggestions. A paramount implication is that we must better prepare academic administrators for the challenges of the role. Improvements must be implemented at organizational

Personal change plans are an approach that supports deliberate personal change

The following are sample actions from developmental plans where leaders have

• Reflect for 30 minutes each Monday to ensure I am more proactive, deliberate

• Use coaching questions to discuss accomplishments and success stories at the

• Schedule 15 minutes each day to look back and reflect on yesterday and look

• Build resilience among my team by helping them prepare, regulate and reflect

Formal multi-rater feedback on leading and managing offers a way to provide

information on the leader capabilities, areas of strength, and opportunities for improvement. This works well when the information is gathered, shared,

related to performance reviews and in response to formal (360°) or informal feedback from others. A few elements of developmental plans include: What will you commit to improve or change? What actions will you take to get there? How will you apply this change to your daily routine? What results do you hope to see in a specified time period? Making progress with these personal commitments requires making it part of a practice and requires scheduling behaviors and actions as part of

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83452*

discrepancies in order to meet one's goals [27].

**5. Practical strategies for improvement**

**5.1 Organizational, system, or process changes**

*5.1.1 Developmental plans linked to performance evaluation*

self-regulation.

and individual levels.

a daily or weekly routine.

and strategic.

*5.1.2 Multi-rater feedback*

reported progress over a 6-month period.

start of my 1:1 s with direct reports.

during 1:1 s and team meetings

ahead, predict and prepare for a good day today

#### *Planning for Improvement: Leadership Development among University Administrators DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83452*

engaged in passive leadership styles. Such effects are likely transactional; part cause and part selection. Unengaged leaders have a ripple effect across the individuals they supervise—and the faculty and students with whom they come in contact in turn. One means by which such effects perpetuate is through processes of self-regulation.

Self-awareness is a necessary component of effective self-regulation [24]. Self-awareness entails not only recognizing one's affective states, but how they fit within a chain of behavioral antecedents and consequences [25]. Such skills have been found to more prevalent among transformational leaders [26]. Self-regulation involves establishing internal standards of performance, evaluating discrepancies between those standards and outcomes, and formulating steps for resolving such discrepancies in order to meet one's goals [27].

### **5. Practical strategies for improvement**

*Innovations in Higher Education - Cases on Transforming and Advancing Practice*

This study provides descriptive data on leadership development strategies employed by academic administrators, use of development plans and multi-source feedback, and targets for improvement as well as predictive associations among preparation for leadership, burnout and turnover rates, and job satisfaction across a 1 year interval. Our sample is representative of leaders within U.S. research institutions and thus may not be entirely applicable to all organizational settings. Though we assert that findings from leadership research conducted in corporate settings are largely transferable to academic institutions, there may be unique features of higher education systems that merit specific focus. Our findings also may be limited by the self-report nature of the survey. The research discussed here is part of a larger multi-year investigation of academic leadership. Additional results from year one and year two of the longitudinal study are reported elsewhere [4, 13, 20]. Notably leadership skill was predicted by administrative preparedness, self-awareness, and self-regulation and job satisfaction was predicted by leadership skill and the work-

A minority of participants reported use of formal performance feedback mechanisms. Among higher education administrators it is not uncommon for evaluative feedback to be solicited only during a perfunctory 5-year review. This is in contrast to the private sector in which the use of multi-source feedback surveys is more widespread. Further, leaders who wish to have more positive impact would do well

The top three areas for which participants reported they had most improved over the past year were time management, stress management and leading/managing. It is promising that individuals are reporting progress in these areas and they provide a roadmap for others seeking to improve. Improvement in leading/managing is a bright spot in the findings particularly given the reported higher rate of job satisfaction for those who have seen improvement in this area. Ideally, organizations and teams can put strategies into practice that increase the chances of improvement in leading/managing. In the absence of organizations taking the lead on implementation of such strategies, individuals or subgroups of individuals can take action now using quick, practical strategies to improve leading and managing. Building these changes into a daily or weekly operating rhythm can also help ensure these

Improvements in stress management can be leveraged to address primary areas reported under the "stop doing" targets for change (affect related, being overextended, and putting out fires). Using a growth mindset [22, 23] can encourage wider adoption of change strategies that have an impact on the leadership capabilities of administers and their teams. Given the relatively high rate of participants who were unsure what to start doing in order to improve—or who reported that they planned to do nothing—shifts toward a growth mindset may lead to positive change. The research on growth mindset also offers a point of view on the need for

The finding that more than half of all respondents inspire others "by example" perpetuates the challenges of leading in administrative roles. If the most frequently reported strategy for inspiring others is to do so by example, let us look at the quality of the actions that are observed. Administrators are self-reporting challenges of the job and leading others. If those inspiring "by example" are doing so with less than effective leadership models, potentially ineffective actions are being perpetuated. Results of prior research [20] demonstrated that deans who engaged in inspirational motivation had chairs who were higher in leadership skills and professional efficacy. Conversely, chairs reporting higher levels of burnout had deans who

to shift from merely providing feedback to requesting feedback.

**4. Discussion**

ing culture of the organization.

changes are sustained.

planning for continuous improvement.

**100**

The findings from our empirical work lead to a number of practical suggestions. A paramount implication is that we must better prepare academic administrators for the challenges of the role. Improvements must be implemented at organizational and individual levels.

#### **5.1 Organizational, system, or process changes**

#### *5.1.1 Developmental plans linked to performance evaluation*

Personal change plans are an approach that supports deliberate personal change related to performance reviews and in response to formal (360°) or informal feedback from others. A few elements of developmental plans include: What will you commit to improve or change? What actions will you take to get there? How will you apply this change to your daily routine? What results do you hope to see in a specified time period? Making progress with these personal commitments requires making it part of a practice and requires scheduling behaviors and actions as part of a daily or weekly routine.

The following are sample actions from developmental plans where leaders have reported progress over a 6-month period.


#### *5.1.2 Multi-rater feedback*

Formal multi-rater feedback on leading and managing offers a way to provide information on the leader capabilities, areas of strength, and opportunities for improvement. This works well when the information is gathered, shared,

understood, and acted upon. Ensuring those who provided candid feedback feel heard is also important. How this feedback is acted upon is important. Three steps guide effective use of multi-rater feedback. (1) Understand the feedback and name it. (2) Identify 1–2 areas to improve. (3) Take action and create new habits.

Some of the best action plans have these characteristics. Focus on 1–2 behaviors with persistence, demonstrate them daily or weekly to increase the probability they will become habit. Ensure you can see it work. Keep it simple. Build in a plan to follow up and follow through with persistence.

#### *5.1.3 Formal role description*

Include inspiring, coaching and developing others as part of the job description both on paper and in practice. Also make it a regular practice to encourage all leaders to have an area to improve upon. This helps to shift the focus away from developmental plans being about fixing a problem toward an approach where all leaders strive to get better and improve.

#### **5.2 Team or group changes**

The research on psychological safety and Google's Project Aristotle offer recommendations that teams or groups can put into practice now to have impact on team effectiveness, stress management, burnout and retention [28]. Google conducted studies to identify commonalities among the most successful project teams within its organization. The best teams ensured there is psychological safety within the team. Psychological safety refers to the extent an individual believes they can engage in interpersonal risk taking [29, 30]. In work environments with high psychological safety individuals feel they can share their ideas and that team members will be supportive. It is important that each member of a team contribute to group discussion and that group members listen without engaging in personal criticism.

#### **5.3 Individual changes**

Given that organizations will not invest immediately in some of the strategies listed above, individual strategies can be implemented on your own. Below are a few examples of individuals' strategies.

#### *5.3.1 Regulating self and others*

This includes using bottom up, top down and relational strategies to manage stress and emotion. In bottom up regulation, the strategies signal "safety" to the brain. Examples include taking a walk, managing breathing, relaxing in a quiet place. In top down regulation, the strategies shift thinking to decrease stress. Examples include reframing stressors, visualizing positive outcomes, having advanced plans for high stress situations, or practicing mindfulness. In relational regulation, the strategies use positive interactions with others to regulate. Examples include demonstrating empathy, actively listening, practicing expressing appreciation, and quick positive conversations with people you trust. All of these strategies can be used to regulate self and importantly help regulate others in your work place whether it is a peer, direct reports or other leaders. Effectively managing stress and emotion can ensure both the administrators and his or her team is regulated and capable of tapping into their best thinking and decision making.

**103**

*Planning for Improvement: Leadership Development among University Administrators*

Recent research on resilience building among adults offers some guidance that can help with leading/managing others, stress management, reactivity, burnout, and feelings of being overwhelmed [31]. Resilience is defined as how we respond to challenges and stressful experiences. Resilience includes a swift and thorough recovery, sustainability of purpose in the face of adversity, and learning from

1.Prepare and identify how to make things happen. Focus on anticipating unexpected problems and build capacity for flexible responding rather than merely preventing problems. Awareness of prediction influences the outcome

2.Use top down, bottom up and relational techniques to regulate self and others. Relate by using brief positive interactions build connectedness and protection. Reframe threats as challenges and opportunities. Amp up positive emotion to

3.Reflect by looking back on actions that helped during challenging situations. Get good at noticing and reinforcing incremental change. Reflect on what makes it more predictable and controllable. Talk about the purpose—value,

Erica was the chair of a department that was struggling to meet their goals in student engagement and retention. She was interested in "activating" her faculty and staff with very focused, value-added work. Her goal was to encourage her department members to take a more proactive approach to their days and weeks and ensure they could make improvements incrementally. She knew that many people on her team were anxious about all the work they had to do and how overwhelmed they felt with all the input coming into their physical and electronic mailboxes. She

Erica started each Monday by asking a few people in her department with the following question to describe their three most important interactions of the week with students, colleagues, or community members. Once she figured out the most important interactions, she asked them what they planned to do in the interactions and what their contingency plans were in case the initial approach did not work. Finally, she asked them to follow up with her after one of the three most important interactions to let her know what happened. She walked away from the Monday touch point knowing what was important to each person she spoke to for that week and with their commitment to follow up with her later in the week. She checked in

informally on Friday for a brief progress check to see how the week went. Erica used this brief (15 minutes or less) Monday stand up interaction to highlight the three most important interactions of the week and planned multiple check-ins during the week. By using this approach with members of her department, Erica created a less transactional and reactive team and one that was able to incrementally improve their proactive thinking and execution. Within a year of implementing this change in her Weekly Operating Rhythm, Erica's department was on track to becoming one of the best in the College on target metrics of engagement.

of interactions. Predict and make good outcomes happen.

vision, mission—of what you are trying to accomplish.

**5.4 Case example: highlighting important interactions**

did something very simple that made a huge difference:

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83452*

keep negative emotion in check.

Recommended actions that can be used to include:

*5.3.2 Resilience building*

adversity.

*Planning for Improvement: Leadership Development among University Administrators DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83452*

#### *5.3.2 Resilience building*

*Innovations in Higher Education - Cases on Transforming and Advancing Practice*

follow up and follow through with persistence.

leaders strive to get better and improve.

*5.1.3 Formal role description*

**5.2 Team or group changes**

**5.3 Individual changes**

examples of individuals' strategies.

*5.3.1 Regulating self and others*

understood, and acted upon. Ensuring those who provided candid feedback feel heard is also important. How this feedback is acted upon is important. Three steps guide effective use of multi-rater feedback. (1) Understand the feedback and name it. (2) Identify 1–2 areas to improve. (3) Take action and create new

Some of the best action plans have these characteristics. Focus on 1–2 behaviors with persistence, demonstrate them daily or weekly to increase the probability they will become habit. Ensure you can see it work. Keep it simple. Build in a plan to

Include inspiring, coaching and developing others as part of the job description both on paper and in practice. Also make it a regular practice to encourage all leaders to have an area to improve upon. This helps to shift the focus away from developmental plans being about fixing a problem toward an approach where all

The research on psychological safety and Google's Project Aristotle offer recommendations that teams or groups can put into practice now to have impact on team effectiveness, stress management, burnout and retention [28]. Google conducted studies to identify commonalities among the most successful project teams within its organization. The best teams ensured there is psychological safety within the team. Psychological safety refers to the extent an individual believes they can engage in interpersonal risk taking [29, 30]. In work environments with high psychological safety individuals feel they can share their ideas and that team members will be supportive. It is important that each member of a team contribute to group discussion and that group members listen without engaging in personal criticism.

Given that organizations will not invest immediately in some of the strategies listed above, individual strategies can be implemented on your own. Below are a few

This includes using bottom up, top down and relational strategies to manage stress and emotion. In bottom up regulation, the strategies signal "safety" to the brain. Examples include taking a walk, managing breathing, relaxing in a quiet place. In top down regulation, the strategies shift thinking to decrease stress. Examples include reframing stressors, visualizing positive outcomes, having advanced plans for high stress situations, or practicing mindfulness. In relational regulation, the strategies use positive interactions with others to regulate. Examples include demonstrating empathy, actively listening, practicing expressing appreciation, and quick positive conversations with people you trust. All of these strategies can be used to regulate self and importantly help regulate others in your work place whether it is a peer, direct reports or other leaders. Effectively managing stress and emotion can ensure both the administrators and his or her team is regulated and

capable of tapping into their best thinking and decision making.

**102**

habits.

Recent research on resilience building among adults offers some guidance that can help with leading/managing others, stress management, reactivity, burnout, and feelings of being overwhelmed [31]. Resilience is defined as how we respond to challenges and stressful experiences. Resilience includes a swift and thorough recovery, sustainability of purpose in the face of adversity, and learning from adversity.

Recommended actions that can be used to include:


#### **5.4 Case example: highlighting important interactions**

Erica was the chair of a department that was struggling to meet their goals in student engagement and retention. She was interested in "activating" her faculty and staff with very focused, value-added work. Her goal was to encourage her department members to take a more proactive approach to their days and weeks and ensure they could make improvements incrementally. She knew that many people on her team were anxious about all the work they had to do and how overwhelmed they felt with all the input coming into their physical and electronic mailboxes. She did something very simple that made a huge difference:

Erica started each Monday by asking a few people in her department with the following question to describe their three most important interactions of the week with students, colleagues, or community members. Once she figured out the most important interactions, she asked them what they planned to do in the interactions and what their contingency plans were in case the initial approach did not work.

Finally, she asked them to follow up with her after one of the three most important interactions to let her know what happened. She walked away from the Monday touch point knowing what was important to each person she spoke to for that week and with their commitment to follow up with her later in the week. She checked in informally on Friday for a brief progress check to see how the week went.

Erica used this brief (15 minutes or less) Monday stand up interaction to highlight the three most important interactions of the week and planned multiple check-ins during the week. By using this approach with members of her department, Erica created a less transactional and reactive team and one that was able to incrementally improve their proactive thinking and execution. Within a year of implementing this change in her Weekly Operating Rhythm, Erica's department was on track to becoming one of the best in the College on target metrics of engagement. Most importantly, through this approach, she was able to help her faculty and staff plan good days and have improved interactions with students and colleagues across the University and broader community. The focus on the big three interactions also helped her team identify what was important. Erica believed that her department would be successful if each person was able to improve three important interactions each week and the results supported her approach. In the end, small daily and weekly changes added up to important results.

#### **5.5 Case example: multi-rater feedback**

Geoffrey was in his first year as department chair. When the dean would ask how things were going in the department he would say "Great! Everything is going really well and we are making lots of progress." However, over the course of the year, several faculty members complained to the dean that they did not think things were going well at all. Other administrators across campus also remarked that they were concerned that Geoffrey did not seem to be doing well in his new role as chair and questioned whether he should remain in the role. Toward the end of the year a decision was made to solicit feedback from members of Geoffrey's department through an online survey. The survey included ratings of Geoffrey's skills in 30 specific areas (e.g., setting clear expectations, being fair and objective, working to achieve consensus, communication of policies and procedures, etc.) as well as openended comments. Geoffrey also completed a self-rating. Results of the feedback process revealed significant discrepancies across multiple areas. Through discussion of the results it became apparent that Geoffrey thought things had been going well because he perceived the department was making swift progress on developing a new curriculum. What Geoffrey had been oblivious to was that the faculty were feeling disengaged from the process. Their perception was that Geoffrey was ramming through changes without allowing sufficient opportunity for their input. This was hard for Geoffrey to hear. He thought getting the curriculum changes in place so quickly was evidence that he was performing well in his administrative role. Through reflection on the feedback results and really listening to what his faculty valued, Geoffrey was finally able to see how his well-intended efforts had gone awry. Without the feedback process, Geoffrey was at high risk for being removed as chair. Instead, he committed himself to paying better attention to his faculty and asking for frequent informal feedback. Geoffrey's willingness to address his desire to improve with his faculty went a long way toward rebuilding trust. Results of a 360° evaluation conducted at the end of his second year as chair demonstrated how appreciative his faculty were of his openness to change. The department was now hitting its objective targets while also maintaining a more positive working culture.

#### **5.6 Case example: accelerating change through performance coaching**

Jackson is a Dean of a College with 600 faculty and staff members. Just prior to his appointment, the College had participated in a culture survey that measured employee engagement. The survey results for the College were well below the University's average.

Jackson was appointed to lead the College at the same time a new head of Human Resources was hired. Together they teamed up to improve results in a sustainable way. That meant improving productivity while improving the culture. The focus was on helping to hold all leaders and influencers accountable for driving results in a positive way. It also meant dealing with poor performers objectively, quickly and persistently. Jackson is a numbers guy who also had a vision for the College that included getting good results and doing so the right way through a connected coaching culture.

**105**

*Planning for Improvement: Leadership Development among University Administrators*

Jackson and his Human Resources partner developed an implementation plan using real time performance coaching as one of their key tools to create positive change. They experienced incremental change over the course of the first few months. It was slow and steady. Jackson believed it was a solid foundation that he and his team could maintain. They made the kind of progress most teams make: some leaders were making the tools part of their day-to-day routines, some leaders were having some success with the tools, and some were barely complying with the minimum requirements. The initial roll out included pockets of success and more than a handful of good examples, but not widespread cascading and adoption. And then something happened. Jackson and his team saw acceleration in the rate of change, with improvements in both culture and productivity. Let us explore what happened with Jackson, his department chairs, office managers, and staff supervisors. What they did offers lessons for other groups who want to see this kind of change stick.

Jackson and his team of leaders made commitments using a real time coaching approach. Each leader (the dean, 3 associate deans, 16 department chairs, 21 office managers, and 47 supervisors) served as a "coach" to each of their supervisees and agreed to hold five 3-minute coaching conversations each day. These conversations were focused on what was working to help regulate and connect with the agents. The conversations could be held with at level and across reporting relationships. The leaders would ask questions and show that they did not just approach employees when things were not working or when there were problems. The questions were intended to have a positive impact on faculty and staff and to build positive

They also agreed to share their best examples each week during group coaching sessions. Each group of managers would meet with their team of supervisors, who shared what they were trying to accomplish, what happened during the conversation, and what they did to have a helpful interaction. They also gave each other feedback on what they liked and offered suggestions to improve their conversations and coaching. The primary goal of the sessions was to reflect and learn specific tips

Jackson and his team saw some incremental progress using these tools in the way described above. Leaders were approaching their faculty and staff not just when there were problems but when things were working. Leaders were starting to be viewed as helping and as able to drive change in a positive way. But Jackson was not satisfied with the rate of change. He was interested in accelerating the rate of change and in spreading the process and impact across more leaders and more employees.

1.*Daily operating rhythm.* Chairs, office managers, and supervisors were struggling with the commitment to five 3-minute meetings per day. Not because they did not want to or they did not think it was important, but simply because they were not including it in their daily schedules. Eventually, they simply blocked off two 15-minute segments or one 30-minute segment each day and conducted as many 3-minute coaching conversations they could during these segments. The goal here was to see an increase in repetition and to make coaching part of their daily operating rhythm. They also did something to fit this into their typical days: they added these segments to the front end or back end of other meetings they had when they had to travel to other parts of the facility. It was on their schedule, but it wasn't on their peoples' schedules.

from each other that could be spread across teams and the center.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83452*

*5.6.1 How they got started*

relationships within the College.

*5.6.2 What they did to make it work*

#### *Planning for Improvement: Leadership Development among University Administrators DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83452*

Jackson and his Human Resources partner developed an implementation plan using real time performance coaching as one of their key tools to create positive change. They experienced incremental change over the course of the first few months. It was slow and steady. Jackson believed it was a solid foundation that he and his team could maintain. They made the kind of progress most teams make: some leaders were making the tools part of their day-to-day routines, some leaders were having some success with the tools, and some were barely complying with the minimum requirements. The initial roll out included pockets of success and more than a handful of good examples, but not widespread cascading and adoption.

And then something happened. Jackson and his team saw acceleration in the rate of change, with improvements in both culture and productivity. Let us explore what happened with Jackson, his department chairs, office managers, and staff supervisors. What they did offers lessons for other groups who want to see this kind of change stick.

#### *5.6.1 How they got started*

*Innovations in Higher Education - Cases on Transforming and Advancing Practice*

weekly changes added up to important results.

**5.5 Case example: multi-rater feedback**

Most importantly, through this approach, she was able to help her faculty and staff plan good days and have improved interactions with students and colleagues across the University and broader community. The focus on the big three interactions also helped her team identify what was important. Erica believed that her department would be successful if each person was able to improve three important interactions each week and the results supported her approach. In the end, small daily and

Geoffrey was in his first year as department chair. When the dean would ask how things were going in the department he would say "Great! Everything is going really well and we are making lots of progress." However, over the course of the year, several faculty members complained to the dean that they did not think things were going well at all. Other administrators across campus also remarked that they were concerned that Geoffrey did not seem to be doing well in his new role as chair and questioned whether he should remain in the role. Toward the end of the year a decision was made to solicit feedback from members of Geoffrey's department through an online survey. The survey included ratings of Geoffrey's skills in 30 specific areas (e.g., setting clear expectations, being fair and objective, working to achieve consensus, communication of policies and procedures, etc.) as well as openended comments. Geoffrey also completed a self-rating. Results of the feedback process revealed significant discrepancies across multiple areas. Through discussion of the results it became apparent that Geoffrey thought things had been going well because he perceived the department was making swift progress on developing a new curriculum. What Geoffrey had been oblivious to was that the faculty were feeling disengaged from the process. Their perception was that Geoffrey was ramming through changes without allowing sufficient opportunity for their input. This was hard for Geoffrey to hear. He thought getting the curriculum changes in place so quickly was evidence that he was performing well in his administrative role. Through reflection on the feedback results and really listening to what his faculty valued, Geoffrey was finally able to see how his well-intended efforts had gone awry. Without the feedback process, Geoffrey was at high risk for being removed as chair. Instead, he committed himself to paying better attention to his faculty and asking for frequent informal feedback. Geoffrey's willingness to address his desire to improve with his faculty went a long way toward rebuilding trust. Results of a 360° evaluation conducted at the end of his second year as chair demonstrated how appreciative his faculty were of his openness to change. The department was now hitting its objective targets while also maintaining a more positive working culture.

