**2.4 Perspectives of integrated pest management (IPM) applied to population control of vectors**

Diseases transmitted by *Ae. aegypti* are one of the major public health problems in many regions of the world; hence, their control is import. Thousands of years of natural selection increased vectoral competence and even species survival to the cultural habits of populations/communities. Additionally, lack of health education, high availability of breeding sites in domiciles and peri-domestic areas, and the absence in many places of sanitary infrastructure, among other factors, contribute to increase the survival and reproduction success of mosquito species and prevent their population control.

Despite of reports and dissemination of the polyvalent vaccine for dengue, chikungunya and zika that may be an option to reduce and control these diseases, this use can take up to 10 years for successful control, according to the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (Fiocruz, RJ), due to the conditions required to guarantee efficiency and biosafety. There are four dengue serotypes and the number of serotypes for the other two viruses is still unknown, and must also be combated efficiently. For this reason, there is enormous dependence on chemical control and the need for eliminating *Ae. aegypti* breeding sites to reduce the mosquito population and consequently, the incidence of the diseases. The vaccine may be an important part for dengue control; however, other fronts should also be considered, such as health education, continuous epidemiological surveillance, infrastructure improvements and social responsibility by governments.

**97**

*The Yellow Fever Mosquito* Aedes aegypti *(Linnaeus): The Breeding Sites*

Chemical methods are intensively used for adult insect vector population control. Non-implementation of preventive control strategies is in part, responsible for the occurrence and constant aggravation of epidemic outbreaks during hot periods

The difficulty for *Ae. aegypti* population control centers are on the adaptive process, species resilience and acquired resistance to conventional insecticides. The first report of resistance occurred with organophosphates followed by pyrethroids. Over time, other resistance records have been reported to organophosphates, pyrethroids and carbamates in regions with intense mosquito occurrence. Before the year 2000, resistance to the organophosphate insecticides Temephos used as a larvicide and Malathion used to combat adult mosquitoes, was detected in some

Reproductive capacity favors the emergence of insecticide-resistant individuals used for vector control, because resistance varies with the time of use and concentration of the products that act at specific sites of toxicity. Medeiros [55] presents four categories of enzymatic activity profiles: (1) greater activities in the adult stage; (2) greater activities in the larval stage (esterases "α-EST" and "β-EST"); (3) activities that increase during each stage evaluated (mixed function oxidase [MFO]); and (4) activities that tend to increase in the larval stage and decrease in the first days of adult life (DVA) [esterase "ρNPA" and glutathione S-transferase (GST)]. Biochemical assays with larvae and adults from field populations revealed alterations in acetylcholine esterase (AChE) and other esterases at the larval stage, changes in GST more restricted to the adult stage, and MFO alterations have been

The results from these experiments allow detailed evaluation of the resistance mechanisms in different vector populations and can be used for the development and choice of insecticides more suitable for *Aedes* spp. control. Guirado and Bicudo [56] showed some aspects of population control and resistance to insecticides in *Ae. aegypti* and concluded that mosquito population control, as long as no more modern vaccines or genetic techniques of epidemiological control are available, is exclusively dependent on chemical control and human population awareness for

The available insecticide resistance studies demonstrate that resistance is due to three main mechanisms: (a) reduction of insecticide penetration due to changes in the insect cuticle; (b) increased metabolism of the insecticide by the action of esterases, mono-oxygenases or glutathione-transferases that inactivate the molecule; and (c) modification of the insecticide's biological target. The literature also shows a behavioral resistance mechanism, where insects avoid contact with sites that contain the toxic substance used for control. The results of insecticide resistance and loss of control efficacy indicate the need for continuous monitoring of *Ae. aegypti* susceptibility to insecticides and the use of chemical control in more rational ways. These smarter considerations include analysis of insect populations and their resistance, use of integrated management techniques and different methodologies and/or control products, in addition to continuous monitoring during all periods of

The availability of water by precipitation or accumulation at home and breeding grounds is an important factor for the reproductive process and establishment of

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88852*

in Brazil.

Brazilian municipalities.

limited to the two vector stages.

breeding site elimination.

the year by endemic control programs.

**2.5 Attractiveness to breeding sites from water quality**

*2.4.1 Mechanisms of resistance to chemical insecticides*
