**2.2 The superfamily Tephritoidea**

The superfamily Tephritoidea includes eight known families of acalypterate flies: Lonchaeidae, Piophilidae, Pallopteridae, Richardiidae, Ulidiidae, Plastytomatidae, Pyrgotidae, and Tephritidae [19] (**Figure 3**). Lonchaeidae are commonly known as lance flies. There are about 500 described species in 9 genera. Lonchaeids are generally small, robustly built flies with blue-black or metallic bodies. Lonchaeid larvae are secondary invaders of diseased bodies or injured plant tissues, adults have the rare habit among acalypterate flies to form swarms for mating, and are found mostly in wooded areas.

The Piophilidae mostly includes scavengers in fungi and animal products, with the family getting its common name, skipper flies, due to the fact that larvae tend to jump during their last instars before pupation. Pallopteridae or flutter-winged flies, is a little-known small family, with larvae of some species feeding in flower buds, or occurring as predators of wood borer larvae under the bark of fallen trees. Over 50 species in 15 genera are found in the temperate region of the Northern and Southern hemispheres. The Richardiidae is a small family that consists of 30 genera and 175 species. It is a little-known family whose adults can be captured in fruitbaited traps; the few larval feeding records of this family suggest that these flies feed on rotten vegetable matter. Most adults generally have conspicuously pictured wings, often with metallic-blue or greenish colors on bodies and legs, and a typical tephritoid ovipositor.

Ulidiidae and Plastytomatidae are both pictured-winged flies. The Plastytomatids are sometimes referred to as signal flies. Both families are abundant in the tropics, occurring in decaying tissues but also sometimes feeding on plants

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with a few species considered as pests. Most species share with the Tephritidae by an unusual elongated posteroapical projection of the anal cell in the wing, but can be differentiated by the smooth-curving subcostal veins. Pyrgotidae comprises medium to large flies with considerable coloring of the wings. They are mostly nocturnal in habit. Unlike other tephritoids, Pyrgotids are endoparasitoids; the females pursue scarab beetles in flight, laying their eggs on the back of the beetle, under the elytra and beyond host's reach. Developing larvae enter the cavity of the beetle and eventually kill the host before pupation. Phylogenetic relationships among tephri-

Tephritidae (true flies) is a very large family, which includes more than 4000 described species. Worldwide members of this family are among the most economically crucial insect pests of edible fruits and vegetables [20, 21]. The family can be characterized by an elaborate wing patterns and the possession of a telescopic ovipositor by the female. Tephritidae is known as one of the most ecologically diverse families of Diptera, and due to its size, it has been difficult to synthesize phylogenetic relationships among higher groups of the family [22]. Phylogenetic relationships of important genera of the family have been provided by [23]. Despite the lack of a conclusive phylogeny, the study of Tephritidae can be approached by looking separately at five different subfamilies; Blepharoneurinae, Phytalmiinae, Trypetinae,

Dacinae and Tephritinae, all of which are well represented in the tropics.

The subfamily Blepharoneurinae represents flies of the tropical group, and composed of five main genera; *Ceratodacus, Problepharoneura, Blepharoneura, Baryglossa,* and *Hexaptilona.* The first three genera consist of species of the neotropical and afrotropical regions, while the last two genera include species of the palearctic regions. Although this subfamily is composed of a reduced number of described species, recent scrutiny on flies in the genus *Blepharoneura* suggests that there may be more than 200 species. This subfamily is interesting as the group appears to be one of the oldest lineages in Tephritidae. All the genera for which biological data have been gathered feed on plants and parts of plants in the family Cucurbitaceae. There is suggestive evidence that these flies have undergone rapid processes of

toid families have been reviewed by previous authors.

**2.3 The family Tephritidae**

*Composition of the superfamily Tephritoidea.*

**Figure 3.**

#### **Figure 3.**

*Life Cycle and Development of Diptera*

to families in the superfamily Tephritoidea.

**2.2 The superfamily Tephritoidea**

mostly in wooded areas.

**Figure 2.**

*Phylogenic tree of Diptera.*

tephritoid ovipositor.

the capsule of the head, resulting in the face of the adult being bordered by a form ptilinal fissure. The section Acalyptratae is usually found within the Schizophora suborder especially species of the group that do not possess any calypters (lobe-like structures at the extreme basal part of the wings). Members of Acalyptratae belong

The superfamily Tephritoidea includes eight known families of acalypterate flies: Lonchaeidae, Piophilidae, Pallopteridae, Richardiidae, Ulidiidae, Plastytomatidae, Pyrgotidae, and Tephritidae [19] (**Figure 3**). Lonchaeidae are commonly known as lance flies. There are about 500 described species in 9 genera. Lonchaeids are generally small, robustly built flies with blue-black or metallic bodies. Lonchaeid larvae are secondary invaders of diseased bodies or injured plant tissues, adults have the rare habit among acalypterate flies to form swarms for mating, and are found

The Piophilidae mostly includes scavengers in fungi and animal products, with the family getting its common name, skipper flies, due to the fact that larvae tend to jump during their last instars before pupation. Pallopteridae or flutter-winged flies, is a little-known small family, with larvae of some species feeding in flower buds, or occurring as predators of wood borer larvae under the bark of fallen trees. Over 50 species in 15 genera are found in the temperate region of the Northern and Southern hemispheres. The Richardiidae is a small family that consists of 30 genera and 175 species. It is a little-known family whose adults can be captured in fruitbaited traps; the few larval feeding records of this family suggest that these flies feed on rotten vegetable matter. Most adults generally have conspicuously pictured wings, often with metallic-blue or greenish colors on bodies and legs, and a typical

Ulidiidae and Plastytomatidae are both pictured-winged flies. The

Plastytomatids are sometimes referred to as signal flies. Both families are abundant in the tropics, occurring in decaying tissues but also sometimes feeding on plants

**148**

*Composition of the superfamily Tephritoidea.*

with a few species considered as pests. Most species share with the Tephritidae by an unusual elongated posteroapical projection of the anal cell in the wing, but can be differentiated by the smooth-curving subcostal veins. Pyrgotidae comprises medium to large flies with considerable coloring of the wings. They are mostly nocturnal in habit. Unlike other tephritoids, Pyrgotids are endoparasitoids; the females pursue scarab beetles in flight, laying their eggs on the back of the beetle, under the elytra and beyond host's reach. Developing larvae enter the cavity of the beetle and eventually kill the host before pupation. Phylogenetic relationships among tephritoid families have been reviewed by previous authors.