**5.6 Case example: accelerating change through performance coaching**

Jackson is a Dean of a College with 600 faculty and staff members. Just prior to his appointment, the College had participated in a culture survey that measured employee engagement. The survey results for the College were well below the

Jackson was appointed to lead the College at the same time a new head of Human Resources was hired. Together they teamed up to improve results in a sustainable way. That meant improving productivity while improving the culture. The focus was on helping to hold all leaders and influencers accountable for driving results in a positive way. It also meant dealing with poor performers objectively, quickly and persistently. Jackson is a numbers guy who also had a vision for the College that included getting good results and doing so the right way through a connected coaching culture.

**104**

University's average.

Jackson and his team of leaders made commitments using a real time coaching approach. Each leader (the dean, 3 associate deans, 16 department chairs, 21 office managers, and 47 supervisors) served as a "coach" to each of their supervisees and agreed to hold five 3-minute coaching conversations each day. These conversations were focused on what was working to help regulate and connect with the agents. The conversations could be held with at level and across reporting relationships. The leaders would ask questions and show that they did not just approach employees when things were not working or when there were problems. The questions were intended to have a positive impact on faculty and staff and to build positive relationships within the College.

They also agreed to share their best examples each week during group coaching sessions. Each group of managers would meet with their team of supervisors, who shared what they were trying to accomplish, what happened during the conversation, and what they did to have a helpful interaction. They also gave each other feedback on what they liked and offered suggestions to improve their conversations and coaching. The primary goal of the sessions was to reflect and learn specific tips from each other that could be spread across teams and the center.

Jackson and his team saw some incremental progress using these tools in the way described above. Leaders were approaching their faculty and staff not just when there were problems but when things were working. Leaders were starting to be viewed as helping and as able to drive change in a positive way. But Jackson was not satisfied with the rate of change. He was interested in accelerating the rate of change and in spreading the process and impact across more leaders and more employees.

#### *5.6.2 What they did to make it work*

1.*Daily operating rhythm.* Chairs, office managers, and supervisors were struggling with the commitment to five 3-minute meetings per day. Not because they did not want to or they did not think it was important, but simply because they were not including it in their daily schedules. Eventually, they simply blocked off two 15-minute segments or one 30-minute segment each day and conducted as many 3-minute coaching conversations they could during these segments. The goal here was to see an increase in repetition and to make coaching part of their daily operating rhythm. They also did something to fit this into their typical days: they added these segments to the front end or back end of other meetings they had when they had to travel to other parts of the facility. It was on their schedule, but it wasn't on their peoples' schedules.


**107**

*Planning for Improvement: Leadership Development among University Administrators*

The point of this story is to provide you with an example of how one group figured out how to accelerate change and how they spread real time performance coaching across hundreds of employees. The majority of staff in this College can describe to others what their results are on any given day, week or month, and importantly they are able to describe what they are doing to handle customer or coaching interactions well. The key here is that this team stressed accountability for each employee, at every level. In particular, individuals here are more self-directed as the leadership focused on regulating and connecting as part of their coaching

Reframing threats as positive challenges Development plans linked to performance evaluations

This chapter presents data from a longitudinal study of a large national sample of academic administrators in U.S. public research universities. The overarching objective of the investigation is to gain a better understanding of the preparation and experiences of leaders in academic settings in effort to facilitate strategies for positive change. This phase of the project identified improvement strategies used by deans and department chairs including but not limited to seeking advice from senior colleagues, reading about leadership and administration, participating in seminars and workshops, and use of paid leadership consultants. Further, the deans and department chairs perceived that the necessary targets for change included time management, professional development, better self-care, delegation, planning ahead, emotion regulation, allocating more time for thinking, improving listening and communication, seeking feedback, and spending more time mentoring faculty. Effective leadership is critical to the success of the higher education enterprise. Case examples are included to illustrate the importance of soliciting feedback and

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83452*

**Individual Organizational**

Use of short positive conversations Multi-rater feedback

*Major identified areas for improvement at individual and organizational levels.*

Emotion-regulation Articulated role descriptions

*5.6.3 Now what*

**Table 1.**

culture (**Table 1**).

**6. Conclusion**

developing regular coaching plans.

*Planning for Improvement: Leadership Development among University Administrators DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83452*


#### **Table 1.**

*Innovations in Higher Education - Cases on Transforming and Advancing Practice*

"you know the drill."

2. *"You know the drill."* Jackson made a commitment, like his chairs and office managers, to spend 30 minutes out among his staff each day. Keep in mind that he works in a culture where there are meetings and conference calls booked all day. He'd approach supervisors when they were walking across campus or in their offices. At first, he'd ask them a simple question like "what's your best coaching interaction you've had today?" After a few weeks, he changed it to: "you know the drill." Initially people responded with "what do you mean?" He'd then say something like "I've been coming around asking the same sort of question for a few weeks now. What have I been asking about?" The supervisor or manager would say something like "my best example from today or this week?" and then Jackson would sit back and hear their best recent example. After a period of time, he'd just walk up to them and they'd begin sharing their best example without being prompted by a question or by

3.*Good results plus specific behaviors*. Jackson's team got good at conversations that connect the behavior (the how) to best achievement or outcome from that day or week. It wasn't just about being positive or saying "good job" to someone. The conversations were simple: asking individuals to identify a good outcome and to describe how they did that. Being specific helped here: "how did you manage to handle that student situation quickly and ensure you provided good service?" This was a significant breakthrough for the supervisors who started to see their balanced results improve. Most of their agents knew how to answer this question because they figured out how to do something productively, with

good quality and good impact on the students and faculty they served.

4.Two essential benefits here were: (a) that coaches started to gather very

5.*Practical real time coaching*. Chairs and office managers agreed to be on the floor at least 30 minutes per day. They asked their supervisors to be on the floor for longer periods of time coaching, developing and influencing other staff in positive ways. They wanted supervisors to help. Real time coaching was put in place as an all-hands-on-deck period of time when all leaders were out on the floor for a 60- to 90-minute period each week. The goal here was for coaches to demonstrate mostly positive coaching during this time period. This also provided time for office managers and chairs to see the coaching in action. When they first started this process, there was concern for others watching these real time interactions. Initially, individuals were nervous and were reluctant to show what was really happening. After a few weeks of this approach and daily commitments by supervisors to coach more often on the floor (especially asking about what was working), supervisors started to say "Watch us all you want. This is what we do every day. The conversations are mostly positive, so what would be the downside to have someone watch us in

6.*Embedding the* approach *into naturally occurring meetings*. Departmental leaders also made efforts to build the positive examples into other naturally occurring meetings. They would also reference an occasional real time coaching example

specific tips that could be shared immediately with others who are struggling to find out how to do something well and (b) this line of questioning helped all employees improve their self-management and self-direction, which increased their individual accountability for making something happen on their own.

**106**

action."

in other meetings to share best practices.

*Major identified areas for improvement at individual and organizational levels.*

#### *5.6.3 Now what*

The point of this story is to provide you with an example of how one group figured out how to accelerate change and how they spread real time performance coaching across hundreds of employees. The majority of staff in this College can describe to others what their results are on any given day, week or month, and importantly they are able to describe what they are doing to handle customer or coaching interactions well. The key here is that this team stressed accountability for each employee, at every level. In particular, individuals here are more self-directed as the leadership focused on regulating and connecting as part of their coaching culture (**Table 1**).

#### **6. Conclusion**

This chapter presents data from a longitudinal study of a large national sample of academic administrators in U.S. public research universities. The overarching objective of the investigation is to gain a better understanding of the preparation and experiences of leaders in academic settings in effort to facilitate strategies for positive change. This phase of the project identified improvement strategies used by deans and department chairs including but not limited to seeking advice from senior colleagues, reading about leadership and administration, participating in seminars and workshops, and use of paid leadership consultants. Further, the deans and department chairs perceived that the necessary targets for change included time management, professional development, better self-care, delegation, planning ahead, emotion regulation, allocating more time for thinking, improving listening and communication, seeking feedback, and spending more time mentoring faculty. Effective leadership is critical to the success of the higher education enterprise. Case examples are included to illustrate the importance of soliciting feedback and developing regular coaching plans.

#### **Author details**

Tracy L. Morris1 \* and Joseph S. Laipple2

1 West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA

2 Kintla, San Francisco, CA, USA

\*Address all correspondence to: tracy.morris@mail.wvu.edu

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**109**

*Planning for Improvement: Leadership Development among University Administrators*

Academy of Management Journal.

[10] Shaw JD, Duffy MK, Johnson JL, Lockhart DE. Turnover, social capital losses, and performance. Academy of Management Journal. 2005;**48**:594-606

[11] Gmelch WH, Miskin VD. Leadership Skills for Department Chairs. 2nd ed. Madison, WI: Atwood Publishing; 2011

[12] Gmelch WH, Burns JS. Sources of stress for academic chairpersons. Journal of Educational Administration.

[13] Morris TL, Laipple JS. Job satisfaction in the academy: Better a dean than a department chair. In: Diaz L, Rhodes R, editors. Job Satisfaction: Influencing Factors, Gender Differences and Improvement Strategies. New York:

Nova Science; 2018. pp. 139-164

[14] Wolverton M, Gmelch WH, Wolverton ML, Sarros JC. Stress in academic leadership: U.S. and Australian department chairs/heads. The Review of Higher Education. 1999;**22**:165-185

[15] Carmeli A. The relationship between emotional intelligence and work attitudes, behavior and outcomes. Journal of Managerial Psychology.

[16] Carson KD, Carson PP, Birkenmeier BJ. Measuring emotional intelligence: Development and validation of an instrument. Journal of Behavioral and Applied Management. 2000;**2**:32-44

[17] Mohammad FN, Chai LT, Aun LK, Migin MW. Emotional intelligence and turnover intention. International Journal of Academic Research.

[18] Fleenor JW, Smither JW, Atwater LE, Braddy PW, Strum RE. Self-other

2003;**18**:788-813

2014;**6**:211-220

2004;**47**:711-722

1994;**32**:79-94

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83452*

[1] Carroll JB, Wolverton M. Who becomes a chair? New Directions for Higher Education. 2004;**126**:3-10

[2] Halonen HS. Promoting effective program leadership in psychology: A benchmarking strategy. Teaching of

[3] Hempsall K. Developing leadership in higher education: Perspectives from the USA, the UK and Australia. Journal of Higher Education Policy and

prepared are academic administrators? Leadership and job satisfaction within U.S. research universities. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management. 2015;**37**:241-251

Psychology. 2013;**40**:318-329

Management. 2014;**36**:383-394

[4] Morris TL, Laipple JS. How

[5] Wolverton M, Ackerman R, Holt S. Preparing for leadership: What academic department chairs need to know. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management.

[6] Bramlett RK, Scoles MT, Martens H, Gowin K. A survey of the perceived preparation and training of psychology

[7] Conger JA, Fulmer RM. Developing your leadership pipeline. Harvard Business Review. 2003;**81**:76-84

[8] O'Leonard K, Krider L. Leadership

U.S. Leadership Development. Oakland,

[9] Lee TW, Mitchell TR, Sablynski CJ, Burton JP, Holtom BC. The effects of job embeddedness on organizational citizenship, job performance, volitional absences, and voluntary turnover.

Development Factbook 2014: Benchmarks and Trends in

CA: Bersin & Associates; 2014

chairs. The Department Chair.

2005;**27**:227-238

2015;**26**:20-23

**References**

*Planning for Improvement: Leadership Development among University Administrators DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.83452*

#### **References**

*Innovations in Higher Education - Cases on Transforming and Advancing Practice*

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

**108**

**Author details**

Tracy L. Morris1

provided the original work is properly cited.

2 Kintla, San Francisco, CA, USA

\* and Joseph S. Laipple2

\*Address all correspondence to: tracy.morris@mail.wvu.edu

1 West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA

[1] Carroll JB, Wolverton M. Who becomes a chair? New Directions for Higher Education. 2004;**126**:3-10

[2] Halonen HS. Promoting effective program leadership in psychology: A benchmarking strategy. Teaching of Psychology. 2013;**40**:318-329

[3] Hempsall K. Developing leadership in higher education: Perspectives from the USA, the UK and Australia. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management. 2014;**36**:383-394

[4] Morris TL, Laipple JS. How prepared are academic administrators? Leadership and job satisfaction within U.S. research universities. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management. 2015;**37**:241-251

[5] Wolverton M, Ackerman R, Holt S. Preparing for leadership: What academic department chairs need to know. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management. 2005;**27**:227-238

[6] Bramlett RK, Scoles MT, Martens H, Gowin K. A survey of the perceived preparation and training of psychology chairs. The Department Chair. 2015;**26**:20-23

[7] Conger JA, Fulmer RM. Developing your leadership pipeline. Harvard Business Review. 2003;**81**:76-84

[8] O'Leonard K, Krider L. Leadership Development Factbook 2014: Benchmarks and Trends in U.S. Leadership Development. Oakland, CA: Bersin & Associates; 2014

[9] Lee TW, Mitchell TR, Sablynski CJ, Burton JP, Holtom BC. The effects of job embeddedness on organizational citizenship, job performance, volitional absences, and voluntary turnover.

Academy of Management Journal. 2004;**47**:711-722

[10] Shaw JD, Duffy MK, Johnson JL, Lockhart DE. Turnover, social capital losses, and performance. Academy of Management Journal. 2005;**48**:594-606

[11] Gmelch WH, Miskin VD. Leadership Skills for Department Chairs. 2nd ed. Madison, WI: Atwood Publishing; 2011

[12] Gmelch WH, Burns JS. Sources of stress for academic chairpersons. Journal of Educational Administration. 1994;**32**:79-94

[13] Morris TL, Laipple JS. Job satisfaction in the academy: Better a dean than a department chair. In: Diaz L, Rhodes R, editors. Job Satisfaction: Influencing Factors, Gender Differences and Improvement Strategies. New York: Nova Science; 2018. pp. 139-164

[14] Wolverton M, Gmelch WH, Wolverton ML, Sarros JC. Stress in academic leadership: U.S. and Australian department chairs/heads. The Review of Higher Education. 1999;**22**:165-185

[15] Carmeli A. The relationship between emotional intelligence and work attitudes, behavior and outcomes. Journal of Managerial Psychology. 2003;**18**:788-813

[16] Carson KD, Carson PP, Birkenmeier BJ. Measuring emotional intelligence: Development and validation of an instrument. Journal of Behavioral and Applied Management. 2000;**2**:32-44

[17] Mohammad FN, Chai LT, Aun LK, Migin MW. Emotional intelligence and turnover intention. International Journal of Academic Research. 2014;**6**:211-220

[18] Fleenor JW, Smither JW, Atwater LE, Braddy PW, Strum RE. Self-other rating agreement in leadership: A review. The Leadership Quarterly. 2010;**21**:1005-1034

[19] Gigliotti RA, Ruben BD. Preparing higher education leaders: A conceptual, strategic, and operational approach. Journal of Leadership Education. 2017;**16**:96-114. DOI: 1012806/V16/I1/T1

[20] Morris TL, Laipple JS. Leadership challenge: Perceptions of effectiveness of deans and chairs. Journal of Higher Education Management. 2015;**30**:110-118

[21] Maslach C, Jackson SE, Leiter M. Maslach Burnout Inventory Manual. 3rd ed. Menlo Park, CA: Mind Garden; 2010

[22] Dweck CS. Mindset: The New Psychology of Success. New York, NY: Random House; 2006. p. 276

[23] Yeager DS, Dweck CS. Mindsets that promote resilience: When students believe that personal characteristics can be developed. Educational Psychologist. 2012;**47**:302-314

[24] Mayer JD, Salovey P, Caruso DR, Sitarenios G. Emotional intelligence as a standard intelligence. Emotion. 2001;**1**:232-242

[25] Taylor SN. Redefining leader selfawareness by integrating the second component of self-awareness. Journal of Leadership Studies. 2010;**3**:57-68

[26] McCleskey JA. Situational, transformational, and transactional leadership and leadership development. Journal of Business Studies Quarterly. 2014;**5**:117-130

[27] Hagger MS, Wood C, Stiff C, Chatzisarantis NLD. Ego depletion and the strength model of self-control: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin. 2010;**136**:495-525

[28] Duhigg C. What Google Learned from its Quest to Build the Perfect Team. The New York Times; Nov 22, 2016

[29] Frazier ML, Fainshmidt S, Klinger RL, Pezeshkan A, Vracheva V. Psychological safety: A meta-analytic review and extension. Personnel Psychology. 2017;**70**:113-165

**Chapter 7**

*Raj Gururajan*

**Abstract**

Talent Management as a Core

Source of Innovation and Social

*Atheer Abdullah Mohammed, Abdul Hafeez-Baig and*

as attraction, development and retention of talent.

retention, higher education

**1. Introduction**

**111**

**Keywords:** talent management, talent attraction, talent development, talent

The new-millennium has witnessed the appearance of an infinite number of developments in strategic administration-thinking as a result of the "information technology revolution", and the appearance of the term "knowledge economy", which looks at the institution's excellence not only in terms of quantitative or qualitative productivity, but also in terms of the quality of knowledge that exists in its human assets, represented as talent. Therefore, management as a contemporary science has changed its language to focus on mental abilities where talented

Development in Higher Education

In the new millennium, talent management (TM) has become more important and has received attention from institutions that seek a foundation on the map institutions of excellence. Higher education institutions are represented by their possession of highly qualified employees who are able to show initiative, creativity and excellence in performance. Those individuals are the core resources of innovation and social development. It is apparent that there is a great competition among institutions in this modern technology era, driving an increase in knowledgeable employees along with vast market changes. Consequently, academic institutions have started to rethink their procedures and policies to achieve better attraction, development and retention of those employees. Therefore, this chapter aims to improve the theoretical and pragmatic comprehension of TM as an essential source of innovative and educational development. Through pragmatic use of elements of previous research approaches combined with a comprehensive qualitative study, this study concludes that higher education institutions are aware of innovation sources that are currently used in managing talent in their divisions and faculties. These were talent attraction, talent development, and talent retention. Both empirical research represented by the case study in the higher education sector and previous research confirm that the best practices of TM are considered

[30] Edmonson A. Psychological safety and learning behavior in work teams. Administrative Science Quarterly. 1999;**44**:350-383

[31] Forbes S, Fikretroglu D. Building resilience: The conceptual basis and research evidence for resilience training programs. Review of General Psychology. 2018; Advance online publication. DOI: 10.1037/gpr0000152

#### **Chapter 7**

*Innovations in Higher Education - Cases on Transforming and Advancing Practice*

[29] Frazier ML, Fainshmidt S, Klinger

Psychological safety: A meta-analytic review and extension. Personnel Psychology. 2017;**70**:113-165

[30] Edmonson A. Psychological safety and learning behavior in work teams. Administrative Science Quarterly.

[31] Forbes S, Fikretroglu D. Building resilience: The conceptual basis and research evidence for resilience training programs. Review of General Psychology. 2018; Advance online publication. DOI: 10.1037/gpr0000152

RL, Pezeshkan A, Vracheva V.

1999;**44**:350-383

rating agreement in leadership: A review. The Leadership Quarterly.

[19] Gigliotti RA, Ruben BD. Preparing higher education leaders: A conceptual, strategic, and operational approach. Journal of Leadership Education. 2017;**16**:96-114. DOI: 1012806/V16/I1/T1

[20] Morris TL, Laipple JS. Leadership challenge: Perceptions of effectiveness of deans and chairs. Journal of Higher Education Management. 2015;**30**:110-118

[21] Maslach C, Jackson SE, Leiter M. Maslach Burnout Inventory Manual. 3rd ed. Menlo Park, CA: Mind Garden; 2010

[22] Dweck CS. Mindset: The New Psychology of Success. New York, NY:

[23] Yeager DS, Dweck CS. Mindsets that promote resilience: When students believe that personal characteristics can be developed. Educational Psychologist.

[24] Mayer JD, Salovey P, Caruso DR, Sitarenios G. Emotional intelligence as a standard intelligence. Emotion.

[25] Taylor SN. Redefining leader selfawareness by integrating the second component of self-awareness. Journal of

Leadership Studies. 2010;**3**:57-68

[26] McCleskey JA. Situational, transformational, and transactional leadership and leadership development. Journal of Business Studies Quarterly.

[27] Hagger MS, Wood C, Stiff C, Chatzisarantis NLD. Ego depletion and the strength model of self-control: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin.

[28] Duhigg C. What Google Learned from its Quest to Build the Perfect Team. The New York Times; Nov 22, 2016

Random House; 2006. p. 276

2012;**47**:302-314

2001;**1**:232-242

2014;**5**:117-130

2010;**136**:495-525

2010;**21**:1005-1034

**110**

## Talent Management as a Core Source of Innovation and Social Development in Higher Education

*Atheer Abdullah Mohammed, Abdul Hafeez-Baig and Raj Gururajan*

### **Abstract**

In the new millennium, talent management (TM) has become more important and has received attention from institutions that seek a foundation on the map institutions of excellence. Higher education institutions are represented by their possession of highly qualified employees who are able to show initiative, creativity and excellence in performance. Those individuals are the core resources of innovation and social development. It is apparent that there is a great competition among institutions in this modern technology era, driving an increase in knowledgeable employees along with vast market changes. Consequently, academic institutions have started to rethink their procedures and policies to achieve better attraction, development and retention of those employees. Therefore, this chapter aims to improve the theoretical and pragmatic comprehension of TM as an essential source of innovative and educational development. Through pragmatic use of elements of previous research approaches combined with a comprehensive qualitative study, this study concludes that higher education institutions are aware of innovation sources that are currently used in managing talent in their divisions and faculties. These were talent attraction, talent development, and talent retention. Both empirical research represented by the case study in the higher education sector and previous research confirm that the best practices of TM are considered as attraction, development and retention of talent.

