**14.2 Horse flies and deer flies (tabanids)**

The most important groups are the genera *Tabanus* (horseflies, greenheads), *Chrysops* (deerflies, mangrove flies) and *Haematopota* (clegs or stouts). They are of minor importance as vectors of diseases, such as tularemia and certain arboviral diseases. In West and Central Africa, some species of the genus *Chrysops* transmit the filarial parasite *Loa loa*. Horse flies can transmit anthrax, anaplasmosis, some trypanosomes, tularemia and some helminthes infections. The tabanids are robust and strong fliers and they measure about 5–25 mm in length. They have a big head with apparent eyes that show iridescent colors. The mouthparts are big and pointed downward. The wings are clear entirely or have brownish color or spots. Wings are folded flat along the body when insect is at res. Females horse fly *Tabanus*

**Figure 13.** Mansonia titillans*.*

**Figure 14.** Tabanus trimaculatus*.*

*Typical Flies: Natural History, Lifestyle and Diversity of Diptera DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91391*

*trimaculatus* Palisot de Beauvois (**Figure 14**) have scissor-like mouthparts that aim to cut the skin and then lap up the blood. Deer fly *Chrysops callidus* Osten Sacken (**Figure 15**), is blood sucking insects of humans and cattle. They are large flies with large brightly-colored compound eyes, and large clear wings with dark bands. They are in habit of hovering around the head and shoulders and biting people, and known for following moving animals and repeatedly buzzing the head [79].

This family (Tabanidae) comprises deer flies and horse flies. Still, the life cycle of several species is unfamiliar, however in those that are identified, there is often an aquatic phase in the cycle. Eggs are placed in moist areas including pools and streams. In about a week, larvae hatch out and stay in the bottom of pools habitually burrowing into mud where these nourish on various forms of biological material and often surviving as micro-predators. Several species hibernate in winter as larval stage, however in spring; larvae molt to a pupal stage (lasting for 2–3 weeks) and then adults emerge. The female tabanids are only blood suckers. Mouth parts in many species are fairly prominent and role like a spear otherwise stylet to puncture an area, and usually causing loss of blood afterward the fly has done nourishing. An adult female tabanid may take away nearly 0.2 cc of blood for each nourishing. Their bites are deep and painful, and the wounds often continue to bleed after the flies have left host [80].

#### **14.3 Stable fly** *Stomoxys calcitrans* **(Linnaeus)**

Stable flies (*Stomoxys*) occur around the world. Stable flies are dark, mediumsized flies, 5–6 mm in length, resembling house flies in shape and size, and are also

**Figure 15.** Chrysops callidus*.*

behind spiracle on the sideways of thorax. Some species are important as vectors of the helminthes that cause brugian filariasis. Their body, including the legs and wings, is covered with dark-brown and pale scales, giving it a rather dusty appearance, as if sprinkled with salt and pepper. The larvae of *Mansonia* species occur in permanent waters in association with aquatic plants that have roots used for attachment by the siphon to obtain oxygen for respiration from air cells. Mosquito *Mansonia titillans* (Walker) (**Figure 13**) is known to transmit various arboviruses, including Venezuelan equine encephalitis, while species *Mansonia dyari* Belkin, Heinemann and Page should

A number of control approaches are employed against every stage in the life cycle of mosquito. Difficulties exist with the whole forms of control options and their continuous applications are generally required to produce any effect. Different forms of natural control are currently being trialed with personal protection of human, and selecting and breeding of livestock species, which are more resistant to

The most important groups are the genera *Tabanus* (horseflies, greenheads), *Chrysops* (deerflies, mangrove flies) and *Haematopota* (clegs or stouts). They are of minor importance as vectors of diseases, such as tularemia and certain arboviral diseases. In West and Central Africa, some species of the genus *Chrysops* transmit the filarial parasite *Loa loa*. Horse flies can transmit anthrax, anaplasmosis, some trypanosomes, tularemia and some helminthes infections. The tabanids are robust and strong fliers and they measure about 5–25 mm in length. They have a big head with apparent eyes that show iridescent colors. The mouthparts are big and pointed downward. The wings are clear entirely or have brownish color or spots. Wings are folded flat along the body when insect is at res. Females horse fly *Tabanus*

be considered a potential vector of Rift Valley fever virus [78].

mosquito biting to hold some promise.

*Life Cycle and Development of Diptera*

**Figure 14.**

**30**

**Figure 13.** Mansonia titillans*.*

Tabanus trimaculatus*.*

**14.2 Horse flies and deer flies (tabanids)**

**Figure 16.** Stomoxys calcitrans*.*

known as biting house flies. They can be distinguished from house flies and other similar looking flies by their forwarded pointing mouthparts. They may be confused with tsetse flies (Glossina), and these can be distinguished from tsetse flies, which also have forward-pointing mouthparts, by their smaller size and the position of wings, which do not overlap at the back in stable flies when at rest. These create painful bites and are a severe annoyance to humans and animals. They are not significant as vectors of diseases. But, they occasionally play a part in spread of myiasis by carrying eggs of myiasis-producing fly *Dermatobia hominis* (Linnaeus) [81].

