**2. Phylogeny of Diptera**

The monophyly of Diptera is generally accepted and exceedingly well supported, but there is still no consensus as to the resolution of this major insect group in higher level monophyletic units. Indeed, there are several very speciesrich dipterous taxa which represent well corroborated monophyla: Brachycera, Cyclorrhapha (as Muscomorpha); and Schizophora. The phylogenetic relationships of these groups are presented here by considering the Diptera tree on a base-to-top approach.

#### **2.1 The order Diptera**

Diptera is the fourth insect order (after Coleoptera, Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera) in terms of number of known and described species [12]. The order contains about 195,000 named species in approximately 190 families, with thousands of species of agricultural, medical and veterinary importance [13]. Diptera is considered to be the most ecologically diverse order of the Insecta class [14]. The dietary composition of Diptera flies basically consists of a wide range of hemophagy and parasitism (both endo- and ecto-parasitism) of vertebrates and invertebrates, and several forms of mycetophages, saprophages and phytophages [15]. Most species of this order are known to be present in almost all zoogeographic areas of the world. They have proved to be well adaptable to a wide diversity of habitats; they can survive in almost every habitable environment on the earth, except the ocean depths [16].

Dipterans are holometabolous endopterygote insects, undergoing complete metamorphosis, in which a pupal stage intervenes between the larval and adult instars. Immature stages are morphologically different from adult forms, and often

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**Figure 1.**

*Key features of Diptera flies.*

*Phylogeny and Functional Morphology of Diptera (Flies) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90421*

cuticle covering the pupa) during the final larval instar stage.

Within the Cyclorrapha, the division Schizophora comprised the largest tertiary radiation of insects, with approximately 50,000 species. The suborder Schizophora has distinctive morphological features such as the balloon-like membraneous sac which usually ruptures the puparium during the emergence of the adult. This balloon-like structure is referred to as the ptilinum, which may invaginate into

have contrasting habitat and food requirements [17]. Although some families, species, and sometimes members of one sex of flies are apterous (possess no wings), Diptera as a whole can be characterized for possessing only two functional front wings, and a pair of vestigial knob (named halters) behind the wings, that function as organs of equilibrium, helping the flies to remain stable during flight (**Figure 1**). Two suborders can be recognized in Diptera; Nematocera and Brachycera (**Figure 2**). The Nematocerans include cane flies, midges, mosquitoes and gnats, which have thin multisegmented antennal flagella. Larval forms generally have conspicuous head, and pass through more than three instars before reaching the pupal stage. The Brachycerans include higher flies such as hover flies and dung flies, which possess shorter and thicker antennae with fewer flagellomer. These have robust bodies with legs shorter than the Nematocerans. Brachyceran larval forms have the posterior portion of the head capsule desclerotized and extended into the thorax. The phylogenic relationships between these two suborders are still controversial, although Nematocera is suspected to be paraphyletic [18]. The suborder Brachycera consists of the infraorder Muscomorpha (=Cyclorrapha) which encompasses species with larval forms commonly referred to as maggots. These larval forms are dominantly saprophagous, and are morphologically soft bodied with mouthparts modified into sclerotized hooks for feeding into host substrates. In almost all Cyclorraphan flies, pupation is internal, occurring within the puparium (a tanned

#### *Phylogeny and Functional Morphology of Diptera (Flies) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90421*

*Life Cycle and Development of Diptera*

elements for sponging liquids.

**2. Phylogeny of Diptera**

approach.

**2.1 The order Diptera**

progress in understanding these group of insects [11].

Diptera is one of the most species-rich, anatomically varied and ecologically innovative orders of insects, making up 10–15% of known animal species. An estimated 195,000 species of Diptera have been described [7, 8], however, the actual total number of extant fly species is many times that number. The living dipteran species have been classified into about 17,000 genera, 190 families, 28–39 superfamilies and 12–15 infraorders, and around 3100 fossil species have been described [9]. The monophyly of Diptera is well established with a number of complex morphological modifications recognized as synapomorphies, including the transformation of the hindwings into halteres, and the development of the mouthpart