**Keywords:** talent management, talent attraction, talent development, talent retention, higher education

#### **1. Introduction**

The new-millennium has witnessed the appearance of an infinite number of developments in strategic administration-thinking as a result of the "information technology revolution", and the appearance of the term "knowledge economy", which looks at the institution's excellence not only in terms of quantitative or qualitative productivity, but also in terms of the quality of knowledge that exists in its human assets, represented as talent. Therefore, management as a contemporary science has changed its language to focus on mental abilities where talented

individuals institute a strategic resource in an institution [1]. Talent is a primary source of competitive advantage for institutions [2–6]. As a result, there are many practical benefits for institutions that focus on talents [5–9]. For example, talent assists in increasing rankings and profits of higher education institutions [8, 9]. To explain, universities' rankings are aligned with the talent of high-performing employees [8–12]. These talented individuals contribute significantly to a university's performance by attracting new students, conducting high-quality teaching and learning, conducting high-level research and securing funds for further research [8–12].

managing talent in the higher education environment. The sample consisted of 6 participants for brainstorming, 11 in the focus group session and 6 individual

*Talent Management as a Core Source of Innovation and Social Development in Higher Education*

In today's business world, talents are considered strategic resources for meeting

Similarly, Baublyte [65] and Macfarlane et al. [66] have defined talent as those who exhibit leadership qualities that play a pivotal function within the organisation and show superior behaviour. Some other characteristics ascribed to the talent of human capital are that it is beneficial, unique [67, 68] and a major institutional resource [69, 70]. According to Scaringella and Malaeb [31], Ross [71] and Butter et al. [72], talent is an innate ability to learn things in an effortless and skilful manner inherent in these intelligent and creative individuals. Other researchers, such as Murongazvombo [73], Chuai [74], Kravtsova [75], Kramer et al. [76] and Kaliannan et al. [77], have defined talent as an essential driver and success element

As a concept, in the higher education environment, TM as a primary component of the strategic human resource management can improve a university's performance over the long term by understanding the strategy enacted through its talented individuals [12, 25, 26]. This is a key for institutional success by making it possible for institutional systems to achieve higher goals [27–30]. In the literature, there are six common perspectives on TM, which are [21] (*1) process, (2) strategic, (3) developmental, (4) cultural, (5) competitive and (6) human resource planning*

This was defined by Iles et al. [14], Blass [52] and Cappelli [79], for whom TM appears as a complex set of processes that operate in large institutions so that the institutions and individuals within them can meet current and future needs with overall benefits for the institution. In a similar vein, Dessler [80], Tansley et al. [81], Blackman and Kennedy [82] and Ali et al. [83] portray the TM process as needing full integration, in order to become a standard practice to attract individuals who have high potential for creative development and to retain them in order to generate a unique value to the institution. In other words, it is a specific method for attracting and retaining abilities and essential knowledge for the future [80–83].

institutional demand for increased competitiveness [4–9, 41, 48, 49]. Prior to reviewing TM, it is essential to describe the term talent [21, 50]. Iles et al. [14], Barron [51], Blass [52], Li and Devos [53], Cannon and McGee [54], Tansley et al. [55], Festing and Schäfer [56] and Naim et al. [57] all introduce talent as highperforming employees who have been considered to have significantly contributed

to the progress of an organisation and its future development. Others like Rudhumbu and Maphosa [39], Harstad [58] and Sparrow and Makram [59] consider these as employees who are capable to add value by increasing organisational production. Having experience, mastery, knowledge, the skills, ability and the potential for development are all considered by Silzer and Church [60], Gümüş et al. [61], Beardwell and Thompson [62], Silzer and Dowell [63] and D'Annunzio-

interviews.

**3. The conception of talent management**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81377*

Green [64] as indications of talent.

*perspectives* [53, 65, 78].

**113**

**4. The process perspective**

for an institution both short and long term [21].

Over the past two decades, there has been a dramatic increase in TM studies [13]. TM has become a common term since the McKinsey group first mentioned it in their 1997 report 'The War for Talent*'* [14–21]. Then, Michaels et al. [22] discussed TM in more detail in their book [19, 23, 24]. Since then, the topic has attracted enthusiastic interest from scholars in various fields and sectors [17, 21]. In the higher education sector as an industry, TM as a primary component of strategic human resource management can improve a university's performance over the long term by advancing its strategy and enact it through its talented individuals [12, 25, 26]. Thus, TM is a key for institutional success by making it possible for institutional systems to achieve higher goals [27–30]. Consequently, it is considered a core resource of innovation and social development [12, 21].

Nonetheless, new research in the strategic human resource area is urgently needed and rapidly expanding, as institutions have encountered significant challenges associated with TM [21, 26, 31]. These key challenges are faced by higher education institutions which need to give high-quality assurance in their technical expertise and activities [32–36] and their ability to be a leading exporter of international education [35–38]. Bradley [12] has suggested that a key solution to meet these challenges in Australian higher education could be the application of TM programmes. Such programmes include processes such as attraction, development and retention of talent, which are keys to growth and success of higher education institutions within their industry [12, 26, 39–41].

The review of the chapter is covered into five sections. The introduction of the chapter is provided in Section 1. Next, the TM theory and a brief explanation of this concept are provided. It discusses the conceptual identity and intellectual frameworks of TM. Talent management practices (TMPs) are reviewed and addressed in Section 3. Here, the practices that are included in the review are attraction, development and retention of talent. Section 4 discusses the innovations of TM in higher education. Finally, Section 5 concludes this chapter.

#### **2. Method**

The authors adopted both theoretical and practical approaches. Theoretically, a systematic review that includes empirical and theoretical studies on TM which have been published between 2007 and 2017 in scholarly research has been adopted. A total of 35 academic works were involved in the review [42]. Practically, the authors carried out an empirical qualitative study in six Australian universities to understand the best processes that are currently used in managing talent in the higher education sector [43, 44]. It comprised qualitative multi-method studies including (i) a brainstorming session to develop sets of questions, (ii) a focus group session to define the scope of individual interviews and (iii) individual interviews to obtain an in-depth understanding on the subject [45–47]. Qualitative methods were enough to comprehend the best practices of innovation that are currently utilised in *Talent Management as a Core Source of Innovation and Social Development in Higher Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81377*

managing talent in the higher education environment. The sample consisted of 6 participants for brainstorming, 11 in the focus group session and 6 individual interviews.

#### **3. The conception of talent management**

individuals institute a strategic resource in an institution [1]. Talent is a primary source of competitive advantage for institutions [2–6]. As a result, there are many practical benefits for institutions that focus on talents [5–9]. For example, talent assists in increasing rankings and profits of higher education institutions [8, 9]. To

Over the past two decades, there has been a dramatic increase in TM studies [13]. TM has become a common term since the McKinsey group first mentioned it in their 1997 report 'The War for Talent*'* [14–21]. Then, Michaels et al. [22] discussed TM in more detail in their book [19, 23, 24]. Since then, the topic has attracted enthusiastic interest from scholars in various fields and sectors [17, 21]. In the higher education sector as an industry, TM as a primary component of strategic human resource management can improve a university's performance over the long term by advancing its strategy and enact it through its talented individuals [12, 25, 26]. Thus, TM is a key for institutional success by making it possible for institutional systems to achieve higher goals [27–30]. Consequently, it is considered

Nonetheless, new research in the strategic human resource area is urgently needed and rapidly expanding, as institutions have encountered significant challenges associated with TM [21, 26, 31]. These key challenges are faced by higher education institutions which need to give high-quality assurance in their technical expertise and activities [32–36] and their ability to be a leading exporter of international education [35–38]. Bradley [12] has suggested that a key solution to meet these challenges in Australian higher education could be the application of TM programmes. Such programmes include processes such as attraction, development and retention of talent, which are keys to growth and success of higher education

The review of the chapter is covered into five sections. The introduction of the chapter is provided in Section 1. Next, the TM theory and a brief explanation of this concept are provided. It discusses the conceptual identity and intellectual frameworks of TM. Talent management practices (TMPs) are reviewed and addressed in Section 3. Here, the practices that are included in the review are attraction, development and retention of talent. Section 4 discusses the innovations of TM in higher

The authors adopted both theoretical and practical approaches. Theoretically, a systematic review that includes empirical and theoretical studies on TM which have been published between 2007 and 2017 in scholarly research has been adopted. A total of 35 academic works were involved in the review [42]. Practically, the authors carried out an empirical qualitative study in six Australian universities to understand the best processes that are currently used in managing talent in the higher education sector [43, 44]. It comprised qualitative multi-method studies including (i) a brainstorming session to develop sets of questions, (ii) a focus group session to define the scope of individual interviews and (iii) individual interviews to obtain an in-depth understanding on the subject [45–47]. Qualitative methods were enough to comprehend the best practices of innovation that are currently utilised in

explain, universities' rankings are aligned with the talent of high-performing employees [8–12]. These talented individuals contribute significantly to a university's performance by attracting new students, conducting high-quality teaching and learning, conducting high-level research and securing funds for

*Innovations in Higher Education - Cases on Transforming and Advancing Practice*

a core resource of innovation and social development [12, 21].

institutions within their industry [12, 26, 39–41].

education. Finally, Section 5 concludes this chapter.

**2. Method**

**112**

further research [8–12].

In today's business world, talents are considered strategic resources for meeting institutional demand for increased competitiveness [4–9, 41, 48, 49]. Prior to reviewing TM, it is essential to describe the term talent [21, 50]. Iles et al. [14], Barron [51], Blass [52], Li and Devos [53], Cannon and McGee [54], Tansley et al. [55], Festing and Schäfer [56] and Naim et al. [57] all introduce talent as highperforming employees who have been considered to have significantly contributed to the progress of an organisation and its future development. Others like Rudhumbu and Maphosa [39], Harstad [58] and Sparrow and Makram [59] consider these as employees who are capable to add value by increasing organisational production. Having experience, mastery, knowledge, the skills, ability and the potential for development are all considered by Silzer and Church [60], Gümüş et al. [61], Beardwell and Thompson [62], Silzer and Dowell [63] and D'Annunzio-Green [64] as indications of talent.

Similarly, Baublyte [65] and Macfarlane et al. [66] have defined talent as those who exhibit leadership qualities that play a pivotal function within the organisation and show superior behaviour. Some other characteristics ascribed to the talent of human capital are that it is beneficial, unique [67, 68] and a major institutional resource [69, 70]. According to Scaringella and Malaeb [31], Ross [71] and Butter et al. [72], talent is an innate ability to learn things in an effortless and skilful manner inherent in these intelligent and creative individuals. Other researchers, such as Murongazvombo [73], Chuai [74], Kravtsova [75], Kramer et al. [76] and Kaliannan et al. [77], have defined talent as an essential driver and success element for an institution both short and long term [21].

As a concept, in the higher education environment, TM as a primary component of the strategic human resource management can improve a university's performance over the long term by understanding the strategy enacted through its talented individuals [12, 25, 26]. This is a key for institutional success by making it possible for institutional systems to achieve higher goals [27–30]. In the literature, there are six common perspectives on TM, which are [21] (*1) process, (2) strategic, (3) developmental, (4) cultural, (5) competitive and (6) human resource planning perspectives* [53, 65, 78].

#### **4. The process perspective**

This was defined by Iles et al. [14], Blass [52] and Cappelli [79], for whom TM appears as a complex set of processes that operate in large institutions so that the institutions and individuals within them can meet current and future needs with overall benefits for the institution. In a similar vein, Dessler [80], Tansley et al. [81], Blackman and Kennedy [82] and Ali et al. [83] portray the TM process as needing full integration, in order to become a standard practice to attract individuals who have high potential for creative development and to retain them in order to generate a unique value to the institution. In other words, it is a specific method for attracting and retaining abilities and essential knowledge for the future [80–83].

#### **5. The strategic perspective**

TM is a strategy to attract the right talent and provide workers with potential contributions via strategic workforce planning and high-quality development experiences that build institutional capabilities [59, 84]. In the same way, it is a strategic function for identifying talent gaps and managing succession planning, along with attracting [85], selecting, motivating, developing and maintaining highly qualified individuals [86, 87]. TM can be useful in empowering employees to understand their essential capabilities and to produce an effective climate which professionally empowers them to underpin, capture and develop these talents into individual productivity [59, 71]. Therefore, TM should inform the selection of highperformance incumbents to fill positions [88, 89].

#### **6. The developmental perspective**

TM is a strategic priority for business institutions and is perceived as a crucial driver in developing institutional performance [90, 91]. Similarly, Cannon and McGee [54], Silzer and Dowell [63] and Moczydłowska [92] explain TM as a set of procedures, programmes and activities applied to highly qualified employees who are characterised by high potential in their development in order to achieve an institution's goals now and in the future. The reason for this is that, if an institution fails to provide talented development and training, it may lose available talent [93].

#### **7. The competitive perspective**

As perceived by Beamond et al. [94], Tomany [95] and Meyers and Van Woerkom [96], TM is an engine of sustainable competitive advantage, which is tricky to simulate, is rare and valuable and cannot be replaced by competitors. From the same perspective, Iles et al. [14], Al Haidari [50], Gelens et al. [68], Collings and Mellahi [88], Waheed et al. [97] and Yap [98] define it as activities, processes and development of skills which require individuals to achieve a sustainable competitive advantage and institutional success by providing competent and highly qualified individuals who are more capable than competitors in other institutions.

#### **8. The human resource planning perspective**

Cui et al. [17], Beardwell and Thompson [62], Cappelli [79], Nissler [99] and Lewis and Heckman [100] introduce TM as a tool of human resource planning to develop a plan to meet institutional human resource needs, in order to attract employees with the appropriate skills in the appropriate areas of work. This involves a number of procedures designed to attract, develop and retain extremely talented staff to meet institutional needs. In other words, TM anticipates the necessity for human resources and then builds a strategy to meet it.

#### **9. The cultural perspective**

According to this perspective, TM focuses on social and cultural contexts of available human resources within a range of qualities [101]. These qualities

**No. The study Country**

**115**

**Sector/industry**

 **Method**

**Talent selection**

**engagement**

**(recruitment)**

**development**

**development**

**Talent** 

**Talent** 

**Succession planning**

**Talent acquisition**

**Talent retention**

 **and reward**

**identification**

**management**

**management**

**Support and training**

**Compensation**

 **and talent planning**

**Performance**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81377*

**Career** 

**Workforce**

**Talent** 

**Skills gap analysis**

**Talent evaluation**

**Leadership**

**Talent attraction** 

1

2

3

4 [112]

5

6 [114]

7

8

9

10 [118]

11 [119]

12 [75]

13 [120]

14 [95] 15 [121]

 [117]

 Czech Republic

 Several European countries

 Uganda

 Czech Republic

 Sweden and Romania

 United Kingdom (UK)

 Denmark

 Private

 Private Manufacturing

 Qualitative

 Private Private Private

Qualitative Quantitative

Mixed

 \*

 \* \*

 \*

 \*

\*

\*

 \*

\*

 \*

 \*

Quantitative

\*

 \*

\*

\*

\*

 \* \*

 \*

 \*

\*

\*

 \*

 [116]

 Switzerland

 [115]

 Malaysia

 Iran

 [113]

—

 —

Manufacturing

Private Private Private

Quantitative Quantitative

Qualitative

Qualitative

 \*

 \* \*

\*

\*

 \* \* \*

\*

\*

\* \*

\*

Quantitative

 \*

\*

 [111]

 South Africa

 India

 [110]

 Thailand

 [109]

 South Africa

ICT Private

Hotel Business services

Quantitative

Theoretical

Qualitative Quantitative

 \*

 \* \* \*

 \* \*

\*

\*

 \* \*

 \*

> \*

\*

 \*

> \*

 \* \*

 \*

\*

\* \*

*Talent Management as a Core Source of Innovation and Social Development in Higher Education*

\*

Quantitative

\*

\*

\* \*

 \*

\*

\*

 \* \*

**TMPs**

*Talent Management as a Core Source of Innovation and Social Development in Higher Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81377*


**5. The strategic perspective**

performance incumbents to fill positions [88, 89].

**6. The developmental perspective**

**7. The competitive perspective**

**9. The cultural perspective**

**114**

TM is a strategy to attract the right talent and provide workers with potential contributions via strategic workforce planning and high-quality development experiences that build institutional capabilities [59, 84]. In the same way, it is a strategic function for identifying talent gaps and managing succession planning, along with attracting [85], selecting, motivating, developing and maintaining highly qualified individuals [86, 87]. TM can be useful in empowering employees to understand their essential capabilities and to produce an effective climate which professionally empowers them to underpin, capture and develop these talents into individual productivity [59, 71]. Therefore, TM should inform the selection of high-

*Innovations in Higher Education - Cases on Transforming and Advancing Practice*

TM is a strategic priority for business institutions and is perceived as a crucial driver in developing institutional performance [90, 91]. Similarly, Cannon and McGee [54], Silzer and Dowell [63] and Moczydłowska [92] explain TM as a set of procedures, programmes and activities applied to highly qualified employees who are characterised by high potential in their development in order to achieve an institution's goals now and in the future. The reason for this is that, if an institution fails to provide talented development and training, it may lose available talent [93].

As perceived by Beamond et al. [94], Tomany [95] and Meyers and Van Woerkom [96], TM is an engine of sustainable competitive advantage, which is tricky to simulate, is rare and valuable and cannot be replaced by competitors. From the same perspective, Iles et al. [14], Al Haidari [50], Gelens et al. [68], Collings and Mellahi [88], Waheed et al. [97] and Yap [98] define it as activities, processes and development of skills which require individuals to achieve a sustainable competitive advantage and institutional success by providing competent and highly qualified

individuals who are more capable than competitors in other institutions.

Cui et al. [17], Beardwell and Thompson [62], Cappelli [79], Nissler [99] and Lewis and Heckman [100] introduce TM as a tool of human resource planning to develop a plan to meet institutional human resource needs, in order to attract employees with the appropriate skills in the appropriate areas of work. This involves a number of procedures designed to attract, develop and retain extremely talented staff to meet institutional needs. In other words, TM anticipates the neces-

According to this perspective, TM focuses on social and cultural contexts of available human resources within a range of qualities [101]. These qualities

**8. The human resource planning perspective**

sity for human resources and then builds a strategy to meet it.


**No. The study Country**

**117**

**Sector/industry**

 **Method**

**Talent selection**

**engagement**

**(recruitment)**

**development**

**development**

**Talent** 

**Talent** 

**Succession planning**

**Talent acquisition**

**Talent retention**

 **and reward**

**identification**

**management**

**management**

**Support and training**

**Compensation**

 **and talent planning**

**Performance**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81377*

**Career** 

**Workforce**

**Talent** 

**Skills gap analysis**

**Talent evaluation**

**Leadership**

**Talent attraction** 

> 30 [77]

31 [132] 32 [133] 33 [134] 34 [135]

35 [26]

Total

Percentage (%) of research studies

*Source: Prepared by the researcher based on the above sources.*

**Table 1.**

*The TMPs according to the opinions of authors and researchers.*

 Malaysia

*South Africa*

—

 Malaysia

 Portugal

—

Private Private

 —

 —

Higher education

Higher education

 Qualitative 7 4 20 11.4 68.5 68.5 5.7 22.8 5.7 11.4 71.4 31.4 20 5.7 5.7 8.5 44.4 14.2

 2 4

 5

 Qualitative

Qualitative Theoretical Theoretical

 \*

 \* \*

\*

\*

 \*

\*

 \*

Qualitative

\*

\*

 \*

> \*

\*

 \*

*Talent Management as a Core Source of Innovation and Social Development in Higher Education*

 \*

\*

 \* \*

\*

\*

**TMPs**

*Talent Management as a Core Source of Innovation and Social Development in Higher Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81377*


#### **Table 1.**

*The TMPs according to the opinions of authors and researchers.*

**No. The study Country**

**116**

**Sector/industry**

 **Method**

**Talent selection**

**engagement**

**(recruitment)**

**development**

**development**

**Talent** 

**Talent** 

**Succession planning**

**Talent acquisition**

**Talent retention**

 **and reward**

**identification**

**management**

**management**

**Support and training**

**Compensation**

 **and talent planning**

**Performance**

**Career** 

**Workforce**

**Talent** 

**Skills gap analysis**

**Talent evaluation**

**Leadership**

**Talent attraction** 

\*

\* \*

\*

 \*

\*

 \*

\*

\*

 \* \*

\*

 \*

 \*

 \* \* \*

\*

\*

 \* \* \*

*Innovations in Higher Education - Cases on Transforming and Advancing Practice*

 \*

16 [104]

17 [122] 18 [123]

19 [70]

20 [124] 21 [125] 22 [126] 23 [127]

24 [50]

25 [128] 26 [129]

27 [80] 28 [130]

29 [131]

 Egypt

 Pakistan

—

—

 Ghana

 Kenya

 USA

 China

 Arab Gulf countries

—

 Banking

 —

 —

 —

Banking Banking

Quantitative

 \*

 \*

 \*

Quantitative

 \*

 \*

 \*

 Norway

 Pakistan

 Pakistan

—

Manufacturing

Private Banking

 —

Banking Banking

Private Manufacturing

 Qualitative

Mixed Theoretical

Theoretical Theoretical

 \*

 \*

 \*

\*

 \*

 \* \*

 \*

 \*

Quantitative Quantitative

\*

 \*

\*

\*

\* \*

\* \*

\*

 \* \*

\*

\*

\*

\*

 \*

\*

 \* \*

Quantitative

Qualitative

Theoretical

 \*

 \* \*

 \* \*

\*

Quantitative

 \*

 Qualitative

**TMPs**

include innate ability, intelligence and creative skills [31, 71, 72, 102]. Proponents of this perspective propose that individuals are successful only when they have sufficient talent and believe that the success of institutional work will be followed by their own success [101, 103]. **Table 1** shows a summary of perspectives on TM.

**10.1 Talent attraction**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81377*

institution.

**119**

achieve the institution's goals.

increasingly to their productivity [98, 136, 137, 139].

In modern knowledge-based institutions, talent attraction is one of the most essential success elements [105, 136, 137]. Higher education institutions, for example, are strongly based on the attraction of experienced staff to fill key positions [9, 12, 36]. They primarily aim to attract talented candidates from the internal or external labour market [130]. However, there are some difficulties and challenges in attracting qualified staff to higher education institutions [9, 36]. These issues include safety and security, workloads [36] and conflicting opinions [9]. To meet these challenges, Beardwell and Thompson [62] highlight the following approaches

*Talent Management as a Core Source of Innovation and Social Development in Higher Education*

• *The job-based approach*: this includes writing a comprehensive description of a job which is filled by an employee, and then creates the desired person

responsibilities of the main job are not taken into consideration.