Managing of horn fly is commonly factual as soon as compost is either dried or often removed to break life sequence. Further operational control actions include anti-larvicidal mixtures, which are added either to diet or delivered as supplement.

Tsetse flies occur only in tropical Africa and include all the species in the genus *Glossina*, which are placed in their own family Glossinidae. They are yellowish or dark brown, medium-sized flies and 6–15 mm in length. They can be distinguished from other large biting Diptera by their forward-pointing mouthparts. Tsetse flies bend their wings completely once they are relaxing so that one wing directly rests on top of other above their abdomens. Tsetse fly has also a long proboscis that spreads directly frontward and is attached to bottom of its head by a distinct bulb. Both sexual category are blood feeders and nourish on a wide-ranging of hosts also comprising man. Eggs hatch in the body of female and later on larval growth takes place, and then dropped larvae pupate instantly. The pupal stage nearly lasts for 3 weeks. This fly is a powerful vector for some diseases of man and animals comprising trypanosomiasis. They have a prominent economic impact in sub-Saharan Africa as the biological vectors of trypanosomes, which cause human sleeping sickness and animal trypanosomiasis, for instance, *Glossina brevipalpis* (Newstead) (**Figure 18**) is a vector of *Trypanosoma congolense* and *Trypanosoma vivax* [84].

A black fly sometimes called a buffalo gnat, turkey gnat or white socks, is any member of the family Simuliidae. Black flies occur around the world and there are about 1300 species in the genus *Simulium* (**Figure 19**). The buffalo gnat blackflies are stout-bodied, about 1–5 mm long, and usually black in color, although orange and yellow species exist as well. They have relatively large eyes, legs are short, and the wings are short, broad and colorless. Black fly bites in daytime out of doors and some species prefer to feed only on certain parts of the body, for example, the legs or the upper part of the body. Black flies prefer to lay eggs in swift oxygen-rich running water in streams, rivers and spillways of dams, and are deposited on objects or near the surface of the water. In the tropics, the eggs usually hatch after 14 days. After the eggs hatch (1–4 weeks), larvae attach to the submerged objects and remain there for about a month. The larvae do not swim (usually symptomless), continuing attached to submerged flora, stones and other substrates, and forage on tiny suspended particles. Based upon climate, the larval stage persists from 1 week to many months. The pupae are as well attached to submerged things

In latter cases, action must be on track before start of fly season [83].

*Typical Flies: Natural History, Lifestyle and Diversity of Diptera*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91391*

**14.5 Tsetse flies** *Glossina* **sp.**

**14.6 Black flies**

**Figure 18.** Glossina brevipalpis*.*

**33**

Fly *Stomoxys calcitrans* (**Figure 16**), is commonly called the stable fly, barn fly, biting house fly, dog fly or power mower fly. Unlike most members of the family Muscidae, *S. calcitrans* (sharp mouth plus kicking) and others of its genus suck blood from mammals. The eggs are put down in decomposing vegetation or manure and in the same location, larval and pupal stages progress by taking nearly 3 weeks to complete life cycle. Equally, females and males are blood feeders and severe pests of both animals and man. The larvae are creamy white in color and resemble those of the house fly. The pupae develop in dry areas in the soil. Development from egg to adult takes from 12 days to 2 months, depending on the temperature. They are not as important as vectors of disease; however, stable fly can transmit many organisms including anaplasmosis, anthrax and other blood-borne organisms [82].

#### **14.4 Horn fly** *Haematobia irritans* **(Linnaeus)**

Although a small fly, the adult of this species (Muscidae) is one of the most important ectoparasites of pastured cattle. Adults are half the size of a house fly (7 mm), gray in color with the large compound eyes and reduced antenna (**Figure 17**). In the life cycle, the eggs are laid on newly passed feces. Larvae are approximately 7 mm long, of pale yellow color and with a simple elongate body that lacks a sclerotized head. In that atmosphere, the complete life cycle takes place, generally taking about 2 weeks for completion. Typically, the adults exist in great numbers along the withers, base of the horns and caudal folds. The adults stay on animal for the whole time (excluding when eggs are being set down), however they feed only once or twice a day and males and females both are blood feeders. The adults fly typically takes position by face downward when sitting on an animal. Besides loss of blood along with heavy constant invasion, this fly looks to cause an excessive annoyance and irritation. Infection conduction comprises anaplasmosis and other blood-borne organisms.

**Figure 17.** Haematobia irritans*.*

Managing of horn fly is commonly factual as soon as compost is either dried or often removed to break life sequence. Further operational control actions include anti-larvicidal mixtures, which are added either to diet or delivered as supplement. In latter cases, action must be on track before start of fly season [83].
