**15.1 Cutaneous myiasis**

dogs and cats. One species (*Cuterebra emasculator*) Fitch parasitizes the external reproductive organs of rodents and may have an effect on population numbers [94]. Sheep bots or head grub *Oestrus ovis* L., (**Figure 24**) of family Oestridae, is a bot which commonly enters the sinuses nasal and passages of sheep. Adults of fly place live larvae over nasal passages; from here these make their approach to frontal sinuses and attach themselves with mucus membranes. These persist for some months in this location and are sneezed out or ultimately fall out and pupate in soil. The pupae period lasts for around 3–6 weeks. When host is infested; generally there is a pus-filled ejection from the nostrils, resulting shaking of head vigorously, less appetite and grating of teeth by animal. Maximum of cases do not produce distinct clinical symbols even though expiry of animal may take place within a week after intensified signs. The indirect damages and serious situations causing from invasion

Horse stomach bot *Gasterophilus* sp., in the family Oestridae are several species of this parasite each of which has slightly different locations of attachment, primarily affecting horses and donkeys. The more common horse bot fly *Gasterophilus intestinalis* (DeGeer) (**Figure 25**) is an internal parasite of gastrointestinal tract, while other are *Gasterophilus nasalis* (Linnaeus) nose bot fly and *Gasterophilus haemorrhoidalis* (Linnaeus) throat bot fly. In mid-summer, adult flies are frequent and females lay eggs on hairs habitually on the belly, forelegs, inside the knees and flanks. When the horse licks these body parts, rubbing and moisture cause eggs to hatch. Larvae transfer to mucus membrane of lips and tongue ultimately creating their way to stomach or other places. At this point, these continue to attach till subsequent spring, as soon as these separate, pass out through feces, fall to ground and pupate. Some indirect and direct pathological modifications are linked to invasion. Modest invasions by bots can contribute with no apparent symbols, but strong invasions may be shown through intestinal syndromes. Probable interfering with ingestion and immersion of nutrients, irritation of mucus membranes, and obstacle

are possibly the best reasons for starting treatment [95].

*Life Cycle and Development of Diptera*

of pyloric sphincter are very common [96].

**Figure 25.**

**38**

**Figure 24.**

Gasterophilus intestinalis *larva.*

*Sheep bot fly. Immature and mature larvae.*

Genus *Cochliomyia* in the family Calliphoridae includes blow fly *Cochliomyia hominivorax* (Coquerel) well-known as primary screwworm (**Figure 26**) for the reason that this larva creates myiasis and forages on live tissue producing pocket-like deep lesions in skin that might be enough harmful to host animals. But, *Cochliomyia macellaria* (Fabricius) is famous as secondary screwworm since its larva creates myiasis, however nourish on only necrotic tissue. Forensically, that species is significant since it is habitually linked o dead bodies and carcasses. All species in the family Calliphoridae have bristles on their merones, plumose arista and welldeveloped calypters. Both *C. macellaria* and *C. hominivorax* are metallic green to bluish green in major coloration and three black longitudinal stripes (vittae) on the notum of the thorax. The species *C. macellaria* has pale setulae on the fronto-orbital plate outside the row of frontal bristles, while *C. hominivorax* has dark setulae. The larvae of both *C. macellaria* and *C. hominivorax* have cylindrical bodies tapering anteriorly with 10 or more robust spines around the spiracular area and bands of small spines on each segment. The *C. hominivorax* larvae have distinctly pigmented tracheal trunks, while *C. macellaria* larvae do not have pigmented tracheal trunks, but bear spines in a V shape on the anal protuberance [97].

The gravid female screw worm fly is captivated on living animals to oviposition sites. These sites are any discharges, bites, wounds, etc., which may take place. For egg deposition, the naval of newborn animals is a common site. The eggs are of cream color, hatch in 24 hours and larvae enter the wound and begin feeding. The larvae burrow into tissue, enlarging the wound that cause severe pain to the host. Animals smaller than rabbits, usually do not survive due to infestations. Larger animals may surrender to repeated infestation or if larvae penetrate blood vessels. Death is usually caused by toxemia and or septicemia from bacterial invasion of the wound. After 5–7 days, the larvae drop, burrow into the first layer of topsoil and begin their pupation. This stage can last from 7 days at a warm temperature to as long as 2 months if the weather is much colder. After emerging from the pupa adult flies live around 2–3 weeks. Once the infestation commences, a dark brown or reddish-brown discharge begins leaking from the wound, sometimes accompanied by an unpleasant smell as the flesh begins to decay both in livestock and human victims [98].