• *The person-based approach*: this focuses on identifying individual attitudes sought by an institution. It can be adopted in order to recruit individuals to fill a vacant job and participate in achieving the broader business targets of the

• *The competency-based approach*: this tries to recruit people by, for example, specifications, knowledge, experiences, skills and personal values that are attached to a job and used as a guide for an individual. However, this approach can encounter practical implementation difficulties and therefore may not

Talent attraction can be divided into two sub-variables: (1) social domain and (2) institutional excellence. Throughout the chapter, the term 'social domain' is used to refer to support in difficult times, social innovation and work-life balance. An institution can attract more talented employees by providing them with social support in critical areas, for example, motherhood and monetary difficulties [138]. In regard to work-life balance, the last decade has seen a growing trend towards family-friendly workplaces [139]. Thompson [137] defines work-life balance as a personal perspective that is related to compatibility for talented employees inside and outside their workplace. Socialising with colleagues, lifestyle opportunities or appropriate locations are determinant factors for attracting new talented individuals, because they add work-life balance to institutions, which in turn contributes

In the literature, the term 'institutional excellence' is generally understood to mean a strong tool and a key driver that assists institutions to achieve their strategic and operational aims [140, 141]. Excellent institutions adopt managerial attitudes that focus on total quality in all internal processes to attract high-quality individuals

excellence-related factors that contribute to attracting new talents to higher education institutions. These factors include talent branding, the reputation of an institu-

Talent branding as a key element of talent attraction enables institutions to manage talent of employees through an institutions' identity, loyalty and culture, as

[53, 142]. As previously stated, the qualitative study explores a number of

tions, institutional culture, institutional climate and work environment.

specification, which is based on that job description. However, this approach is inflexible because the changes that can occur in the main tasks or list of

that have been identified as effective for attracting talent:

To conclude this section, the scope of TM is restricted to the strategic perspective for three reasons. First of all, the strategic perspective includes all the perspectives above [104]. Secondly, this perspective outlines how an institution can efficiently implement TMPs [104, 105]. Finally, TM is a function of attraction, development and retention processes which contribute strategically to an institution's success [105–107].

#### **10. Talent management practices: a critical review**

In the twenty-first century, TM has become more important and has received attention from institutions that seek a foothold in the institutional map of excellence. High-performing institutions are identifiable by their talented individuals who are able to show initiative, creativity and excellence in performance [27–29]. In higher education environments where high-performing organisations are identifiable by their talented individuals who are able to show initiative, creativity and excellence in performance. TMPs assist higher education institutions regarding such as the development of the talent pool, improvement of the productivity of individuals, support for effective planning and improvement of human resource management [40, 41]. Besides, attraction, development and retention of talent are strategically the keys to growth and success of higher education institutions [12]. The reason for this is that competitive advantage can be maintained by attracting, developing and retaining highly qualified individuals in key positions [3, 41, 49, 108]. Therefore, a majority of institutions have started to rethink their procedures and policies to achieve better acquisition and retention of individual talents. It is obvious that there is a strong competition between institutions in a technologydriven modern era, which has caused an increase in knowledge workers along with vast market changes [27–29]. In the scope of TM literature, several studies through the period 2007–2017 have shown in **Table 1**.

As shown in **Table 1**, it is obvious that many scholars have focused their empirical and theoretical attention on attraction, retention, and development of talent. Of all articles reviewed, talent retention is the dominant process with 25 articles (68.5%) of TMPs research have concentrated on, followed by both talent attraction and development with 68.5 per cent (24 articles), and talent attraction with 22 articles (73.3%). The least attention was paid to the TMPs of leadership development, talent acquisition, skills gap analysis, workforce and talent planning and performance management with two or three articles each.

Overall, as mentioned in the method section of this chapter, the authors carried out an empirical qualitative study in six Australian universities to understand the best processes that are currently used in managing talent in the higher education sector [43, 44]. This study explored the best TMPs of innovation in the aforementioned sector. (1) Talent attraction (social domain and institutional excellence), (2) talent development (performance management, coaching talent and leadership development) and (3) talent retention (benchmarking, job satisfaction, nonmonetary rewards, employee empowerment and employee motivation) were selected as best processes of TM in the higher education sector.

*Talent Management as a Core Source of Innovation and Social Development in Higher Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81377*

#### **10.1 Talent attraction**

include innate ability, intelligence and creative skills [31, 71, 72, 102]. Proponents of this perspective propose that individuals are successful only when they have sufficient talent and believe that the success of institutional work will be

*Innovations in Higher Education - Cases on Transforming and Advancing Practice*

followed by their own success [101, 103]. **Table 1** shows a summary of perspectives

To conclude this section, the scope of TM is restricted to the strategic perspective for three reasons. First of all, the strategic perspective includes all the perspectives above [104]. Secondly, this perspective outlines how an institution can efficiently implement TMPs [104, 105]. Finally, TM is a function of attraction, development and retention processes which contribute strategically to an institu-

In the twenty-first century, TM has become more important and has received attention from institutions that seek a foothold in the institutional map of excellence. High-performing institutions are identifiable by their talented individuals who are able to show initiative, creativity and excellence in performance [27–29]. In higher education environments where high-performing organisations are identifiable by their talented individuals who are able to show initiative, creativity and excellence in performance. TMPs assist higher education institutions regarding such as the development of the talent pool, improvement of the productivity of individuals, support for effective planning and improvement of human resource manage-

ment [40, 41]. Besides, attraction, development and retention of talent are strategically the keys to growth and success of higher education institutions [12]. The reason for this is that competitive advantage can be maintained by attracting, developing and retaining highly qualified individuals in key positions [3, 41, 49, 108]. Therefore, a majority of institutions have started to rethink their procedures and policies to achieve better acquisition and retention of individual talents. It is obvious that there is a strong competition between institutions in a technologydriven modern era, which has caused an increase in knowledge workers along with vast market changes [27–29]. In the scope of TM literature, several studies through

As shown in **Table 1**, it is obvious that many scholars have focused their empirical and theoretical attention on attraction, retention, and development of talent. Of all articles reviewed, talent retention is the dominant process with 25 articles (68.5%) of TMPs research have concentrated on, followed by both talent attraction and development with 68.5 per cent (24 articles), and talent attraction with 22 articles (73.3%). The least attention was paid to the TMPs of leadership development, talent acquisition, skills gap analysis, workforce and talent planning and

Overall, as mentioned in the method section of this chapter, the authors carried out an empirical qualitative study in six Australian universities to understand the best processes that are currently used in managing talent in the higher education sector [43, 44]. This study explored the best TMPs of innovation in the aforementioned sector. (1) Talent attraction (social domain and institutional excellence), (2) talent development (performance management, coaching talent and leadership

**10. Talent management practices: a critical review**

the period 2007–2017 have shown in **Table 1**.

performance management with two or three articles each.

development) and (3) talent retention (benchmarking, job satisfaction,

selected as best processes of TM in the higher education sector.

nonmonetary rewards, employee empowerment and employee motivation) were

on TM.

**118**

tion's success [105–107].

In modern knowledge-based institutions, talent attraction is one of the most essential success elements [105, 136, 137]. Higher education institutions, for example, are strongly based on the attraction of experienced staff to fill key positions [9, 12, 36]. They primarily aim to attract talented candidates from the internal or external labour market [130]. However, there are some difficulties and challenges in attracting qualified staff to higher education institutions [9, 36]. These issues include safety and security, workloads [36] and conflicting opinions [9]. To meet these challenges, Beardwell and Thompson [62] highlight the following approaches that have been identified as effective for attracting talent:


Talent attraction can be divided into two sub-variables: (1) social domain and (2) institutional excellence. Throughout the chapter, the term 'social domain' is used to refer to support in difficult times, social innovation and work-life balance. An institution can attract more talented employees by providing them with social support in critical areas, for example, motherhood and monetary difficulties [138]. In regard to work-life balance, the last decade has seen a growing trend towards family-friendly workplaces [139]. Thompson [137] defines work-life balance as a personal perspective that is related to compatibility for talented employees inside and outside their workplace. Socialising with colleagues, lifestyle opportunities or appropriate locations are determinant factors for attracting new talented individuals, because they add work-life balance to institutions, which in turn contributes increasingly to their productivity [98, 136, 137, 139].

In the literature, the term 'institutional excellence' is generally understood to mean a strong tool and a key driver that assists institutions to achieve their strategic and operational aims [140, 141]. Excellent institutions adopt managerial attitudes that focus on total quality in all internal processes to attract high-quality individuals [53, 142]. As previously stated, the qualitative study explores a number of excellence-related factors that contribute to attracting new talents to higher education institutions. These factors include talent branding, the reputation of an institutions, institutional culture, institutional climate and work environment.

Talent branding as a key element of talent attraction enables institutions to manage talent of employees through an institutions' identity, loyalty and culture, as a means of attracting high-potential individuals [53, 142–145]. Institutional branding depends on the available resources for employees' recruitment. In order to achieve financial and time goals, institutions have to consider particular resources in terms of where to obtain the profile required. In order to be excellent and successful in attracting talent, institutions need to follow appropriate strategies, adopt ethical principles in each phase of their current practices and build a strong and distinctive reputation in the labour market to be competitive [74, 123]. There are two different strategies for recruiting talent to an institution [53, 80, 146, 147]: competitive advantage [62, 153]. It is strategically important for an institution's success [ 108, 153, 154]. For instance, the development of talent working within higher education institution also assists in retaining talented employees [153], which in turn assists in increasing university rankings and profits [8, 9]. University rankings are aligned with the talent of high-performing employees, and these talented individuals contribute significantly to a university's performance by recruiting new students, conducting professional teaching, conducting high-level research and

*Talent Management as a Core Source of Innovation and Social Development in Higher Education*

The development process of talent involves three elements: (1) performance

1. *Performance management*—As one of the key processes of talent development, this assists in filling the gap between the current and planned performances of highly qualified employees [153–156]. It evaluates the current performance of

developing their capabilities [125, 130]. Through this process, training needs can be identified to develop talent [156, 157]. Institutions should offer their experienced staff appropriate development strategies to improve their strong points and hence improve their total performance, including particular competencies, strengthening their motivation and boosting their career

2.*Coaching talent*—This is the second sub-variable of talent development. The existing literature on coaching talent is extensive and focuses on learning and development of talent [160, 161]. Even though coaching talent can be a significant tool for achieving high talent development through learning skills and creating knowledge, the difficulty in transforming these skills from outside an institution has been a disadvantage [142, 162]. Coaching talent through internal job rotation can develop individual knowledge and experience from different departments and divisions within an institution [163–165]. Training and mentoring programmes are valuable tools for developing talent [160, 166, 167]. These programmes can be offered online [130] and can also include face-to-face learning and teaching courses for academic staff [168] to gain required knowledge and skills [130, 168]. In addition, leading institutions provide their talented employees with career development opportunities

3. *Leadership development*—This is a key process of talent development [153]. It assists institutions in achieving overall institutional sustainability [160, 169, 170]. Effective and developed leadership is a key element of institutional sustainability [171]. Institutional sustainability through leadership assists institutions to strategically generate intrinsic values and wellbeing for all stakeholders [171]. The leadership development process includes 'coaching, multi-source feedback, stretch assignments, mentoring, international job assignments and formal development programmes' [169], as well as succession planning [164, 172, 173]. In academic institutions, high-level leadership provides talented individuals with sufficient opportunities in regard to functional planning programmes [12, 154]. Conversely, a lack of formalised institutional leadership training could negatively affect employees from achieving their advancement potential [166]. Therefore, the leadership development process enables leaders to obtain the skills and competencies necessary to be effective

through role assignment leadership programmes [169, 170].

talents to assist them in identifying their competency level and then

management, (2) coaching talent and (3) leadership development.

securing research funding [8–12].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81377*

development [40, 158, 159].

[98, 104, 161, 169].

**121**

*(1) Internal brands*: An institution relies on its candidates. This will decrease the risks connected with the recruitment process and will save costs. An institution may know or can observe a candidate's strengths and weaknesses as well as the fact that current employees are possibly more committed to the institution. In particular, avoiding external advertisements enables institutions to save costs of external channels. However, Dessler [80] argues that rejected applicants may become discontented, and it can also waste time since often the manager already knows whom they want to hire.

*(2) External brands*: Institutions cannot always get all the employees they need from their current staff and therefore need to tap into external sources to find candidates [53, 80]. However, online recruitment channels may encourage excessive numbers of applications to reach a limited audience (online job search), or the process is seen as too impersonal, discouraging some candidates [62, 80]. Therefore, institutions should develop a strong and distinguishable employer brand, which links institutional values to the employee management strategy and the institution's brand [62, 121]. This can attract the best possible talent by promoting a unique combination of mental and practical benefits in the work place [62, 121].

Indeed, an institution that has excellence in its activities builds a good reputation, which then allows it to attract the best talents [125, 145, 148, 149]. This view is supported by Horseman [10] and Cruz-Castro et al. [150] who write that reputation and university ranking are key elements of institutional excellence to attract talented individuals. Furthermore, a desirable institutional climate is a determinant of attracting new talented employees [125, 137, 151]. Similarly, a supportive institutional culture with innovation can be an excellence-related factor for attracting qualified employees [140]. In regard to consideration of the work environment, this is a driving force for attracting talent [98, 125]. Working environment factors such as improved health, stress reduction, autonomy, job security and satisfaction within an institution are considered determining aspects for attracting talent to the institution [136, 137, 139, 151].

In summary, it has been demonstrated in this review that talent attraction is a basic factor of innovation and success in various sectors in general and in the higher education sector specifically, because of the key role that talent attraction plays in the functioning of higher education institutions. Thus, talent attraction in educational institutions is a function of social domain and institutional excellence.

#### **10.2 Talent development**

In a perfect business world, because of strong competition, institutions should develop their talented employees to enable them to become productive more rapidly [152]. Hence, the talent development process needs to be embedded within staffing progress and be regarded as a successful measure for institutions to improve the skills of their highly qualified individual staff members [40, 74, 142, 153]. Talent development is considered a critical resource of differentiation and sustainable

*Talent Management as a Core Source of Innovation and Social Development in Higher Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81377*

competitive advantage [62, 153]. It is strategically important for an institution's success [ 108, 153, 154]. For instance, the development of talent working within higher education institution also assists in retaining talented employees [153], which in turn assists in increasing university rankings and profits [8, 9]. University rankings are aligned with the talent of high-performing employees, and these talented individuals contribute significantly to a university's performance by recruiting new students, conducting professional teaching, conducting high-level research and securing research funding [8–12].

The development process of talent involves three elements: (1) performance management, (2) coaching talent and (3) leadership development.


a means of attracting high-potential individuals [53, 142–145]. Institutional branding depends on the available resources for employees' recruitment. In order to achieve financial and time goals, institutions have to consider particular resources in terms of where to obtain the profile required. In order to be excellent and successful in attracting talent, institutions need to follow appropriate strategies, adopt ethical principles in each phase of their current practices and build a strong and distinctive reputation in the labour market to be competitive [74, 123]. There are two different strategies for recruiting talent to an institution [53, 80, 146, 147]: *(1) Internal brands*: An institution relies on its candidates. This will decrease the risks connected with the recruitment process and will save costs. An institution may know or can observe a candidate's strengths and weaknesses as well as the fact that current employees are possibly more committed to the institution. In particular, avoiding external advertisements enables institutions to save costs of external channels. However, Dessler [80] argues that rejected applicants may become discontented, and it can also waste time since often the manager already knows whom

*Innovations in Higher Education - Cases on Transforming and Advancing Practice*

*(2) External brands*: Institutions cannot always get all the employees they need from their current staff and therefore need to tap into external sources to find candidates [53, 80]. However, online recruitment channels may encourage excessive numbers of applications to reach a limited audience (online job search), or the process is seen as too impersonal, discouraging some candidates [62, 80]. Therefore, institutions should develop a strong and distinguishable employer brand, which links institutional values to the employee management strategy and the institution's brand [62, 121]. This can attract the best possible talent by promoting a unique combination of mental and practical benefits in the work place [62, 121].

Indeed, an institution that has excellence in its activities builds a good reputation, which then allows it to attract the best talents [125, 145, 148, 149]. This view is supported by Horseman [10] and Cruz-Castro et al. [150] who write that reputation and university ranking are key elements of institutional excellence to attract talented individuals. Furthermore, a desirable institutional climate is a determinant of attracting new talented employees [125, 137, 151]. Similarly, a supportive institutional culture with innovation can be an excellence-related factor for attracting qualified employees [140]. In regard to consideration of the work environment, this is a driving force for attracting talent [98, 125]. Working environment factors such as improved health, stress reduction, autonomy, job security and satisfaction within an institution are considered determining aspects for attracting talent to the insti-

In summary, it has been demonstrated in this review that talent attraction is a basic factor of innovation and success in various sectors in general and in the higher education sector specifically, because of the key role that talent attraction plays in the functioning of higher education institutions. Thus, talent attraction in educational institutions is a function of social domain and institutional excellence.

In a perfect business world, because of strong competition, institutions should develop their talented employees to enable them to become productive more rapidly [152]. Hence, the talent development process needs to be embedded within staffing progress and be regarded as a successful measure for institutions to improve the skills of their highly qualified individual staff members [40, 74, 142, 153]. Talent development is considered a critical resource of differentiation and sustainable

they want to hire.

tution [136, 137, 139, 151].

**10.2 Talent development**

**120**

In brief, it has been shown in this review that talent development is a critical source of innovation and sustainable competitive priority in various sectors in general and in the higher education sector specifically. It assists in retaining highly qualified employees and increasing university rankings and profits. Thus, talent development in academic institutions is a function of performance management, coaching talent and leadership development.

certification, genuine appreciation and recognition [158]. Likewise, Hina et al. [188] hold the view that nonfinancial rewards include personal growth, interesting work, participation, flexibility, acknowledgement, significance of a role and achievement. Nonfinancial rewards in higher education institutions constitute funding external education, promotion and participation [190]. Employee empowerment is the fourth element of the talent retention construct. A large and growing body of literature about 'human relations movement' has been developed since the 1990s [175, 191, 192]. Employee empowerment practices are an essential element of motivating and retaining highly qualified employees for a long time within an institution [83, 193, 194]. Employee empowerment in academic workplaces assists in retaining talented staff, both academic and professional [192, 193]. It improves the satisfaction levels of an institution's employees through granting them self-efficacy in their workplaces [195, 196]. Successful institutions that seek to increase their productivity should empower employees through encouraging creative ideas and involvement in decision-making [175, 189, 194, 197]. Thus, employee empowerment is a process which values employees by providing them with sufficient responsibility and authority to manage their work professionally [194]. The fifth and final subvariable of talent retention is employee motivation. Motivational and valued work, professional advancement and supportive learning environments are seen as the key to retaining talented employees [11, 123]. In higher education environments, employee motivation plays a key role in retaining valued staff [11, 166, 177, 198]. An

*Talent Management as a Core Source of Innovation and Social Development in Higher Education*

institution should offer proper financial rewards to its employees to ensure

employee empowerment, employee motivation and nonfinancial rewards.

ented individuals [98, 104, 161, 169].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81377*

sector in Queensland, Australia [43].

**11. Discussion**

**123**

employee motivation [159, 199]. Career advancement is a creation of opportunities for highly qualified individuals that could lead them to improve and develop their career paths [137, 152]. These created opportunities are essential for retaining tal-

In summary, it has been shown in this review that talent retention is a main area of interest within the field of TM. It is a key source for innovation and sustaining competitive advantage in various institutions in general and educational institutions specifically. Thus, talent retention is a function of benchmarking, job satisfaction,

To conclude this section, a review of the TM literature identifies a number of processes in various sectors and institutions. The most common practices of TM are attraction, development and retention. This view is supported by the outcomes of the qualitative study that has been conducted in a case of the higher education

TM is considered a form of investment because talented individuals are viewed as the core source of innovation and social development [12]. The practices of TM are positively associated with improving innovation of institutional performance [200–202]. These practices play an essential role in nurturing the appropriate conditions for channelling and motivating employees towards the improvement of innovation activities [202]. Consequently, when an organisation fails to redefine its staff value proposition, it will continually have issues in attracting, developing and retaining talent [39]. Thus, TM can provide considerable benefits to an institution [5–9]. For example, it improves the institution's overall performance, its ethos, its competitiveness and talent retention, which in turn prevent risks to the institution [203]. TM assists development of the talent pool, improvement of the productivity of individuals, support for effective planning and improvement of human resources management [40, 41]. Furthermore, attraction, development and retention as key

#### **10.3 Talent retention**

Talent retention becomes a progressively worthwhile process of building an institution's ability to acquire and maintain a competitive advantage [118, 174, 175]. It is focused on retaining talent among an institution's staff so they remain with an institution [130]. Due to fierce competition to attract talent among leading institutions in all sectors in general and particularly in the higher education sector, the retention of talented staff in higher education institutions is problematic [12, 166, 176, 177]. This is partly due to constant growth in the economy that makes job opportunities for academic talent almost unlimited [12, 177]. Retention of talented individuals is mainly aimed at enabling an institution to keep a high-value workforce and to build a unique source of competitive advantage, which can lead to institutional growth and success [124, 178]. Talent retention is constructed using five sub-variables: (1) benchmarking, (2) job satisfaction, (3) nonfinancial rewards, (4) employee empowerment and (5) employee motivation.

First of all, benchmarking can broadly be defined as a key tool for setting aims by utilising learning and external standards from other institutions, which can act as the best practice for performance [10]. This tool has received considerable attention within Australian institutions [179]. It is seen as a beneficial way of retaining talented staff within higher education institutions through assessing the current strategies of talent retention from the best performing institutions [10, 180]. There are several types of benchmarking within the higher education sector [10]: internal benchmarking compares performance to other divisions of the university, competitive benchmarking compares performance against a chosen group of peer universities, sector benchmarking is a comparison with all universities in the same country and strategic benchmarking involves a comparison with overseas universities. Competitive compensation is considered as an essential element of success towards retaining highly qualified individuals within an institution that seeks to achieve a competitive advantage [181, 182]. Thus, institutions should have a competitive benchmarking system, which is a determining factor for retaining their highly qualified staff [125, 142, 182]. The second sub-variable of talent retention is job satisfaction. It was not until the late 1930s that historians began to consider job satisfaction as worthy of scholarly attention [183]. Job satisfaction involves a positive emotional attitude in workplaces to assist higher education institutions to retain experienced staff and achieve a competitive advantage [11, 166, 184–186]. It can be understood in terms of work environments, work conditions, relationships with supervisors and career opportunities [177, 184, 186]. Existing high-quality working environments and conditions promote job satisfaction, which assists the improvement of performance at both individual and institutional levels [166, 177, 184]. Therefore, high job satisfaction of talented individuals in academic workplaces is a reflection of existing effective retention strategies [166, 177].