Recent research into the phylogeny of Diptera has been characterized by more sophisticated and consistent methods of analyzing traditional phylogenetic and morphological characters [10], and the inclusion of ever larger volumes of molecular sequence data. The greatest advances in dipteran phylogenetics over the past few decades have been made by a relatively small number of authors attempting to synthesize phylogenetic data across large components of it, by the use of quantitative methods. A clearer understanding of the bioecological processes of Diptera would necessitate a more robust estimate of their phylogenetics and functional morphology, which will serve as an organizing framework for fly classification and nomenclature and as the context for understanding the pattern of evolutionary change, tracing the origin of morphological and ecological adaptations, and documenting diversification itself. In this chapter, the current status of Diptera phylogenetics and functional morphology is reviewed with emphasis on newer contributions and

The monophyly of Diptera is generally accepted and exceedingly well supported, but there is still no consensus as to the resolution of this major insect group in higher level monophyletic units. Indeed, there are several very speciesrich dipterous taxa which represent well corroborated monophyla: Brachycera, Cyclorrhapha (as Muscomorpha); and Schizophora. The phylogenetic relationships of these groups are presented here by considering the Diptera tree on a base-to-top

Diptera is the fourth insect order (after Coleoptera, Lepidoptera and

Hymenoptera) in terms of number of known and described species [12]. The order contains about 195,000 named species in approximately 190 families, with thousands of species of agricultural, medical and veterinary importance [13]. Diptera is considered to be the most ecologically diverse order of the Insecta class [14]. The dietary composition of Diptera flies basically consists of a wide range of hemophagy and parasitism (both endo- and ecto-parasitism) of vertebrates and invertebrates, and several forms of mycetophages, saprophages and phytophages [15]. Most species of this order are known to be present in almost all zoogeographic areas of the world. They have proved to be well adaptable to a wide diversity of habitats; they can survive in almost every habitable environment on the earth, except the ocean

Dipterans are holometabolous endopterygote insects, undergoing complete metamorphosis, in which a pupal stage intervenes between the larval and adult instars. Immature stages are morphologically different from adult forms, and often

**146**

depths [16].

have contrasting habitat and food requirements [17]. Although some families, species, and sometimes members of one sex of flies are apterous (possess no wings), Diptera as a whole can be characterized for possessing only two functional front wings, and a pair of vestigial knob (named halters) behind the wings, that function as organs of equilibrium, helping the flies to remain stable during flight (**Figure 1**).

Two suborders can be recognized in Diptera; Nematocera and Brachycera (**Figure 2**). The Nematocerans include cane flies, midges, mosquitoes and gnats, which have thin multisegmented antennal flagella. Larval forms generally have conspicuous head, and pass through more than three instars before reaching the pupal stage. The Brachycerans include higher flies such as hover flies and dung flies, which possess shorter and thicker antennae with fewer flagellomer. These have robust bodies with legs shorter than the Nematocerans. Brachyceran larval forms have the posterior portion of the head capsule desclerotized and extended into the thorax.

The phylogenic relationships between these two suborders are still controversial, although Nematocera is suspected to be paraphyletic [18]. The suborder Brachycera consists of the infraorder Muscomorpha (=Cyclorrapha) which encompasses species with larval forms commonly referred to as maggots. These larval forms are dominantly saprophagous, and are morphologically soft bodied with mouthparts modified into sclerotized hooks for feeding into host substrates. In almost all Cyclorraphan flies, pupation is internal, occurring within the puparium (a tanned cuticle covering the pupa) during the final larval instar stage.

Within the Cyclorrapha, the division Schizophora comprised the largest tertiary radiation of insects, with approximately 50,000 species. The suborder Schizophora has distinctive morphological features such as the balloon-like membraneous sac which usually ruptures the puparium during the emergence of the adult. This balloon-like structure is referred to as the ptilinum, which may invaginate into

**Figure 1.** *Key features of Diptera flies.*

the capsule of the head, resulting in the face of the adult being bordered by a form ptilinal fissure. The section Acalyptratae is usually found within the Schizophora suborder especially species of the group that do not possess any calypters (lobe-like structures at the extreme basal part of the wings). Members of Acalyptratae belong to families in the superfamily Tephritoidea.