These are various important species of parasites and necrotic tissue feeders since they are common and capable to parasitize abrasions and wounds on animals. Blow fly strike is multiparty, such as on sheep and some other animals. Altogether, these

**Figure 26.** Cochliomyia hominivorax*. (a) Adult, (b) Larva.*

are non-live tissue feeders and larvae mature in decomposing organic material. Identity of larvae is determined by morphologic features of the spiracle openings. In various cases, distinction from primary screwworm is of significance. Some species of blowflies are vital in occurrence of 'Limber-neck' or avian botulism. Epidemics are shared in both captive and free-ranging birds. Deceased birds aid as a food source of growing maggots that serve as resources of food and infection for other birds.

#### **15.2 Treatments**

Different treatments for controlling of invasions are available based on the dipterans circumstances and the parasite involved. Adults of Diptera are usually controlled by application of spray products such as pyrethrins and malathion, applied to premises and done directly at adult flies. Larvae of flies can be managed by different means liable to their location. Maximum myiasis creating larvae are controlled effectively with Ivermectin in the course of their migratory stage of life cycle. Many organophosphates (topical, sprays, etc.) are available as well. The programing of treatment can be imperative as killing of migrating larvae at specific time and location in the body can cause in tissue reactions and pathologic changes.

Furthermore, its rearing brings several collateral benefits, for example reducing the smell of decaying organic matter or the production of biofertilizer. Black fly larvae are capable to transform nutrients from plants, residues and other agricultural by-products into compounds that are digestible by monogastric animals. Such information exposes new opportunities for future research in cosmetic and pharmacological approaches to discover novel molecules of interests [99, 100].

Dipteran insects are endopterygotes that go through an essential metamorphosis. The ownership of a single pair of complete wings differentiates maximum of true

flies from other insects having the word 'fly' in their names (whiteflies, scorpionflies, hangingflies, caddisflies and butterflies). They belong to the Mecopterida, alongside the Mecoptera. On the other hand, some true flies such as louse flies (Hippoboscidae) have been converted to secondarily wingless. The earliest fly fossils found so far are from the Triassic period [geologic period and system which spans 50.6 million years from the end of the Permian period 251.9 million years ago (Mya), to the beginning of the Jurassic period 201.3 (Mya)], about 240 million years ago. Phylogenetic analysis suggests that flies originated in the Permian period [geologic period and system, which spans 47 million years from the end of the Carboniferous period 298.9 million years ago (Mya), to the beginning of the Triassic period 251.902 (Mya)], about 260 million years ago. Diptera belongs to panorpoid complex that consists of Trichoptera (caddisflies), Mecoptera (scorpionflies), Siphonaptera (fleas), Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) and Diptera (true flies). The whole are thought to have grown as of an ancestor, which existed in moss, and four-winged insects that look like crane flies and have been well-maintained as fossils in Permian deposits, rocks set down between 299 million and 251 million years before. Strata of the Lower Jurassic System (from about 201 million to 174 million years back) comprise several true midges. Initial Brachycera initiated to be visible in the Mesozoic Era (about 252 million–66 million years past). Cyclorrhapha seemed in the Cretaceous period (145 million–66 million years back). By the finish of the Eocene Epoch, certain 34 million years before, maximum new families of flies have been developed. Flies in copal and amber dated to the Oligocene Epoch (about 34 million–23 million years past) are related to living genera. A determined phylogeny for flies delivers a background for developmental, genomic and evolutionary homework by facilitating assessments across model organisms. Up till now, recent research has advocated that fly relations have been out of sight by manifold episodes of fast diversification. A phylogenomic estimate of fly relations based on morphology and molecules has been delivered from 149 of 157 families, comprising 30 kb from complete mitochondrial genomes and 14 nuclear

**17. Evolution and paleontology**

Lucilia sericata*. (a) Adult, (b) Larvae.*

*Typical Flies: Natural History, Lifestyle and Diversity of Diptera*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91391*

**Figure 27.**

**41**

Long term control of midges and gnats requires trying to eliminate breeding sites such as wet areas or standing water. However, this type of control is not practical at large scale. Often, water should not be treated with any insecticide in an attempt to control gnats. The potential harm to the environment and wildlife is too great to justify an application for a temporary nuisance.

Because larvae require oxygen, blocking the skin opening of host may cause them to leave or at least come closer to the surface. When they are closer to the surface, it is easier to pull them out with forceps. Sometimes physicians inject an anesthetic into the skin, make a small incision and pull the larva out with forceps. The drug ivermectin, given by mouth or applied to the skin, also may kill the larva or cause it to leave host.