Thirdly, nonfinancial rewards can play a crucial role in assisting an institution in retaining its talented staff through increasing productive time and engagement among individuals and consequently improving their overall productivity [125, 158, 187–189]. Nonmonetary rewards improve retention rates of highly qualified employees working in higher education institutions [176]. Those rewards involve

#### *Talent Management as a Core Source of Innovation and Social Development in Higher Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81377*

certification, genuine appreciation and recognition [158]. Likewise, Hina et al. [188] hold the view that nonfinancial rewards include personal growth, interesting work, participation, flexibility, acknowledgement, significance of a role and achievement. Nonfinancial rewards in higher education institutions constitute funding external education, promotion and participation [190]. Employee empowerment is the fourth element of the talent retention construct. A large and growing body of literature about 'human relations movement' has been developed since the 1990s [175, 191, 192]. Employee empowerment practices are an essential element of motivating and retaining highly qualified employees for a long time within an institution [83, 193, 194]. Employee empowerment in academic workplaces assists in retaining talented staff, both academic and professional [192, 193]. It improves the satisfaction levels of an institution's employees through granting them self-efficacy in their workplaces [195, 196]. Successful institutions that seek to increase their productivity should empower employees through encouraging creative ideas and involvement in decision-making [175, 189, 194, 197]. Thus, employee empowerment is a process which values employees by providing them with sufficient responsibility and authority to manage their work professionally [194]. The fifth and final subvariable of talent retention is employee motivation. Motivational and valued work, professional advancement and supportive learning environments are seen as the key to retaining talented employees [11, 123]. In higher education environments, employee motivation plays a key role in retaining valued staff [11, 166, 177, 198]. An institution should offer proper financial rewards to its employees to ensure employee motivation [159, 199]. Career advancement is a creation of opportunities for highly qualified individuals that could lead them to improve and develop their career paths [137, 152]. These created opportunities are essential for retaining talented individuals [98, 104, 161, 169].

In summary, it has been shown in this review that talent retention is a main area of interest within the field of TM. It is a key source for innovation and sustaining competitive advantage in various institutions in general and educational institutions specifically. Thus, talent retention is a function of benchmarking, job satisfaction, employee empowerment, employee motivation and nonfinancial rewards.

To conclude this section, a review of the TM literature identifies a number of processes in various sectors and institutions. The most common practices of TM are attraction, development and retention. This view is supported by the outcomes of the qualitative study that has been conducted in a case of the higher education sector in Queensland, Australia [43].

#### **11. Discussion**

In brief, it has been shown in this review that talent development is a critical source of innovation and sustainable competitive priority in various sectors in general and in the higher education sector specifically. It assists in retaining highly qualified employees and increasing university rankings and profits. Thus, talent development in academic institutions is a function of performance management,

*Innovations in Higher Education - Cases on Transforming and Advancing Practice*

Talent retention becomes a progressively worthwhile process of building an institution's ability to acquire and maintain a competitive advantage [118, 174, 175]. It is focused on retaining talent among an institution's staff so they remain with an institution [130]. Due to fierce competition to attract talent among leading institutions in all sectors in general and particularly in the higher education sector, the retention of talented staff in higher education institutions is problematic [12, 166, 176, 177]. This is partly due to constant growth in the economy that makes job opportunities for academic talent almost unlimited [12, 177]. Retention of talented individuals is mainly aimed at enabling an institution to keep a high-value workforce and to build a unique source of competitive advantage, which can lead to institutional growth and success [124, 178]. Talent retention is constructed using five sub-variables: (1) benchmarking, (2) job satisfaction, (3) nonfinancial rewards,

First of all, benchmarking can broadly be defined as a key tool for setting aims by utilising learning and external standards from other institutions, which can act as the best practice for performance [10]. This tool has received considerable attention within Australian institutions [179]. It is seen as a beneficial way of retaining talented staff within higher education institutions through assessing the current strategies of talent retention from the best performing institutions [10, 180]. There are several types of benchmarking within the higher education sector [10]: internal benchmarking compares performance to other divisions of the university, competitive benchmarking compares performance against a chosen group of peer universities, sector benchmarking is a comparison with all universities in the same country and strategic benchmarking involves a comparison with overseas universities. Competitive compensation is considered as an essential element of success towards retaining highly qualified individuals within an institution that seeks to achieve a competitive advantage [181, 182]. Thus, institutions should have a competitive benchmarking system, which is a determining factor for retaining their highly qualified staff [125, 142, 182]. The second sub-variable of talent retention is job satisfaction. It was not until the late 1930s that historians began to consider job satisfaction as worthy of scholarly attention [183]. Job satisfaction involves a positive emotional attitude in workplaces to assist higher education institutions to retain experienced staff and achieve a competitive advantage [11, 166, 184–186]. It can be understood in terms of work environments, work conditions, relationships with supervisors and career opportunities [177, 184, 186]. Existing high-quality working environments and conditions promote job satisfaction, which assists the improvement of performance at both individual and institutional levels [166, 177, 184]. Therefore, high job satisfaction of talented individuals in academic workplaces is a

coaching talent and leadership development.

(4) employee empowerment and (5) employee motivation.

reflection of existing effective retention strategies [166, 177].

**122**

Thirdly, nonfinancial rewards can play a crucial role in assisting an institution in

retaining its talented staff through increasing productive time and engagement among individuals and consequently improving their overall productivity [125, 158, 187–189]. Nonmonetary rewards improve retention rates of highly qualified employees working in higher education institutions [176]. Those rewards involve

**10.3 Talent retention**

TM is considered a form of investment because talented individuals are viewed as the core source of innovation and social development [12]. The practices of TM are positively associated with improving innovation of institutional performance [200–202]. These practices play an essential role in nurturing the appropriate conditions for channelling and motivating employees towards the improvement of innovation activities [202]. Consequently, when an organisation fails to redefine its staff value proposition, it will continually have issues in attracting, developing and retaining talent [39]. Thus, TM can provide considerable benefits to an institution [5–9]. For example, it improves the institution's overall performance, its ethos, its competitiveness and talent retention, which in turn prevent risks to the institution [203]. TM assists development of the talent pool, improvement of the productivity of individuals, support for effective planning and improvement of human resources management [40, 41]. Furthermore, attraction, development and retention as key

practices of TM are strategically the keys of innovation to growth and success of the higher education industry [12], as a competitive advantage can be maintained by attracting, developing and retaining highly qualified individuals in key positions [3, 41, 49, 108].

In general, the results of the three core themes of TM above are in line with Bradley [12], Kamal [26], Rudhumbu and Maphosa [39] and Wu et al. [40] who emphasise that attraction, development and retention of talent are strategically essential for educational success and growth. This view is supported by Waheed et al. [97], Kim et al. [106], Tatoglu et al. [165], Hejase et al. [172], Ford [218], Rothwell [219] and Rothwell et al. [220] who point out that 'attraction, development, and retention of talent are strategically more important in today's volatile knowledge economy; because they help an institution achieve strategic business aims, meet basic business requirements, and form the foundation to implement business strategy' [21]. Similarly, van den Broek et al. [107], Mwangi et al. [108], Xue [127] and Kataike [221] state that an institution 'that established its core competence in attraction, development, and retention of talent guarantees its own

*Talent Management as a Core Source of Innovation and Social Development in Higher Education*

Overall, although the findings of our case study are consistent with some of the prior studies, there are major variances. This study is one of the first studies that examine TMPs in Australian higher education. The consistency with the previous research was partially conceptual, theoretical or regarding methodological matters. In conclusion, this section has attempted to provide a discussion of both an empirical case study and literature relating to the innovations of TM in the higher education sector. TM is a strategic source for sustaining competitive advantage in all kinds of institutions. Therefore, talent is an essential management for innovative

This chapter has attempted to provide a clear explanation of the literature relating to TM. It aims to improve the theoretical and practical understanding of TM research in the higher education sector. The principal conclusion of the empirical study is that higher education institutions are aware of innovation sources that are currently used in managing talent in their divisions and faculties. These were (1) talent attraction (social domain and organisational excellence), (2) talent development (performance management, coaching talent and leadership development) and (3) talent retention (benchmarking, employee motivation, employee empowerment, nonmonetary rewards and job satisfaction). As a result, those individuals contribute significantly to a university's performance by attracting new students and securing funds for further research. These themes are positively associated with innovation speed of the higher education institutions. TM is an integrated management system that starts with the practices of attracting, developing and retaining talents. So that institutions can benefit from this in the form of products (commodities/services) that have difficult characteristics of imitation and competition. This is because of the expertise and knowledge possessed by their efficient human resources. Although the scholars and researchers differ in determining a unified concept of talent, the specialised literature produces two trends in its definition, some of which are traditionally based on high intelligence, while the modern trend is based on excellent performance, mental ability, technical and dynamic skills, creative thinking and leadership abilities. In addition, the review of literature included various views of talent, but all the scholars and researchers agree that talent is a valuable resource of innovation for all institutions. The literature also identified six common perspectives on TM. From the literature, the strategic perspective was identified as most relevant to achieving the research objectives. The generalisability of these findings is limited to the Australian university sector in Queensland. This study recommends that there is further research to be

stability and success among other competitors in the industry' [21].

institutions [21, 222–224].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81377*

**12. Conclusion**

**125**

TM can affect and adjust the behaviours and abilities of individuals to innovate [202]. Talented individuals have become a competitive weapon and resource of innovation for institutions in obtaining a sustainable competitive advantage [204–206]. A majority of higher education organisations have realised that talented individuals are strategic assets because they play a key role in the success, innovation and growth of the higher education institutions over the long term [9, 12, 39, 40]. These individuals assist higher education organisations with cultural adaption through identifying the challenges of public perception and the development of active learning environments [26, 89, 207]. Highly qualified employees constitute a critical resource of creativity, innovation and therefore future revenues for institutions [12, 106]. In addition, increase in the strategic importance of human resources management for competitive advantage can be achieved by talented individuals [206, 208, 209]. As a result, innovation is a complicated task, which requires high professional ability in knowledge-intensive positions [202]. Hence, talented individuals play a significant role in an institution's survival and innovation in a dynamic environment [201, 208, 210, 211].

This study provides a clear and inclusive outline of the extant scholarly research from the period 2007–2017. Reviews in this period provide an opportunity to learn from prior experiences in TM. Most importantly, this empirical research is one of the first few studies that extended the previous investigation of TMPs in various sectors to the higher education sector. Both empirical qualitative research represented by the case study in the higher education sector and previous research of TM confirm that the key practices of TM are considered as attraction, development and retention of talent. Looking to **Table 1**, it is apparent that the vast majority of research is outside the higher education sector; the few studies from within are in non-Australian contexts. This finding is supported by the previous studies. For example, Paisey and Paisey [25] find that TM studies in the higher education sector are limited. The majority of TM studies focus on theoretical frameworks with little focus on pragmatic studies [95, 212–214]. Furthermore, practical studies on TM are either quantitative or qualitative [20, 213]. On the other side, the findings of **Table 1** is supported by the previous research that TMPs 'can be grouped into five core groups: (i) recruitment, attraction and selection; (ii) training and development; (iii) retention; (iv) identification and (v) performance management of talent' [21, 53, 116, 126, 213].

Observing at **Table 1**, many scholars have given empirical attention on retention, development and attraction of talent [121, 131, 205, 206, 213, 215–218]. One of the key reasons behind this attention is that talent attraction, retention and development are strategically very essential in today's ephemeral knowledge economy, as they firstly assist an institution to achieve strategic business goals and meet basic business requirements and they form the foundation for the implementation of business strategies [21, 97, 106, 165, 172, 218–220]. Secondly, institutions that establish their principal competence in talent attraction, talent development and talent retention guarantee their own steadiness and growth among other competitive institutions in the same business sector [21, 107, 108, 221]. Finally, attraction, development and retention of talent are essential for growth and success of higher education institutions over the long term by enacting their strategy through their highly qualified employees [12, 21, 39, 40]. In addition, **Table 1** shows that the least attention was paid to the TMPs of acquisition, leadership development, skills gap analysis, workforce and talent planning with one or two articles each.

#### *Talent Management as a Core Source of Innovation and Social Development in Higher Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81377*

In general, the results of the three core themes of TM above are in line with Bradley [12], Kamal [26], Rudhumbu and Maphosa [39] and Wu et al. [40] who emphasise that attraction, development and retention of talent are strategically essential for educational success and growth. This view is supported by Waheed et al. [97], Kim et al. [106], Tatoglu et al. [165], Hejase et al. [172], Ford [218], Rothwell [219] and Rothwell et al. [220] who point out that 'attraction, development, and retention of talent are strategically more important in today's volatile knowledge economy; because they help an institution achieve strategic business aims, meet basic business requirements, and form the foundation to implement business strategy' [21]. Similarly, van den Broek et al. [107], Mwangi et al. [108], Xue [127] and Kataike [221] state that an institution 'that established its core competence in attraction, development, and retention of talent guarantees its own stability and success among other competitors in the industry' [21].

Overall, although the findings of our case study are consistent with some of the prior studies, there are major variances. This study is one of the first studies that examine TMPs in Australian higher education. The consistency with the previous research was partially conceptual, theoretical or regarding methodological matters. In conclusion, this section has attempted to provide a discussion of both an empirical case study and literature relating to the innovations of TM in the higher education sector. TM is a strategic source for sustaining competitive advantage in all kinds of institutions. Therefore, talent is an essential management for innovative institutions [21, 222–224].

#### **12. Conclusion**

practices of TM are strategically the keys of innovation to growth and success of the higher education industry [12], as a competitive advantage can be maintained by attracting, developing and retaining highly qualified individuals in key positions

*Innovations in Higher Education - Cases on Transforming and Advancing Practice*

TM can affect and adjust the behaviours and abilities of individuals to innovate [202]. Talented individuals have become a competitive weapon and resource of innovation for institutions in obtaining a sustainable competitive advantage

[204–206]. A majority of higher education organisations have realised that talented individuals are strategic assets because they play a key role in the success, innovation and growth of the higher education institutions over the long term [9, 12, 39, 40]. These individuals assist higher education organisations with cultural adaption through identifying the challenges of public perception and the development of active learning environments [26, 89, 207]. Highly qualified employees constitute a critical resource of creativity, innovation and therefore future revenues for institutions [12, 106]. In addition, increase in the strategic importance of human resources management for competitive advantage can be achieved by talented individuals [206, 208, 209]. As a result, innovation is a complicated task, which requires high professional ability in knowledge-intensive positions [202]. Hence, talented individuals play a significant role in an institution's survival and innovation in a

This study provides a clear and inclusive outline of the extant scholarly research from the period 2007–2017. Reviews in this period provide an opportunity to learn from prior experiences in TM. Most importantly, this empirical research is one of the first few studies that extended the previous investigation of TMPs in various sectors to the higher education sector. Both empirical qualitative research

represented by the case study in the higher education sector and previous research of TM confirm that the key practices of TM are considered as attraction, development and retention of talent. Looking to **Table 1**, it is apparent that the vast majority of research is outside the higher education sector; the few studies from within are in non-Australian contexts. This finding is supported by the previous studies. For example, Paisey and Paisey [25] find that TM studies in the higher education sector are limited. The majority of TM studies focus on theoretical frameworks with little focus on pragmatic studies [95, 212–214]. Furthermore, practical studies on TM are either quantitative or qualitative [20, 213]. On the other side, the findings of **Table 1** is supported by the previous research that TMPs 'can be grouped into five core groups: (i) recruitment, attraction and selection; (ii) training and development; (iii) retention; (iv) identification and (v) performance

Observing at **Table 1**, many scholars have given empirical attention on retention, development and attraction of talent [121, 131, 205, 206, 213, 215–218]. One of the key reasons behind this attention is that talent attraction, retention and development are strategically very essential in today's ephemeral knowledge economy, as they firstly assist an institution to achieve strategic business goals and meet basic business requirements and they form the foundation for the implementation of business strategies [21, 97, 106, 165, 172, 218–220]. Secondly, institutions that establish their principal competence in talent attraction, talent development and talent retention guarantee their own steadiness and growth among other competitive institutions in the same business sector [21, 107, 108, 221]. Finally, attraction, development and retention of talent are essential for growth and success of higher education institutions over the long term by enacting their strategy through their highly qualified employees [12, 21, 39, 40]. In addition, **Table 1** shows that the least attention was paid to the TMPs of acquisition, leadership development, skills gap

analysis, workforce and talent planning with one or two articles each.

[3, 41, 49, 108].

dynamic environment [201, 208, 210, 211].

management of talent' [21, 53, 116, 126, 213].

**124**

This chapter has attempted to provide a clear explanation of the literature relating to TM. It aims to improve the theoretical and practical understanding of TM research in the higher education sector. The principal conclusion of the empirical study is that higher education institutions are aware of innovation sources that are currently used in managing talent in their divisions and faculties. These were (1) talent attraction (social domain and organisational excellence), (2) talent development (performance management, coaching talent and leadership development) and (3) talent retention (benchmarking, employee motivation, employee empowerment, nonmonetary rewards and job satisfaction). As a result, those individuals contribute significantly to a university's performance by attracting new students and securing funds for further research. These themes are positively associated with innovation speed of the higher education institutions. TM is an integrated management system that starts with the practices of attracting, developing and retaining talents. So that institutions can benefit from this in the form of products (commodities/services) that have difficult characteristics of imitation and competition. This is because of the expertise and knowledge possessed by their efficient human resources. Although the scholars and researchers differ in determining a unified concept of talent, the specialised literature produces two trends in its definition, some of which are traditionally based on high intelligence, while the modern trend is based on excellent performance, mental ability, technical and dynamic skills, creative thinking and leadership abilities. In addition, the review of literature included various views of talent, but all the scholars and researchers agree that talent is a valuable resource of innovation for all institutions. The literature also identified six common perspectives on TM. From the literature, the strategic perspective was identified as most relevant to achieving the research objectives.

The generalisability of these findings is limited to the Australian university sector in Queensland. This study recommends that there is further research to be done in the higher education area, especially in relation to talent using empirical methodologies. More specifically, mixed method research should be used to fill the gap in the TM literature. As the least attention was paid to the practices of leadership development, talent acquisition, skills gap analysis, workforce and talent planning, and performance management with two or three articles each. This requires more attention in the future research to fill the gap in the TM literature. It would be useful to investigate the current methodology and topic of this research in other countries in order to generalise the findings within the global context.

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*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81377*

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*Talent Management as a Core Source of Innovation and Social Development in Higher Education*

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### **Author details**

Atheer Abdullah Mohammed1,2\*, Abdul Hafeez-Baig1 and Raj Gururajan<sup>1</sup>

1 School of Management and Enterprise, University of Southern Queensland, Australia

2 The Industrial Management Department College of Administration and Economic University of Baghdad, Baghdad, Iraq

\*Address all correspondence to: atheerabdullahmohammed.mohammed@usq.edu.au

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Talent Management as a Core Source of Innovation and Social Development in Higher Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81377*

### **References**

done in the higher education area, especially in relation to talent using empirical methodologies. More specifically, mixed method research should be used to fill the gap in the TM literature. As the least attention was paid to the practices of leadership development, talent acquisition, skills gap analysis, workforce and talent planning, and performance management with two or three articles each. This requires more attention in the future research to fill the gap in the TM literature. It would be useful to investigate the current methodology and topic of this research in other

countries in order to generalise the findings within the global context.

*Innovations in Higher Education - Cases on Transforming and Advancing Practice*

Atheer Abdullah Mohammed1,2\*, Abdul Hafeez-Baig1 and Raj Gururajan<sup>1</sup>

1 School of Management and Enterprise, University of Southern Queensland,

2 The Industrial Management Department College of Administration and Economic

\*Address all correspondence to: atheerabdullahmohammed.mohammed@usq.edu.au

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provided the original work is properly cited.

Australia

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[28] Sweem SL. Leveraging Employee Engagement Through a Talent Management Strategy: Optimizing Human Capital Through Human Resources and Organization

Development Strategy in a Field Study.

development, Benedictine University;

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[30] Daneshfard K, Rajae Z, Bilondi ZM,

Banihashem SA. The effect of organizational intelligence on talent management, using structural equations. International Journal of Humanities and Cultural Studies. 2016;

[31] Scaringella L, Malaeb RC. Contributions of talent people to knowledge management. The Journal of Applied Business Research. 2014;**30**(3):

[32] Shah M, Jarzabkowski L. The Australian higher education quality assurance framework: From

**3**(2):464-476

715-724

Lisle, Illinois, USA: Doctor of philosophy in organization

**43**(7):1196-1214

583-587

403-416

2009

management in academia: The effect of discipline and context on recruitment. Studies in Higher Education. 2018;

[17] Cui W, Khan Z, Tarba SY. Strategic Talent Management in Service SMEs of China. Sheffield, United Kingdom:

[18] Swailes S. The cultural evolution of talent management: A memetic analysis. Human Resource Development Review.

[19] Martin A. Talent management: Preparing a "Ready" agile workforce. International Journal of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine. 2015;**2**(3):112-116

[20] McDonnell A, Collings DG, Mellahi K, Schuler R. Talent management: A systematic review and future prospects. European Journal of International Management. 2017;**11**(1):86-128

[21] Mohammed AA, Gururajan R, Hafeez-Baig A. Primarily investigating into the relationship between talent management and knowledge

management in business environment. In: International Conference on Web Intelligence; Leipzig, Germany: ACM;

[22] Michaels E, Handfield-Jones H, Axelrod B. The War for Talent. 18th ed. Boston: Harvard Business School; 2001

[23] Verma D, Ahmad A. Employer branding: The solution to create talented

workforce. IUP Journal of Brand Management. 2016;**13**(1):42-57

[24] Gallardo-Gallardo E, Arroyo Moliner L, Gallo P. Mapping collaboration networks in talent management research. Journal of Organizational Effectiveness: People and Performance. 2017;**4**(4):332-358

Wiley Periodicals; 2016

2016;**15**(3):340-358

2017. pp. 1131-1137

**128**

pp. 49-75

[33] Lim FCB. Do too many rights make a wrong? A qualitative study of the experiences of a sample of Malaysian and Singapore private higher education providers in transnational quality assurance. Quality in Higher Education. 2010;**16**(3):211-222

[34] Choon Boey Lim F. Education hub at a crossroads: The development of quality assurance as a competitive tool for Singapore's private tertiary education. Quality Assurance in Education. 2009;**17**(1):79-94

[35] Chiou B. International Education, Student Migration and Government Policy: A Comparative Study of Australia and New Zealand. New Zealand: Doctor of Philosophy, Auckland University of Technology; 2014

[36] Lynch K. Australian Universities' Preparation And Support For Fly-In Fly-Out Academics. Australia: Doctor of Philosophy Doctor of Philosophy, College of Design and Social Context, RMIT University Melbourne; 2013

[37] Harmon G. Australia as an higher education exporter. International Higher Education. 2015;(42):14-17

[38] Carnegie GD, Tuck J. Understanding the ABC of university governance. Australian Journal of Public Administration. 2010;**69**(4):431-441

[39] Rudhumbu N, Maphosa C. Implementation of talent management strategies in higher education: Evidence from Botswana. Journal of Human Ecology. 2015;**19**(1–2):21-32

[40] Wu M-C, Nurhadi D, Zahro S. Integrating the talent management program as a new concept to develop a sustainable human resource at higher

educational institutions. International Journal of Organizational Innovation (Online). 2016;**8**(4):146-161

[41] Kasemsap K. Investigating the roles of neuroscience and knowledge management in higher education. In: Mukerji S, Tripathi P, editors. Handbook of Research on Administration, Policy, and Leadership in Higher Education. Hershey, PA, USA: IGI Global; 2017. pp. 112-140

[42] Dresselhaus L. Global Talent Management and the Role of Social Networks. Enschede, Netherlands: Master Master of business administration, University of Twente; 2010

[43] Mohammed AA, Hafeez-Baig A, Gururajan R. A qualitative research to explore processes that are utilised for managing talent: A case study in a Queensland Regional University. Australian Academy of Business and Economics Review. 2018;**4**(3):188-200

[44] Mohammed AA, Gururajan R, Hafeez-Baig A. An exploratory qualitative research to address processes that are utilised for managing talent: A case study in a Queensland Regional University. Australasian Journal of Business, Social Science and Information Technology. 2018

[45] Dilshad RM, Latif MI. Focus group interview as a tool for qualitative research: An analysis. Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences (PJSS). 2013;**33**(1): 191-198

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[47] Gururajan R, Hafeez-Baig A, Clark K, Moller S, Sankaran P. Health text analysis: A Queensland Health case

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[52] Blass E. Talent Management: Maximising Talent for Business Performance. London: Chartered Management Institute, Public Affairs Department, (0-85946-426-1); November 2007

[53] Li FF, Devos P. Talent management: Art or science?: The invisible mechanism between talent and talent factory. Master in Business Administration. Småland, Sweden: University of Kalmar; 2008

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study. In: 2nd International Conference on Business Analytics and Intelligence (ICBAI 2014). Analytics Society of

*Innovations in Higher Education - Cases on Transforming and Advancing Practice*

2nd ed. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development; 2011

[55] Tansley C, Kirk S, Tietze S. The currency of talent management—A reply to "talent management and the relevance of context: Towards a pluralistic approach". Human Resource Management Review. 2013;**23**(4):

[56] Festing M, Schäfer L. Generational challenges to talent management: a framework for talent retention based on the psychological-contract perspective. Journal of World Business. 2014;**49**(2):

[57] Naim MF, Naim MF, Lenka U, Lenka U. Talent management: A burgeoning strategic focus in Indian IT industry. Industrial and Commercial Training. 2017;**49**(4):183-188

[58] Harstad B. Organizational form and the market for talent. Journal of Labor Economics. 2007;**25**(3):581-611

[59] Sparrow PR, Makram H. What is the value of talent management? Building value-driven processes within a talent management architecture. Human Resource Management Review. 2015;

[60] Silzer R, Church AH. The pearls and perils of identifying potential. Industrial and Organizational Psychology. 2009;

[61] Gümüş S, Apak S, Gümüş HG, Kurban Z. An application in human resources management for meeting differentiation and innovativeness requirements of business: Talent management. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences. 2013;**99**:794-808

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Contemporary Approach. 7th ed. (no. Book, Whole). Boston: Pearson; 2014

Resource Management: A

337-340

262-271

**25**(3):249-263

**2**(4):377-412

[48] Obeidat BY, Abdallah AB. The relationships among human resource management practices, organizational

International Journal of Business and

[49] Waithiegeni Kibui A. Effect of talent management on employees retention in Kenya's State corporations. Doctor of Philosophy in Human Resources Management. Fuchu, Japan:

commitment, and knowledge management processes: A structural equation modeling approach.

Management. 2014;**9**(3):9-26

University of Agriculture and

[50] Al Haidari L. Exploring

organisational and employee

King's College London; 2015

[51] Barron M. Analyzing critical positions for talent needs. Organization Development Journal. 2007;**25**(4):

[52] Blass E. Talent Management: Maximising Talent for Business Performance. London: Chartered Management Institute, Public Affairs Department, (0-85946-426-1);

[53] Li FF, Devos P. Talent management:

mechanism between talent and talent

Administration. Småland, Sweden: University of Kalmar; 2008

[54] Cannon JA, McGee R. Talent Management and Succession Planning.

Art or science?: The invisible

factory. Master in Business

differentiated talent management from

perspectives: Two studies from the GCC banking sector. Doctor of Human Resource Management and

Organisational Psychology. London, UK:

Technology; 2015

115-118

**130**

November 2007

India; 2014. pp. 1-19

[64] D'Annunzio-Green N. Managing the talent management pipeline: Towards a greater understanding of senior managers' perspectives in the hospitality and tourism sector. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management. 2008;**20**(7): 807-819

[65] Baublyte D. Talent Management: Myth or Reality in Today's Smes : A Study into the Importance and Use of Talent Management Within Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises. Vantaa, Finland: Metropolia University of Applied Sciences; 2010

[66] Macfarlane F, Duberley J, Fewtrell C, Powell M. Talent management for NHS managers: Human resources or resourceful humans? Public Money & Management. 2012;**32**(6):445-452

[67] De Vos A, Dries N. Applying a talent management lens to career management: the role of human capital composition and continuity. The International Journal of Human Resource Management. 2013;**24**(9): 1816-1831

[68] Gelens J, Dries N, Hofmans J, Pepermans R. The role of perceived organizational justice in shaping the outcomes of talent management: A research agenda. Human Resource Management Review. 2013;**23**(4): 341-353

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Talent. New York: John Wiley & Sons; 2010

[70] Armstrong M, Taylor S. Armstrong's Handbook of Human Resource Management Practice. 13th ed. London: Kogan Page Publishers; 2014

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[72] Butter MC, Valenzuela ES, Quintana MGB. Intercultural talent management model: Virtual communities to promote collaborative learning in indigenous contexts. teachers' and students' perceptions. Computers in Human Behavior. 2015;**51**:1191-1197

[73] Murongazvombo PK. Talent retention strategies in a competitive ICT industry: Case of twenty third century systems global (Zimbabwe), Master of Business Leadership. Bindura, Zimbabwe: Bindura University of Science Education; 2015

[74] Chuai X. Is talent management just old wine in new bottles?: The case of multinational corporations in Beijing. PhD Doctor of Philosophy. UK: University of Teesside; 2008

[75] Kravtsova VV. Talent management and implementation to middle sized companies, Phd Doctor of Philosophy, Faculty of Management and Economics. Zlin, Czech Republic: Tomas Bata University; 2012

[76] Kramer F, et al., Computer-Supported knowledge management in SME: a combined qualitative analysis. In: Proceedings of the 50th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences; USA; 2017. p. 10: HICSS

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[188] Hina Q, Zamir S, Nudrat S. Impact of employee benefits on job satisfaction of teachers at higher level. Journal of Education and Practice. 2014;**5**(7): 122-129

[189] Bhatnagar J. Talent management strategy of employee engagement in Indian ITES employees: Key to retention. Employee relations. 2007; **29**(6):640-663

[190] Belleflamme P, Jacqmin J. An economic appraisal of MOOC platforms: Business models and impacts on higher education. CESifo Economic Studies. 1 March 2016;**62, 2016**(1):148-169

[191] Kim SY, Fernandez S. Employee empowerment and turnover intention in the US federal bureaucracy. The American Review of Public Administration. 2017;**47**(1):4-22

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[197] Malik M, Wan D, Ahmad MI, Naseem MA, ur Rehman R. The role of LMX in employees job motivation, satisfaction, empowerment, stress and turnover: Cross country analysis. Journal of Applied Business Research. 2015;**31**(5):1897-2000

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And Social Science (IOSR-JHSS). 2013;

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professionals: A case study. Doctor of Philosophy in Business Administration. Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA: Business

Administration Faculty Walden

[207] D. o. E. a. Training, "Annual Report 2015–16," The State of

[208] Kong E, Chadee D, Raman R. Managing Indian IT professionals for global competitiveness: The role of human resource practices in developing knowledge and learning capabilities for innovation. Knowledge Management Research and Practice. 2013;**11**(4):

[209] Arnold LR. Strategies for reducing high turnover among information technology professionals. Doctoral Philosophy (Business Administration). USA: Business Administration Faculty,

[210] Rong G, Grover V. Keeping up-todate with information technology: Testing a model of technological knowledge renewal effectiveness for IT

Walden University; 2016

professionals. *I*nformation & Management. 2009;**46**(7):376-387

[211] Borisova ON, Silayeva AA, Saburova LN, Belokhvostova NV, Sokolova AP. Talent management as an

essential element in a corporate personnel development strategy. Academy of Strategic Management

[212] Gallardo-Gallardo E, Nijs S, Dries N, Gallo P. Towards an understanding

Journal. 2017;**16**(1):31-46

of talent management as a phenomenon-driven field using bibliometric and content analysis. Human Resource Management Review.

2015;**25**(3):264-279

Queensland/ Department of Education and Training, Brisbane, Queensland-Australia2016, Available from: http:// www.det.qld.gov.au/publications/ annual-reports/15-16/index.html

University; 2015

334-345

[200] Alma MA, Al-Shalabi FS, Aljamal

competitive advantage: The moderating

[201] Sart G. The impacts of strategic talent management assessments on improving innovation-oriented career decisions. The Anthropologist. 2014;

[202] Norhafizah AH. The effect of talent-and knowledge management on the performance of SMEs: Evidence from Malaysia. PhD Doctor of

Philosophy. Canterbury, UK: University

[203] Khdour N. The reality of talent management implementation: A case study on Royal Jordanian Airlines. International Journal of Business and Management. 2016;**11**(6):145-158

[204] Chadee D, Raman R. External knowledge and performance of offshore IT service providers in India: The mediating role of talent management.

Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources. 2012;**50**(4):459-482

[205] Ortlieb R, Sieben B. How to safeguard critical resources of professional and managerial staff: Exploration of a taxonomy of resource retention strategies. The International

Journal of Human Resource

**140**

Management. 2012;**23**(8):1688-1704

[206] Thomas SJ. Exploring strategies for retaining information technology

WH. Talent management and

effect of knowledge integration. International Journal of Computer Applications. 2013;**66**(11):19-27

[199] Ogbogu CO. The effects of motivation on staff job performance: Evidences from the Lagos State Ministry of Environment, Nigeria. Journal of Sustainable Development. 2017;**10**(2):

**18**(2):41-47

183-190

**18**(3):657-665

of Kent; 2016

[214] Thunnissen M. Talent management: For what, how and how well? An empirical exploration of talent management in practice. Employee Relations. 2016;**38**(1):57-72

[215] Gallardo-Gallardo E. What do we actually mean by talent in business? Does it really matter? In: Eighth International Workshop on Human Resource Management; Barcelona University, Barcelona, Spain E11/258. 2011. Available from: http://hdl.handle. net/2445/34400

[216] Alicja M. Theory and Practice of Talent Management in an Organization (Cracow University Of Economics). Poland: Cracow University of Economics; 2007

[217] Tarique I, Schuler RS. Global talent management: Literature review, integrative framework, and suggestions for further research. Journal of World Business. 2010;**45**(2):122-133

[218] Ford DG. Talent management and its relationship to successful veteran transition into the civilian workplace: Practical integration strategies for the HRD professional. Advances in Developing Human Resources. 2017; **19**(1):36-53

[219] Rothwell WJ. Invaluable knowledge securing your company's technical expertise, New York: AMACOM/American Management Association [Online]. 2011. Available from: http://ezproxy.usq.edu.au/login? url=http://library.books24x7.com/ library.asp.

[220] Rothwell WJ, Zaballero AG, Park JG. Optimizing Talent in the Federal Workforce. Leasburg Pike, USA:

Management Concepts Press; 2014. p. 304

[221] Kataike S. Relationship between talent management and employee retention in commercial banks in Kenya, Master of Business Administration. Nairobi, Kenya: University of Nairobi; 2013

[222] Orlova LV, Afonin YA, Voronin VV. Talent management and knowledge: theory, methodology, models. Review of European Studies. 2015;**7**(9):75-82

[223] Suryawanshi SM. Knowledge management through effective human resource management. International Research Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies. 2017;**3**(4):1-4

[224] Keat KK, Abdullah L. Mediation effects of knowledge management in the relationship between managing talent and private colleges performance. In: 3rd International Conference on Advanced Research in Business and Social Sciences 2017; Langkawi, Malaysia: Aseania Resort Langkawi; 2017, Vol. 2017, no. 29th, pp. 289-296

**143**

**Chapter 8**

Education

*Teboho Pitso*

**Abstract**

An Integrated Model for

Invigorating Innovation and

Entrepreneurship in Higher

The growth trajectories of innovation and entrepreneurship within higher education have largely followed discrete paths such that each developed independent of the other. The structural locations of innovation and entrepreneurship within higher education institutions have a lot to do with this strategic discrepancy. In some cases, entrepreneurship is mostly located within business schools and its focus is on teaching students' business basics and entrepreneurship basics, while innovation is located within any of the variants of university innovation hubs and technology transfer units. Innovation is also used as a buffer to shield real change and transformation in higher education especially in reference to innovative teaching, innovative education and so on, which, in essence, can best be described as improvements rather than innovation. It is also important to note that one of the critical plinths of entrepreneurship—creativity—has generally been marginalised in the core activities of higher education. While entrepreneurship has, over the course of more than three decades, gained legitimacy traction within higher education, innovation has fairly been on the margins of core university strategies but is becoming increasingly pertinent in higher education albeit in ways requiring critical reflection. However, creativity remains largely on the margins of core higher education activities, and its explicit teaching has not yet gained strong academic legitimacy. It is not clear why creativity, innovation and entrepreneurship have assumed discrete growth paths within higher education when there is such a palpable mutual reinforcement amongst these concepts. In this chapter, I report on the study I conducted in purposively selected Scandinavian and South African universities, which was aimed at: (1) better understanding how innovation and entrepreneurship are nurtured and developed in these institutions as well as the role of creativity in all these endeavours (2) identifying the key drivers of this nascent interest in innovation and entrepreneurship within higher education and why creativity remains on the margins even when the academic legitimacy of innovation and entrepreneurship increases (3) developing a more integrated model that could better coordinate the differentiated activities of not only innovation and entrepreneurship units but also those of faculties so that there is greater mutual reinforcement and shared responsibilities that could optimise the social impact of higher education academic activities and those of innovation and entrepreneurship units. Five Scandinavian universities and three South African universities were selected, and fifteen Directors of innovation hubs and entrepreneurship centres

#### **Chapter 8**

## An Integrated Model for Invigorating Innovation and Entrepreneurship in Higher Education

*Teboho Pitso*

#### **Abstract**

The growth trajectories of innovation and entrepreneurship within higher education have largely followed discrete paths such that each developed independent of the other. The structural locations of innovation and entrepreneurship within higher education institutions have a lot to do with this strategic discrepancy. In some cases, entrepreneurship is mostly located within business schools and its focus is on teaching students' business basics and entrepreneurship basics, while innovation is located within any of the variants of university innovation hubs and technology transfer units. Innovation is also used as a buffer to shield real change and transformation in higher education especially in reference to innovative teaching, innovative education and so on, which, in essence, can best be described as improvements rather than innovation. It is also important to note that one of the critical plinths of entrepreneurship—creativity—has generally been marginalised in the core activities of higher education. While entrepreneurship has, over the course of more than three decades, gained legitimacy traction within higher education, innovation has fairly been on the margins of core university strategies but is becoming increasingly pertinent in higher education albeit in ways requiring critical reflection. However, creativity remains largely on the margins of core higher education activities, and its explicit teaching has not yet gained strong academic legitimacy. It is not clear why creativity, innovation and entrepreneurship have assumed discrete growth paths within higher education when there is such a palpable mutual reinforcement amongst these concepts. In this chapter, I report on the study I conducted in purposively selected Scandinavian and South African universities, which was aimed at: (1) better understanding how innovation and entrepreneurship are nurtured and developed in these institutions as well as the role of creativity in all these endeavours (2) identifying the key drivers of this nascent interest in innovation and entrepreneurship within higher education and why creativity remains on the margins even when the academic legitimacy of innovation and entrepreneurship increases (3) developing a more integrated model that could better coordinate the differentiated activities of not only innovation and entrepreneurship units but also those of faculties so that there is greater mutual reinforcement and shared responsibilities that could optimise the social impact of higher education academic activities and those of innovation and entrepreneurship units. Five Scandinavian universities and three South African universities were selected, and fifteen Directors of innovation hubs and entrepreneurship centres

were interviewed. While there are overlaps amongst faculty activities, innovation hubs and entrepreneurship centres, these overlaps are informal and poorly coordinated, which vitiates their total impact on society.

**Keywords:** creativity, innovation, entrepreneurship, higher education, social impact

#### **1. Introduction**

Entrepreneurship has had quite a chequered relationship within higher education across the globe [1–3]. It has sought academic legitimacy since the early 1940s including "dressing" itself in well-established academic nomenclature of other disciplines and has struggled to develop its own distinct scholarship although there are important positive pointers towards that direction in more recent times [4]. In the study of the history of entrepreneurship education in higher education, Pitso and Lebusa [4] describe the undergirding of entrepreneurship education on Economics and Psychology and, why this was essentially a problematic conceptualisation although it led to its gain in legitimacy as an academic discipline [1]. The origins of entrepreneurship education can be traced to the introduction of "The Management of New Enterprises" course, which was part of the 1947 Harvard Business School MBA Programme. Entrepreneurship in higher education has tended to assume this conceptualisation so that entrepreneurship came to be understood as part of business management and thus its education focused on business basics such as market analysis, business plans, franchising, and new enterprises management until in the 1970s when focus shifted to entrepreneurship basics. The vestiges of the original conception of entrepreneurship education are still visible in most university business schools that still accentuates market analysis as a means of discovering new markets and detailed business plans. Under this conceptualisation of entrepreneurship education, the dominant business logic has been that of causal problem-solving and causal strategies that have perennially been guiding managerial thinking and its variant of strategic thinking.

In the next section, I problematise and critique this entrenched conceptualisation of entrepreneurship education and argue that it has been at the heart of developing entrepreneurship within higher education in ways that marginalised creativity and innovation. Furthermore, I make a case that the definitions and processes of entrepreneurship within higher education have largely marginalised the very plinth of entrepreneurship, which are creativity and innovation, which have had an even more chequered relationship with higher education than entrepreneurship. The discrete developmental trajectories of especially entrepreneurship and innovation in higher education are outlined in the next sections. I also delve into the definitional challenges of entrepreneurship and innovation within the higher education context and suggest alternatives that could better lead to a more integrated approach to entrepreneurship and innovation. Based on these meanings of entrepreneurship and innovation, I conducted a qualitative study with senior staff members of selected universities that are responsible for business schools, centres of entrepreneurship and innovation hubs on their own experiences, perspectives and understandings of how entrepreneurship and innovation are positioned in their respective universities and how that either leads to greater fragmentation or integration as the main pattern of evolution. An integrated model that is likely to invigorate and collectively harness the strength of innovation and entrepreneurship is described and shows how it links with core university activities of curriculum and research.

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**2. Entrepreneurship and innovation in higher education: history,** 

over the world since the acceptance that entrepreneurship can be taught.