At certain times of the year, when livestock are most vulnerable to flies (castration, birthing, etc.,) if possible their daily inspections should be done. As with many things, prevention is the best cure and any open wound, even so small as a blister, is a potential infestation site, which should be treated accordingly with approved pesticides. In addition to the continued release of sterile males, a screwworm adult suppression system is now used, which involves a chemical attractant with dichlorvos.

#### **16.** *Dipteran* **usage in industries**

Insects harbor high potential for nonfood usage as antimicrobial effects, additives and even cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. Recently, farming insects have been emerged as a new source of protein and lipid production. Investigations have been performed for proteomics and lipidomics on black soldier fly *Hermetia illucens* (Linnaeus) of family *Stratiomyidae* (**Figure 27**) and blow fly (*L. sericata*) larvae. The result displayed great levels of lauric acid in soldier fly that after biological decomposition could even increase. Proteomics study exposed the presence of proteins like collagen with a cosmetic interest, and proteins with antimicrobial properties such as phenoloxidases and enzymatic actions, like trypsin and amylase. Black fly larvae can be used as fresh, frozen, freeze-dried or meals for feeding of animal proteins to fish and poultry. The substitution of 10% soybean meal by the same amount of fly larvae meal improves weight gain, conversion rate and carcass yield. Black fly can be a valuable candidate for mass rearing on agro-industrial wastes or by-products.

**Figure 27.** Lucilia sericata*. (a) Adult, (b) Larvae.*

are non-live tissue feeders and larvae mature in decomposing organic material. Identity of larvae is determined by morphologic features of the spiracle openings. In various cases, distinction from primary screwworm is of significance. Some species of blowflies are vital in occurrence of 'Limber-neck' or avian botulism. Epidemics are shared in both captive and free-ranging birds. Deceased birds aid as a food source of growing maggots that serve as resources of food and infection for other birds.

Different treatments for controlling of invasions are available based on the dipterans circumstances and the parasite involved. Adults of Diptera are usually controlled by application of spray products such as pyrethrins and malathion, applied to premises and done directly at adult flies. Larvae of flies can be managed by different means liable to their location. Maximum myiasis creating larvae are controlled effectively with Ivermectin in the course of their migratory stage of life cycle. Many organophosphates (topical, sprays, etc.) are available as well. The programing of treatment can be imperative as killing of migrating larvae at specific time and location in the body can cause in tissue reactions and pathologic changes. Long term control of midges and gnats requires trying to eliminate breeding sites such as wet areas or standing water. However, this type of control is not practical at large scale. Often, water should not be treated with any insecticide in an attempt to control gnats. The potential harm to the environment and wildlife

Because larvae require oxygen, blocking the skin opening of host may cause them to leave or at least come closer to the surface. When they are closer to the surface, it is easier to pull them out with forceps. Sometimes physicians inject an anesthetic into the skin, make a small incision and pull the larva out with forceps. The drug ivermectin, given by mouth or applied to the skin, also may kill the

At certain times of the year, when livestock are most vulnerable to flies (castration, birthing, etc.,) if possible their daily inspections should be done. As with many things, prevention is the best cure and any open wound, even so small as a blister, is a potential infestation site, which should be treated accordingly with approved pesticides. In addition to the continued release of sterile males, a screwworm adult suppression system is now used, which involves a chemical attractant with

Insects harbor high potential for nonfood usage as antimicrobial effects, additives and even cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. Recently, farming insects have been emerged as a new source of protein and lipid production. Investigations have been performed for proteomics and lipidomics on black soldier fly *Hermetia illucens* (Linnaeus) of family *Stratiomyidae* (**Figure 27**) and blow fly (*L. sericata*) larvae. The result displayed great levels of lauric acid in soldier fly that after biological decomposition could even increase. Proteomics study exposed the presence of proteins like collagen with a cosmetic interest, and proteins with antimicrobial properties such as phenoloxidases and enzymatic actions, like trypsin and amylase. Black fly larvae can be used as fresh, frozen, freeze-dried or meals for feeding of animal proteins to fish and poultry. The substitution of 10% soybean meal by the same amount of fly larvae meal improves weight gain, conversion rate and carcass yield. Black fly can be a valuable candidate for mass rearing on agro-industrial wastes or by-products.

is too great to justify an application for a temporary nuisance.

**15.2 Treatments**

*Life Cycle and Development of Diptera*

larva or cause it to leave host.

**16.** *Dipteran* **usage in industries**

dichlorvos.

**40**

Furthermore, its rearing brings several collateral benefits, for example reducing the smell of decaying organic matter or the production of biofertilizer. Black fly larvae are capable to transform nutrients from plants, residues and other agricultural by-products into compounds that are digestible by monogastric animals. Such information exposes new opportunities for future research in cosmetic and pharmacological approaches to discover novel molecules of interests [99, 100].