While I agree with the view that entrepreneurship can be taught, my sense is that it can actually be learnt through engaged practice. Engaged practice emphasises action, active agency and relevant-to-context theoretical knowledge. However,

While some authors trace the origins of entrepreneurship education to the early 1970s [1, 4], the most probable time for the introduction of entrepreneurship in higher education can be traced to Myles Mace who introduced entrepreneurship as a course in the Harvard University Business School MBA Programme in 1947. The course was called The Management of Enterprises. Thereafter, entrepreneurship education remained largely within the ambit of university business schools with a curriculum that was mostly undergirded by Business Basics content that accentuated market analysis, business strategy and business plans as earlier stated. The dominant pedagogy was one driven by Business content with a strong mimetic pedagogy. A mimetic pedagogy accentuates the passive transmission of prescribed learning content from an expert, as the custodian of this sacrosanct knowledge, to the novice who was expected to acquire and master that knowledge. The variants of this mimetic pedagogy in entrepreneurship are coaching and mentoring where seasoned entrepreneurs guide novice or budding entrepreneurs. This approach to teaching and learning drew from the dominant research paradigm of the time, which tended to eschew human agency and action in preference of establishing a clean, universal knowledge [5]. In a very useful Ph.D. study on the dominant teaching method that drives entrepreneurship education within the Scandinavian universities, Hagg [6] identified learning-through-action as central to such endeavours. In other words, the teaching of entrepreneurship in Scandinavian countries accentuates action-oriented focus where practical learning activities and taking responsibility for one's study are the underlying learning processes of developing entrepreneurs. This approach to teaching entrepreneurs is similar to andragogic epistemologies that emphasise self-learning, strong action-oriented learning, reallife experiences of trying out things and the motivation to hold something tangible at the end of the learning process. Hagg study does not oppose this mode of teaching entrepreneurs but find it limiting in the sense that reflective critique or what he prefers to call *reflective thinking* is not integrated into this approach to teaching. He sees reflective critique as crucial in the learning of entrepreneurs in that budding entrepreneurs could learn to discern critical aspects of their practice, identify flaws and curate knowledge that could be beneficial to their practices. He also argues that this approach to teaching could build the knowledge base of entrepreneurship education and its scholarship, which is a similar point we raise in our own book chapter [4]. Teaching entrepreneurs, in the South African context, is different as it is dominated by the epistemology of mimesis where students become passive recipients of Business and Entrepreneurship Basics knowledge as premised on causation rationality and market discovery mores with the business plan as an end-product. Sarasvathy as shall be shown in the next sub-section had already challenged this approach to entrepreneurship and had advocated for effectual logic as the underlying rationality that ought to drive entrepreneurship in the twenty-first century. This approach to entrepreneurship guides entrepreneurship education in Scandinavia, other European and US regions, and is becoming the plinth of entrepreneurship all

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82502*

**2.1 Entrepreneurship in higher education**

**meanings and contexts**

*2.1.1 The historical trajectory*

#### **2. Entrepreneurship and innovation in higher education: history, meanings and contexts**

#### **2.1 Entrepreneurship in higher education**

#### *2.1.1 The historical trajectory*

While some authors trace the origins of entrepreneurship education to the early 1970s [1, 4], the most probable time for the introduction of entrepreneurship in higher education can be traced to Myles Mace who introduced entrepreneurship as a course in the Harvard University Business School MBA Programme in 1947. The course was called The Management of Enterprises. Thereafter, entrepreneurship education remained largely within the ambit of university business schools with a curriculum that was mostly undergirded by Business Basics content that accentuated market analysis, business strategy and business plans as earlier stated. The dominant pedagogy was one driven by Business content with a strong mimetic pedagogy. A mimetic pedagogy accentuates the passive transmission of prescribed learning content from an expert, as the custodian of this sacrosanct knowledge, to the novice who was expected to acquire and master that knowledge. The variants of this mimetic pedagogy in entrepreneurship are coaching and mentoring where seasoned entrepreneurs guide novice or budding entrepreneurs. This approach to teaching and learning drew from the dominant research paradigm of the time, which tended to eschew human agency and action in preference of establishing a clean, universal knowledge [5]. In a very useful Ph.D. study on the dominant teaching method that drives entrepreneurship education within the Scandinavian universities, Hagg [6] identified learning-through-action as central to such endeavours. In other words, the teaching of entrepreneurship in Scandinavian countries accentuates action-oriented focus where practical learning activities and taking responsibility for one's study are the underlying learning processes of developing entrepreneurs. This approach to teaching entrepreneurs is similar to andragogic epistemologies that emphasise self-learning, strong action-oriented learning, reallife experiences of trying out things and the motivation to hold something tangible at the end of the learning process. Hagg study does not oppose this mode of teaching entrepreneurs but find it limiting in the sense that reflective critique or what he prefers to call *reflective thinking* is not integrated into this approach to teaching. He sees reflective critique as crucial in the learning of entrepreneurs in that budding entrepreneurs could learn to discern critical aspects of their practice, identify flaws and curate knowledge that could be beneficial to their practices. He also argues that this approach to teaching could build the knowledge base of entrepreneurship education and its scholarship, which is a similar point we raise in our own book chapter [4]. Teaching entrepreneurs, in the South African context, is different as it is dominated by the epistemology of mimesis where students become passive recipients of Business and Entrepreneurship Basics knowledge as premised on causation rationality and market discovery mores with the business plan as an end-product. Sarasvathy as shall be shown in the next sub-section had already challenged this approach to entrepreneurship and had advocated for effectual logic as the underlying rationality that ought to drive entrepreneurship in the twenty-first century. This approach to entrepreneurship guides entrepreneurship education in Scandinavia, other European and US regions, and is becoming the plinth of entrepreneurship all over the world since the acceptance that entrepreneurship can be taught.

While I agree with the view that entrepreneurship can be taught, my sense is that it can actually be learnt through engaged practice. Engaged practice emphasises action, active agency and relevant-to-context theoretical knowledge. However,

entrepreneurship courses, while they have increased substantially from around 2005 [1] and are becoming increasingly ubiquitous in higher education across the globe, have been beset by a curriculum that accentuates the teaching of business basics and entrepreneurship basics. This means that the underlying logic of entrepreneurship courses in higher education has been causal rationality, which foregrounded positivistic and post-positivistic philosophical underpinning. This philosophical outlook suggests that knowledge can be generated through careful observation of discrete set of ideas (variables) that are tested experimentally or via surveys in ways that lead to discoveries of universal laws and broad generalisations about the nature of reality. The nature of reality, under this view, is deemed to be objective and independent of human agency and action [5, 7]. Knowledge generated this way has guided entrepreneurship curricula over time and has led the focus of entrepreneurship in higher education to be on discovering markets through market analysis, business strategy and crafting of business plans as already indicated. It compelled entrepreneurs to think and resolve problems within the cause-effect logics such that examining causes that influence business outcomes became the mantra of entrepreneurs' training. The variant of this logic was that of business strategy that relied on understanding of the current market through in-depth market research and the formulation of a clear business plan with specific goals to be achieved over a 5-year period with clear timelines of expected outcomes and assigned responsibilities. This approach is increasingly becoming irrelevant in the twenty-first century with the advent of advanced technologies, internet of things, 3D printing and so on which disrupt long-term thinking, compel a different mindset and coping with uncertainties of the ever-changing markets. The traditional approach to business was thus premised on predictability and certainty of markets drawn from causal rationality. This approach is becoming increasingly obsolete in the twenty-first century as people need to ready themselves for dealing effectively with very volatile, unpredictable and uncertain markets where rapid advances in technology change market conditions very fast. A new thinking approach has become inevitable. Entrepreneurship curricula that are driven by business basics content such as market analysis, business plans, business strategy crafting, management control, cost analysis and financial statements as well as entrepreneurship basics such as meanings and processes of entrepreneurship, characteristics of entrepreneurs, types of entrepreneurs, business coaching and mentoring, opportunity discovery and exit strategies have become inadequate in this century. Around the early 2000, Sarasvathy [3] challenged the way entrepreneurs were trained and the then focus on developing entrepreneurship scholarship on "borrowed" concepts from other disciplines. Sarasvathy [3] suggested a different rationality from the one that accentuated the selection of means to achieve pre-determined goals. She advocated for the rationality that imagined possible ends based on available means and called it effectual logic [3]. In the next section, I elaborate on this effectual rationality but argue that this kind of logic, while representing a huge mindset shift in entrepreneurship, is up for disruption as society prepares for the digital age.

#### *2.1.2 Effectual entrepreneurship*

About a decade ago and in her Ph.D. study, Sarasvathy challenged the entrenched causal problem-solving approach to entrepreneurship and suggested an alternative rationality in attempting to create business value, which she called effectuation. Effectual Entrepreneurship is the decision-making heuristics that draws from extant human capability and available means (expertise, experience, existing resources and networks) to create markets (as opposed to discovering them through market research and analysis) and constantly crafting opportunities

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that grow the business once it is established. It is very much premised mostly on disruptive innovations. Effectual entrepreneurship is based on effectual rationality and effectuation principles developed by Sarasvathy [3] and has since become a global phenomenon in entrepreneurship noting its presence in the US, Scandinavia, Europe and gradually in Africa. It represents a huge shift in entrepreneurship curricula in that it accentuates a different entrepreneurial mindset that illuminates opportunity crafting and market creation through using own human capabilities and the means at one's disposal, hence emphasising active human agency and action in entrepreneurship. Effectual entrepreneurship is, thus, based on a pragmatist

• knowledge generation that arises out of actions, situations and consequences in

• practice and what works at a particular point in time and thus allowing for possibilities and continual reimagination of the business enterprise

• real problems rather than on specific methods of resolving the problem. Pragmatists opt for multiple methods and approaches to resolving problems. Pragmatist perspective does not commit to a specific nature of reality rather remains open to all forms of knowledge that can help resolve the real, practical

• active human agency and action in providing solutions to complex problems

Curricula that are based on effectual entrepreneurship accentuate the explicit development of risk mitigation abilities (for example, using the principle of affordable loss when crafting market opportunities), leveraging available resources, valuing innovation and creative problem-solving, learning from failure, building

Resolving complex problems has always been at the heart of entrepreneurship, and this will become even more central in the activities of entrepreneurship moving forward. What will significantly change will be the conditions, timeframes and means of resolving these problems. We are moving towards smart solutions and a society that hinges on advanced and intelligent technologies [8]. In the study of forces that will disrupt how society and business function authors, Daugherty and Wilson [9] identify 15 forces that will disrupt and shape societies over the next 5–25 years. The first of these forces entail the mindset, while the other forces relate to advanced technologies. Within the entrepreneurship field, these forces will shift the business of opportunity crafting and value creation in ways never imagined before. These shifts in mindset and technological advances compel a different thinking in terms of how entrepreneurs ought to be educated and trained. Building on Sarasvathy's emphasis on entrepreneurship mindset, the digital age entrepreneurship education and training would accentuate entrepreneurial mindset and technological savvy as the underlying curricular

While the entrepreneurial mindset curricular epistemology tended to focus on value innovation, opportunity alertness, risk mitigation, networks and resource leveraging as earlier stated [10], the entrepreneurship curriculum will be affected

epistemology that drives the education and training of entrepreneurs.

• the historical, social, political and contextual nature of the problem.

lieu of antecedent conditions that define the objectivist traditions

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82502*

philosophical underpinning with its emphasis on:

networks and adapting to change quite quickly [3].

*2.1.3 Entrepreneurship in the digital age*

problem

#### *An Integrated Model for Invigorating Innovation and Entrepreneurship in Higher Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82502*

that grow the business once it is established. It is very much premised mostly on disruptive innovations. Effectual entrepreneurship is based on effectual rationality and effectuation principles developed by Sarasvathy [3] and has since become a global phenomenon in entrepreneurship noting its presence in the US, Scandinavia, Europe and gradually in Africa. It represents a huge shift in entrepreneurship curricula in that it accentuates a different entrepreneurial mindset that illuminates opportunity crafting and market creation through using own human capabilities and the means at one's disposal, hence emphasising active human agency and action in entrepreneurship. Effectual entrepreneurship is, thus, based on a pragmatist philosophical underpinning with its emphasis on:


Curricula that are based on effectual entrepreneurship accentuate the explicit development of risk mitigation abilities (for example, using the principle of affordable loss when crafting market opportunities), leveraging available resources, valuing innovation and creative problem-solving, learning from failure, building networks and adapting to change quite quickly [3].

#### *2.1.3 Entrepreneurship in the digital age*

Resolving complex problems has always been at the heart of entrepreneurship, and this will become even more central in the activities of entrepreneurship moving forward. What will significantly change will be the conditions, timeframes and means of resolving these problems. We are moving towards smart solutions and a society that hinges on advanced and intelligent technologies [8]. In the study of forces that will disrupt how society and business function authors, Daugherty and Wilson [9] identify 15 forces that will disrupt and shape societies over the next 5–25 years. The first of these forces entail the mindset, while the other forces relate to advanced technologies. Within the entrepreneurship field, these forces will shift the business of opportunity crafting and value creation in ways never imagined before. These shifts in mindset and technological advances compel a different thinking in terms of how entrepreneurs ought to be educated and trained. Building on Sarasvathy's emphasis on entrepreneurship mindset, the digital age entrepreneurship education and training would accentuate entrepreneurial mindset and technological savvy as the underlying curricular epistemology that drives the education and training of entrepreneurs.

While the entrepreneurial mindset curricular epistemology tended to focus on value innovation, opportunity alertness, risk mitigation, networks and resource leveraging as earlier stated [10], the entrepreneurship curriculum will be affected

and shaped by the 15 forces of disruption [7]. Paul Daugherty and James Wilson identify these forces as consisting of significant shift in mindsets and the increased role of advanced intelligent technologies as stated already. Entrepreneurship education will have to inculcate a growth-focused mindset in students, which will enable them to embrace and leverage opportunities that advanced intelligent technologies provide such as human-machine collaborations in co-creating value and creating smart human conveniences. Furthermore, it should shift business focus away from profits towards social impact of its activities so that a strong moral ethics drive the plinth of business. There will also be a strong emphasis on cybersecurity. Entrepreneurship in the digital age will renegotiate meanings and models of creative problem-solving as shall be conceptualised in ways that renegotiate relations between humans and smart machines, lead to smart innovations as well as business products, services and models that reflect the leveraging of artificial intelligence capabilities and human ingenuity. The entrepreneurship curriculum will also prepare students to feel comfortable with the uncomfortable and uncomfortable with the comfortable, thus preparing them to deal effectively with uncertainty.

#### **2.2 Innovation in higher education**

While there is the general consensus that innovation refers to the conversion of a promising idea to tangible results, the traditional meanings of innovation as disruptive and sustaining are being challenged in light of developments in artificial intelligence capabilities. There is a tendency towards understanding innovation within the framework of smart service innovation, which draws from the interconnectedness of service systems, intelligent technologies and human ingenuity to co-create value within the smart service ecosystems [11]. However, this meaning of innovation perpetuates a historical problem, that of defining innovation within the framework of Science and Technology as well as R&D. You will recall that innovation has developed distinct from entrepreneurship mainly because each evolved from different fields with entrepreneurship tracing its origins from SMEs [10]. Given that Science and Technology, R&D as well as SMEs occupy different strategic positions in higher education, which account for their fragmentation, a need has arisen to integrate innovation and entrepreneurship. First, defining entrepreneurship outside innovation makes no sense. Innovation is the intermediate stage of entrepreneurship with the foundational stage being a generated creative idea with a statistical rarity, which must be converted to tangible results during the innovation stage before being commercialised as the outcome of combined efforts of creativity, innovation and entrepreneurship. Second, the evolution of innovation from the "push" linear model towards innovation systems meant that innovation evolutionary trajectory moved from Science and Technology to national levels where all activities relating to innovation whether in private R&D, universities and governments were organised in a national systems format [12]. This approach to innovation further moved innovation away from entrepreneurship, and this strategic schism compelled me to conduct research in Scandinavia, which is quite strong on this innovation systems approach. Scandinavian countries are considered national innovation leaders, and it was particularly important to find out whether these huge strides in innovation were linked to entrepreneurship growth. As shall be shown in the findings section below, while national innovation is heavily funded by Scandinavian governments including all its activities in universities, it remains strategically alienated within universities and mostly delinked from entrepreneurship.

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than 6 months.

this chapter.

**3. The research study**

**3.1 The research design**

*An Integrated Model for Invigorating Innovation and Entrepreneurship in Higher Education*

Creativity, innovation and entrepreneurship are better understood within the framework of the value creation spectrum. Creating value whether individually, collectively or collaboratively means meeting, at least, three conditions. First, whatever economic transformation that occurs from turning inputs into sellable outputs should be irreversible, that is, it cannot be restored to its original state. Once the transformed entity (product, service or business model) has been created, it has to be disruptive of existing and entrenched economic entities, that is, it has to create some levels of chaos or disorder, which makes the economic space uncertain and unpredictable. This is the state of economic entropy and represents the second condition for value creation to occur. The third condition relates to the fact that all efforts of value creation must lead to some kind of an economic entity (artefact) that is fit for purpose, that is, that meets or exceeds customer expectations and creates greater usefulness to customers (human conveniences). Competitiveness in value creation emerges from the reality that some value creation types and methods are far superior to others, and the essence of becoming competitive depends on creating economic entities that are distinct from those of your competitors and developing means of securing a kind of monopoly by ensuring that what you sell solved a unique problem or provides unique solutions to known problems. It is axiomatic that in order to create value, one has to develop unique and superior skills and processes. My sense is that the creation of uniqueness, that is, economic entities with statistical rarity begin with ideation. Ideation itself relies heavily on creative problem-solving abilities. Given that higher education institutions continue to generally marginalise creativity, the need has arisen to establish a unit that can serve as a link between faculties and the Science and Technology Parks of universities or any similar innovation hubs or units such as those responsible for technology transfers. This unit has to provide conducive conditions for the development of critical and creative thinking as well as conduct scoping reviews of existing research using credible scoping review protocols such as PRISMA-P so as to make it relevant to the value creation loop as described in

The unit could also play an advocacy role in promoting critical and creative thinking within faculties. Armed with these initial ideas, I conducted a study that sought to better understand the current state of value creation from faculty through to IP commercialisation understood as consisting of creativity, innovation and entrepreneurship. Such value creation compels a design of an integrated approach to invigorating innovation and entrepreneurship within higher education as well as refine this approach into a model that can be implemented in the most efficient way.

The study was mainly qualitative in nature and targeted senior university staff that manages university units or centres on innovation and entrepreneurship. It also used the latest report on innovation competitiveness of South African universities as ways of identifying South African universities that participated in the study. A snowball sampling technique was used in the case of selecting staff from Scandinavian universities to participate in the study. I spent more than 3 months in Scandinavia for the purpose of this research, and the entire study took more

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82502*

**2.3 Towards an integrated approach**

*An Integrated Model for Invigorating Innovation and Entrepreneurship in Higher Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82502*

#### **2.3 Towards an integrated approach**

Creativity, innovation and entrepreneurship are better understood within the framework of the value creation spectrum. Creating value whether individually, collectively or collaboratively means meeting, at least, three conditions. First, whatever economic transformation that occurs from turning inputs into sellable outputs should be irreversible, that is, it cannot be restored to its original state. Once the transformed entity (product, service or business model) has been created, it has to be disruptive of existing and entrenched economic entities, that is, it has to create some levels of chaos or disorder, which makes the economic space uncertain and unpredictable. This is the state of economic entropy and represents the second condition for value creation to occur. The third condition relates to the fact that all efforts of value creation must lead to some kind of an economic entity (artefact) that is fit for purpose, that is, that meets or exceeds customer expectations and creates greater usefulness to customers (human conveniences). Competitiveness in value creation emerges from the reality that some value creation types and methods are far superior to others, and the essence of becoming competitive depends on creating economic entities that are distinct from those of your competitors and developing means of securing a kind of monopoly by ensuring that what you sell solved a unique problem or provides unique solutions to known problems. It is axiomatic that in order to create value, one has to develop unique and superior skills and processes. My sense is that the creation of uniqueness, that is, economic entities with statistical rarity begin with ideation. Ideation itself relies heavily on creative problem-solving abilities. Given that higher education institutions continue to generally marginalise creativity, the need has arisen to establish a unit that can serve as a link between faculties and the Science and Technology Parks of universities or any similar innovation hubs or units such as those responsible for technology transfers. This unit has to provide conducive conditions for the development of critical and creative thinking as well as conduct scoping reviews of existing research using credible scoping review protocols such as PRISMA-P so as to make it relevant to the value creation loop as described in this chapter.

The unit could also play an advocacy role in promoting critical and creative thinking within faculties. Armed with these initial ideas, I conducted a study that sought to better understand the current state of value creation from faculty through to IP commercialisation understood as consisting of creativity, innovation and entrepreneurship. Such value creation compels a design of an integrated approach to invigorating innovation and entrepreneurship within higher education as well as refine this approach into a model that can be implemented in the most efficient way.

#### **3. The research study**

#### **3.1 The research design**

The study was mainly qualitative in nature and targeted senior university staff that manages university units or centres on innovation and entrepreneurship. It also used the latest report on innovation competitiveness of South African universities as ways of identifying South African universities that participated in the study. A snowball sampling technique was used in the case of selecting staff from Scandinavian universities to participate in the study. I spent more than 3 months in Scandinavia for the purpose of this research, and the entire study took more than 6 months.

#### *3.1.1 Sampling and selection*

The non-probability snowballing technique was used to select research participants. I linked up with my connection at one Scandinavian university who is a Professor in the Centre for Engineering Education. We had met on a research project that involved determining the constitution and transformative potential of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning (SoTL) in both the South African and Swedish contexts, which resulted in a book in which both of us contributed a chapter. I was appointed as a visiting researcher in the Centre for Engineering Education for 3 months. On my arrival, I met up with the Dean for Collaborations at this university who, in turn, introduced me and secured me meetings with the directors of the innovation hub, centre for entrepreneurship and a niche-focused engineering innovation hub within her university. Once the interviews with these Directors were completed, I requested them to link me up with other Directors of cognate structures spread over the Scandinavian universities. In total, 15 directors were interviewed over the course of 3 months. Eight of these directors managed innovation hubs, one director managed a niche-focused innovation hub and the rest of the directors managed centres of entrepreneurship. By means of this snowballing sampling technique, five Scandinavian universities participated in the study.

The 2017 Clarivate Analytics study of the most innovative universities in South Africa was used to select South African universities for this study. The Clarivate Analytics study focused on the partnerships that each South African university established with industry to drive innovation, the number of research outputs that were converted into innovation, patents filed and IP portfolio. The first three top universities were selected for this study. Senior managers of units of these three top innovative universities dealing with innovation, technology transfer and entrepreneurship formed part of the research participants.

#### *3.1.2 The interviews*

The study used semi-structured, qualitative interviews to elicit the views and perspectives of senior managers in innovation hubs and centres for entrepreneurship or similar units. The semi-structured interview schedules were used because key themes were identified in advance and related to better understanding:


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any and formal accords (MOUs) signed. This question focused on the type of partnerships that each unit developed (triple, quadruple or n-tuple helices).

3.The activities of each unit in relation to broader goals of the university, region and national government. This question relates to purposeful intent of each senior manager of each unit as understood within institutional and national

4.The intended outcomes or impact of each unit on the university and nationally. This question sought to find out the value propositions of each unit, that is,

The open-ended questions were intended to explore other themes or sub-themes

The interviews were conducted in the respective innovation hubs and entrepreneurship centres, which also allowed opportunities to observe the actual activities that took place at the time of visit but were contextualised for me by each interviewee. I also got to meet with aspirant innovators and budding entrepreneurs as they tackled their respective projects that were at different stages of becoming a prototype or spinout company. I was also given the opportunity to interview them on their projects, level of support from the structures and degree of confidence that each project will become a reality. I also observed pitching sessions where students shared and defended their ideas prior to their further processing in the innovation or entrepreneurship structures. Ten of the students that attended the pitching session and presented their ideas were interviewed in terms of the degree to which they believed they were properly prepared by the centre for this pitching session, the likelihood that their ideas can turn into a real business opportunity and the support they believed they would get from the centre in launching their businesses. In South Africa, I interviewed Directors of Technology Transfer and Innovation units as well as directors responsible for entrepreneurship located

In order to do an analysis of the collected interviews data, an analytic coding mechanism was adopted as based on grounded theory specifically on the 1990 work of Corbin and Strauss [5], which identifies four master themes on analysing qualitative data as conditions, interactions, strategy/tactics, and consequences. Each of these themes were elaborated above and directed questions of this study. The data that emerged from the open-ended questions were analysed in terms of whether they broaden the scope of the already identified themes and sub-themes or whether contours of a new master theme are emerging. Each data piece got critically analysed on whether it fitted existing categories or whether it was a pointer to a new category.

1.That innovation and entrepreneurship in both these contexts are located in different units within the same university, resulting in the strategic discrepancy and discrete growth paths. For instance, in Scandinavian universities, innovation hubs and niche-focused innovation hubs, such as those of engineering are located in different units, have their own independent mandates, and the relationship between them is fairly informal and generally weak. In the South African context, innovation hubs have an independent existence to university business schools such that the latter tends to be considered as part of the

whether each unit is fit for purpose and return on investment.

that could emerge from the interviews and observations.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82502*

policy framework.

mostly in business schools.

*3.1.3 The results and elucidation*

The critical issues that came out of this exercise are:

any and formal accords (MOUs) signed. This question focused on the type of partnerships that each unit developed (triple, quadruple or n-tuple helices).


The open-ended questions were intended to explore other themes or sub-themes that could emerge from the interviews and observations.

The interviews were conducted in the respective innovation hubs and entrepreneurship centres, which also allowed opportunities to observe the actual activities that took place at the time of visit but were contextualised for me by each interviewee. I also got to meet with aspirant innovators and budding entrepreneurs as they tackled their respective projects that were at different stages of becoming a prototype or spinout company. I was also given the opportunity to interview them on their projects, level of support from the structures and degree of confidence that each project will become a reality. I also observed pitching sessions where students shared and defended their ideas prior to their further processing in the innovation or entrepreneurship structures. Ten of the students that attended the pitching session and presented their ideas were interviewed in terms of the degree to which they believed they were properly prepared by the centre for this pitching session, the likelihood that their ideas can turn into a real business opportunity and the support they believed they would get from the centre in launching their businesses.

In South Africa, I interviewed Directors of Technology Transfer and Innovation units as well as directors responsible for entrepreneurship located mostly in business schools.

In order to do an analysis of the collected interviews data, an analytic coding mechanism was adopted as based on grounded theory specifically on the 1990 work of Corbin and Strauss [5], which identifies four master themes on analysing qualitative data as conditions, interactions, strategy/tactics, and consequences. Each of these themes were elaborated above and directed questions of this study. The data that emerged from the open-ended questions were analysed in terms of whether they broaden the scope of the already identified themes and sub-themes or whether contours of a new master theme are emerging. Each data piece got critically analysed on whether it fitted existing categories or whether it was a pointer to a new category.

#### *3.1.3 The results and elucidation*

The critical issues that came out of this exercise are:

1.That innovation and entrepreneurship in both these contexts are located in different units within the same university, resulting in the strategic discrepancy and discrete growth paths. For instance, in Scandinavian universities, innovation hubs and niche-focused innovation hubs, such as those of engineering are located in different units, have their own independent mandates, and the relationship between them is fairly informal and generally weak. In the South African context, innovation hubs have an independent existence to university business schools such that the latter tends to be considered as part of the

university core, while the former is reduced to supporting units. It is important to note that entrepreneurship is located within the university business schools in the South African context.


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*education*

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greater interaction between their senior managers.

productive tension forms the basis of the suggested model.

*3.1.4 The integrated model for fostering innovation and entrepreneurship in higher* 

The model consists of three key elements, which are faculty activities, activities of the innovation hubs and those of the entrepreneurship as they map out within higher education context. In terms of this model, faculty activities revolve mainly around research and curriculum, that is, on generation of new knowledge and teaching of existing, known knowledge. Faculties are assumed to be good at these two activities and have developed safety mechanisms of protecting these activities from unjustified and sometimes legitimate encroachment through asserting their academic autonomy and professional identities. In this model, these faculty activities are not encroached upon and faculties are expected to continue to do what they know best. The model, however, identifies a delink between faculties and innovation hubs as well as centres of entrepreneurship. It thus proposes that a unit be established that could serve to develop stronger links between faculties and the innovation and entrepreneurship units. The main purpose of the unit would be to provide a service to both the faculties and the innovation and entrepreneurship units. This service would be two-pronged. First, it would provide service in the area of Research Scoping Reviews using well-established Scoping Reviews Protocols

Park appears to be the most preferred approach by Scandinavian private sector. In the Swedish context, the privately owned Science Park is located closer to the university's Centre for Entrepreneurship and has closer relationships and

There appears to be consistency between how innovation and entrepreneurship evolved within universities as discrete concepts and how they exist within Scandinavian universities. While innovation appears to have gained legitimacy traction within universities in both contexts, its position within faculties remains precarious but mostly marginalised mainly because change efforts within faculties are hampered by academic autonomy and professional identities [12–14]. There is thus a need to conduct a sociocultural study that attempts to understand these complexities, and how new ideas and concepts get integrated into the faculties mores. Based on these findings, I suggest a model that could integrate activities of faculties, innovation and entrepreneurship in such a way as to generate the least resistance, which thus substantially increases the success rate of the model. The model assumes that higher education institutions are not always malleable to changes that attempt to alter their strategic plinth and cultures of disciplines developed over the years and based on hard facts, and this is not without legitimate warrant. First, the change efforts often describe future possibilities often without adducing substantive evidence. It thus become untenable that well-established mores as undergirded by solid scientific foundations should be altered on the basis of informed conjectures. Second, future possibilities are uncertain, unpredictable and epiphantic, that is, its outcomes cannot be confirmed and guaranteed in advance. Third, there is often an ontological conflict between cultures of most disciplines and higher education visionaries (innovators and entrepreneurs). Cultures of disciplines are based mostly on the principles of generating clean, objective and universal knowledge via strict research protocols and procedures while that of visionaries rely on pragmatic considerations that focus on what practically works. To think of it, we need both in some kind of productive tension where cultures of discipline could be rid of knowledge and ideas that are at their crepuscular glow [13] and fetishistic visions could gain from scientific content. In the model that is presented in the next section, this

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82502*

#### *An Integrated Model for Invigorating Innovation and Entrepreneurship in Higher Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82502*

Park appears to be the most preferred approach by Scandinavian private sector. In the Swedish context, the privately owned Science Park is located closer to the university's Centre for Entrepreneurship and has closer relationships and greater interaction between their senior managers.

There appears to be consistency between how innovation and entrepreneurship evolved within universities as discrete concepts and how they exist within Scandinavian universities. While innovation appears to have gained legitimacy traction within universities in both contexts, its position within faculties remains precarious but mostly marginalised mainly because change efforts within faculties are hampered by academic autonomy and professional identities [12–14]. There is thus a need to conduct a sociocultural study that attempts to understand these complexities, and how new ideas and concepts get integrated into the faculties mores. Based on these findings, I suggest a model that could integrate activities of faculties, innovation and entrepreneurship in such a way as to generate the least resistance, which thus substantially increases the success rate of the model. The model assumes that higher education institutions are not always malleable to changes that attempt to alter their strategic plinth and cultures of disciplines developed over the years and based on hard facts, and this is not without legitimate warrant. First, the change efforts often describe future possibilities often without adducing substantive evidence. It thus become untenable that well-established mores as undergirded by solid scientific foundations should be altered on the basis of informed conjectures. Second, future possibilities are uncertain, unpredictable and epiphantic, that is, its outcomes cannot be confirmed and guaranteed in advance. Third, there is often an ontological conflict between cultures of most disciplines and higher education visionaries (innovators and entrepreneurs). Cultures of disciplines are based mostly on the principles of generating clean, objective and universal knowledge via strict research protocols and procedures while that of visionaries rely on pragmatic considerations that focus on what practically works. To think of it, we need both in some kind of productive tension where cultures of discipline could be rid of knowledge and ideas that are at their crepuscular glow [13] and fetishistic visions could gain from scientific content. In the model that is presented in the next section, this productive tension forms the basis of the suggested model.

#### *3.1.4 The integrated model for fostering innovation and entrepreneurship in higher education*

The model consists of three key elements, which are faculty activities, activities of the innovation hubs and those of the entrepreneurship as they map out within higher education context. In terms of this model, faculty activities revolve mainly around research and curriculum, that is, on generation of new knowledge and teaching of existing, known knowledge. Faculties are assumed to be good at these two activities and have developed safety mechanisms of protecting these activities from unjustified and sometimes legitimate encroachment through asserting their academic autonomy and professional identities. In this model, these faculty activities are not encroached upon and faculties are expected to continue to do what they know best. The model, however, identifies a delink between faculties and innovation hubs as well as centres of entrepreneurship. It thus proposes that a unit be established that could serve to develop stronger links between faculties and the innovation and entrepreneurship units. The main purpose of the unit would be to provide a service to both the faculties and the innovation and entrepreneurship units. This service would be two-pronged. First, it would provide service in the area of Research Scoping Reviews using well-established Scoping Reviews Protocols

such as PRISMA-P. The purpose of the scoping reviews would be to go through huge research data that have been produced by the faculties so as to convert some of it into research data that can be useable during the ideation stage of innovation. For example, a recent study by Northwestern University Psychology researchers sifted through 1.5 million research data on personality types using advanced computational capabilities and came up with only four distinct personality types [11]. The psychiatric units are now grappling with ideas on how these findings could be used in practical situations to solve patients' problems and this could also lead to development of new psychiatric medical products and improved psychiatric services. This is an example of how scoping reviews studies could open new avenues of converting research into innovate ideas and exploration of new possibilities.

The unit could also assess the degree to which critical and creative thought are explicitly taught within faculties. Studies show that critical thinking and to a larger extent creativity are not necessarily priority skills worthy of being explicitly taught in faculties. While critical thinking is often considered to be implicit in faculty teaching, its explicit teaching based on the understanding that it is an emerging area of scholarship with its own nomenclature has not gained sufficient traction. Creativity has generally been eschewed within faculties [15] mainly because of the dominance of mimetic epistemologies that are deeply ingrained especially at undergraduate levels. The unit could thus provide two distinct services in these areas. First, it could serve as an advocacy for the explicit teaching of critical and creative thought within faculties. Second, it could explicitly teach these skills in order to prepare students for the ideation stage of innovation. Critical thinking helps students to develop the capabilities of constantly monitoring their thinking for significant problems in such thinking and attempting amelioration up to a point where students could function as practising thinkers [15]. Furthermore, critical thinking helps students to evaluate ideas for soundness and efficacy in resolving real, protracted problems which comes handy during the ideation stage. Creativity helps students to increase their capacity to generate ideas with statistical rarity which is an essential element of innovation during ideation stage. The unit could offer similar services to communities which include private and public sector companies as well as local communities. It is clear that the model attempts to integrate faculty work and innovation activities especially the ideation stage of innovation in ways that are non-confrontational which also goes for communities. This means that faculties and communities can continue with their apodictic activities as the unit could serve to evaluate, at the point of contact between the unit and faculties/communities, what needs to be done to achieve readiness for the first stage of innovation (ideation). It could be that some ideas/individuals/teams are ready for the second or even third stages of innovation (design and testing) or such ideas have not been judged for statistical rarity which means that such ideas will have to go through the ideation stage. In our case, the ideation stage is facilitated through measuring the creative abilities of individuals or teams by means of the standardised Torrance's Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT) and the TRIZ-based creativity model is used to test the potential efficacy and statistical rarity of such ideas [16]. The TRIZ model is also used to ensure the statistical rarity of ideas and for increasing the ideas generation of individuals and teams coming from faculties and communities. This is integration at level 1 which I prefer to call *Integrate 1*. *Integrate 1* represents the most crucial point of the linkage which can inform the rest of the innovation and entrepreneurship value-chain. It is because embedded in its essence is a certain level of epistemic and mindset disruption with the potential to alter loyalties to certain ways of thinking, reasoning as well as commitment to certain ontological and epistemological positions. *Integrate 1* is about accentuation of active human agency and action [17] in lieu of commitment to certain conventional knowledge. It involves certain degrees

**155**

*An Integrated Model for Invigorating Innovation and Entrepreneurship in Higher Education*

of disobedience and, to a point, demands higher levels of open-mindedness that allows exploration beyond known knowledge precincts and thus represents some kind of an intellectual and mindset crossover into new intellectual territories such that the familiar becomes strange. The strange can be frightening and intimidating and without some level of tutelage can become a negative energy that is inimical to innovation and entrepreneurship. Without properly handling *Integrate 1*, anxieties and resistance can be generated and could be counterproductive as it could affect the entire innovation and entrepreneurship value-chain. I thus counsel for involvement of highly trained change experts/practitioners to help individuals and teams from faculties and communities to ease into innovation and subsequently into entrepreneurship. Recent studies on faculty cultures show that academic freedom and professional identities are so strongly entrenched that attempts on changing faculty cultures could take years to yield results [12] hence *Integrate 1* is more about letting faculties continue with their work and setting up a unit to make faculty work

(research and curriculum) ready and relevant to innovation efforts.

so that better human conveniences are developed.

The next level of integration is between innovation hubs and centres of entrepreneurship (*Integrate 2*). Within higher education and as earlier stated, innovation and entrepreneurship assumed discrete locations and development, which resulted in a kind of a strategic schism. This was counterproductive as innovation is the lifeblood of entrepreneurship as creativity is to innovation. As stated earlier, in Scandinavian universities, innovation and entrepreneurship remain located strategically in discrete units and coordination efforts are, at best, very informal and not necessarily mutually reinforcing despite good intentions of senior managers in these units. A similar picture can be painted in South African universities. *Integrate 2* is thus about bringing greater coordination between these two entities in ways that are mutually reinforcing and could increase the value propositions of innovation and entrepreneurship within higher education. *Integrate 2* is thus about linking the design and testing processes of innovation closer to their social impact through scaling and commercialisation, which are entrepreneurship territories. When greater synergistic linkages are established between these two entities then both entities are able to share their process constraints and collectively attempt solutions. There is no point of prototyping and testing what cannot be scaled because eventually efforts of innovation and entrepreneurship are about social impact, that is, creating new or improved value propositions for society

The third level is between entrepreneurship centres and higher education holding

companies. In Scandinavian universities, university holding companies are more linked to innovation hubs in lieu of entrepreneurship centres and the CEOs of these holding companies are often executive directors of innovation hubs. My sense is that the role of a holding company whose main purpose is to invest in spinout/start-up companies is mostly linked with scaling up of successful innovation outputs and inclines more within the entrepreneurship sphere; hence, it should rather be a negotiated sphere between both the innovation hubs and entrepreneurship centres so that the board of the holding company should be representative of both entities plus external stakeholders. This approach would also strengthen *Integrate 3* as there will be greater collaboration between the innovation hubs and entrepreneurship centres. The fourth level is between all these higher education innovation and entrepreneurship activities operating as an integrated whole and the broader developmental agendas of society. The main purpose of any innovation and entrepreneurship endeavour is to make more people economically active, economically independent, lessen inequality and poverty, reduce unemployment and broaden the tax base. The main purpose of this chapter was to share the study that sought to better understand conditions under which maximum social impact could be derived from activities of faculty, innovation hubs and entrepreneurship centres. Based on

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82502*

#### *An Integrated Model for Invigorating Innovation and Entrepreneurship in Higher Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82502*

of disobedience and, to a point, demands higher levels of open-mindedness that allows exploration beyond known knowledge precincts and thus represents some kind of an intellectual and mindset crossover into new intellectual territories such that the familiar becomes strange. The strange can be frightening and intimidating and without some level of tutelage can become a negative energy that is inimical to innovation and entrepreneurship. Without properly handling *Integrate 1*, anxieties and resistance can be generated and could be counterproductive as it could affect the entire innovation and entrepreneurship value-chain. I thus counsel for involvement of highly trained change experts/practitioners to help individuals and teams from faculties and communities to ease into innovation and subsequently into entrepreneurship. Recent studies on faculty cultures show that academic freedom and professional identities are so strongly entrenched that attempts on changing faculty cultures could take years to yield results [12] hence *Integrate 1* is more about letting faculties continue with their work and setting up a unit to make faculty work (research and curriculum) ready and relevant to innovation efforts.

The next level of integration is between innovation hubs and centres of entrepreneurship (*Integrate 2*). Within higher education and as earlier stated, innovation and entrepreneurship assumed discrete locations and development, which resulted in a kind of a strategic schism. This was counterproductive as innovation is the lifeblood of entrepreneurship as creativity is to innovation. As stated earlier, in Scandinavian universities, innovation and entrepreneurship remain located strategically in discrete units and coordination efforts are, at best, very informal and not necessarily mutually reinforcing despite good intentions of senior managers in these units. A similar picture can be painted in South African universities. *Integrate 2* is thus about bringing greater coordination between these two entities in ways that are mutually reinforcing and could increase the value propositions of innovation and entrepreneurship within higher education. *Integrate 2* is thus about linking the design and testing processes of innovation closer to their social impact through scaling and commercialisation, which are entrepreneurship territories. When greater synergistic linkages are established between these two entities then both entities are able to share their process constraints and collectively attempt solutions. There is no point of prototyping and testing what cannot be scaled because eventually efforts of innovation and entrepreneurship are about social impact, that is, creating new or improved value propositions for society so that better human conveniences are developed.

The third level is between entrepreneurship centres and higher education holding companies. In Scandinavian universities, university holding companies are more linked to innovation hubs in lieu of entrepreneurship centres and the CEOs of these holding companies are often executive directors of innovation hubs. My sense is that the role of a holding company whose main purpose is to invest in spinout/start-up companies is mostly linked with scaling up of successful innovation outputs and inclines more within the entrepreneurship sphere; hence, it should rather be a negotiated sphere between both the innovation hubs and entrepreneurship centres so that the board of the holding company should be representative of both entities plus external stakeholders. This approach would also strengthen *Integrate 3* as there will be greater collaboration between the innovation hubs and entrepreneurship centres.

The fourth level is between all these higher education innovation and entrepreneurship activities operating as an integrated whole and the broader developmental agendas of society. The main purpose of any innovation and entrepreneurship endeavour is to make more people economically active, economically independent, lessen inequality and poverty, reduce unemployment and broaden the tax base.

The main purpose of this chapter was to share the study that sought to better understand conditions under which maximum social impact could be derived from activities of faculty, innovation hubs and entrepreneurship centres. Based on

**Figure 1.** *The integrated model for fostering innovation and entrepreneurship in higher education.*

the study of selected higher education institutions in both Scandinavia and South Africa, the emerging perspective is that of integration as holding better prospects as a pattern of evolution towards greater social impact of these higher education entities. Based on these results, I developed an integrated model of innovation and entrepreneurship that could better increase the university capabilities that could lead to greater social impact (see, **Figure 1**). The model is already shaping the policy direction of our university as the value of an integrated approach is increasingly being appreciated.

### **4. Areas for future direction of research**


**157**

**Author details**

Teboho Pitso

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*Address all correspondence to: biki@vut.ac.za

Vaal University of Technology, Vanderbijlpark, South Africa

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

*An Integrated Model for Invigorating Innovation and Entrepreneurship in Higher Education*

I would like to truly express and acknowledge the role of the Vaal University of Technology Research Directorate under the stewardship of Dr. Speech Nelana for the funding of my visit to Scandinavia and this platform. I truly appreciate contribution to this area of scholarship. Ms. Chantelle Sonnekus from the Research Directorate has always believed in me even under trying times and would like to

To the best of my knowledge at the time of writing this chapter, there are no

acknowledge her contribution to this research and scholarship.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82502*

**Acknowledgements**

**Conflict of interest**

known conflict of interests.

*An Integrated Model for Invigorating Innovation and Entrepreneurship in Higher Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82502*

#### **Acknowledgements**

I would like to truly express and acknowledge the role of the Vaal University of Technology Research Directorate under the stewardship of Dr. Speech Nelana for the funding of my visit to Scandinavia and this platform. I truly appreciate contribution to this area of scholarship. Ms. Chantelle Sonnekus from the Research Directorate has always believed in me even under trying times and would like to acknowledge her contribution to this research and scholarship.

### **Conflict of interest**

To the best of my knowledge at the time of writing this chapter, there are no known conflict of interests.

#### **Author details**

Teboho Pitso Vaal University of Technology, Vanderbijlpark, South Africa

\*Address all correspondence to: biki@vut.ac.za

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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[3] Sarasvathy S. Effectuation: Elements of Entrepreneurial Expertise: New Horizons in Entrepreneurship. Massachusetts: Edward Elgar; 2008

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[5] Corbin J, Strauss A. Basics of Qualitative Research Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory. USA: John State University; 1990

[6] Hagg G. Experiential Entrepreneurship Education: Reflective Thinking as a Counterbalance to Action for Developing Entrepreneurial Knowledge. Lund, SE: Lund University Press; 2017

[7] Creswell J. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches. 2nd ed. London: Sage Publications; 2003

[8] Weib P, Kolmel B, Bulander R. Digital service innovation and smart technologies: Developing digital strategies based on Industry 4.0 and product service systems for the renewal energy sector. In: Proceedings of the 26th Annual RESER Conference. Italy: University of Naples Feduriico II; 2016

[9] Daugherty P, Wilson J. Human + Machine Interaction: Reimagining Work in the Age of AI. Massachusetts: Harvard Business Review Press; 2018

[10] Ries R. The Lean Start-up: How constant Innovation Creates Radically Successful Businesses. UK: Penguin Random House; 2011

[11] Gerluch M, Farb B, Ravelle W, Luis A, Amaral M. A robust data-driven approach identifies four personality types across four large datasets. Nature Human Behaviour. 2018;**1**:1-7

[12] Swanger D. Innovation in Higher Education: Can Colleges Really Change? New York: Fulton-Montgomery Community College Press; 2016

[13] Becher T, Trowler P. Academic Tribes and Territories. Buckingham, UK: Society for Research into Higher Education and Open University Press; 2001

[14] Martensson K, Roxa T, Olsson T. Developing a quality culture through the scholarship of teaching and learning. Higher Education Research and Development. 2011;**30**(1):51-62

[15] Nosich P. Learning to Think Things Through. A Practical Guide to Critical Thinking across the Curriculum. New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall; 2006

[16] Pitso T. The creativity model for fostering greater synergy between engineering classroom and industrial activities for the advancement of students creativity and innovation. International Journal of Engineering Education. 2013;**29**(5):1-8

[17] Cohen L, Manion L, Morrison K. Research Methods in Education. New York: Routledge; 2000

### *Edited by Dominique Parrish and Joanne Joyce-McCoach*

Higher education contributes to the development of countries and their competitiveness in a global marketplace. However, to remain relevant and meet the demands of an ever-changing world, institutions and their operations must progress in unison with the changing world in which they function. Innovation can play a critical role in transforming and advancing practice and therein address socio-economic, organizational, operational and social challenges. The complexity and scope of higher education opens up the possibilities and potential for innovations to transpire in diverse settings and contexts. This book is a collection of easy-to-follow, vignettebased innovations that have transformed or advanced practice and in doing so contributed to ensuring the relevance and value of higher education in a continuously changing world.

Published in London, UK © 2020 IntechOpen © PashaIgnatov / iStock

Innovations in Higher Education - Cases on Transforming and Advancing Practice

Innovations in

Higher Education

Cases on Transforming and Advancing Practice

*Edited by Dominique Parrish* 

*and Joanne Joyce-McCoach*