**12.2 Suborder Brachycera**

The Brachycera have rounder bodies and much shorter antennae. The Nematocera comprises commonly delicate and small insects having lengthy antennae such as crane-flies, mosquitoes, midges and their relatives. The Brachycera contains more

In older classifications of Brachycera, two Divisions have been recognized; Cyclorrhapha and Orthorrhapha. Orthorrhapha contains brachyceran flies devising obtect simple pupae, for instance, robber flies and horse flies, and Cyclorrhapha comprises brachyceran flies having enclosed pupae within tough puparium. Cyclorrhapha is additionally separated in two sets built on absence or presence of ptilinum and fissure linked to head. Ptilinum is an eversible pouch above antennae base used during emergence of adult fly to push on and open anterior end of puparium. The Aschiza has an absence of ptilinum and it though exists in

Nematocera in general are soft-bodied and slender flies having long antennae containing of several segments alike, palpi of many segments noticeably often drooping, and wings bear numerous longitudinal veins, however in the middle of wing generally lacking the conspicuous discal cell. When present, the anal cell is broadly exposed. Insects in Brachycera are generally fairly big flies, of stout body, antennae short, however occasionally showing traces of more than three segments, wings generally with a very thorough venation and with a discal cell, and palpi neither more than two-segmented nor conspicuously drooping. Cyclorrhapha includes the most highly specialized Diptera, mostly of short and stout build, with short antennae and many bristles. In recent decades by a suite of workers, the customary assemblages of Diptera have been analytically revised within a cladistic framework starting with the great dipterist Willi Hennig. Consent has emerged that several of traditional categories such as Orthorrhapha, Aschiza and Nematocera are not natural sets (they are paraphyletic). In other arguments these categories contain a group of basal lineages from that of other (monophyletic) categories (Brachycera, Cyclorrhapha and Schizophora) stand up. Recently, efforts to frame a monophyletic classification of Diptera have achieved pace, however to date, no overarching

Order Diptera all together is a group of familiar insects that has traditionally

Antennae contain flagellum, pedicel and scape having many segments alike; maxillary palpi bear in excess of three segments, frequently pendulous; anal cell open in wing; larvae generally with distinct head; mandibles opposed

**Family Tipulidae** (crane flies or daddy long legs): Body, legs, wings elongated; slow-flying; larvae within soil (leather jackets), rotten wood, mud, moss, marine,

**Family Mycetophilidae** (fungus gnats): Delicate, slim; dip in wet shaded

**Family Sciaridae** (dark-winged fungus gnats): Related to fungus gnats, how-

**Family Bibionidae** (march flies): Solid, well-armored flies; spurs on legs strong; frequently plentiful over spring blossoms; larvae found within soil, on occasion

**Family Scatopsidae** (minute black scavenger flies): Analogous to march flies,

robust and compact flies with small antennae [55].

*Life Cycle and Development of Diptera*

Schizophora.

consensus has been gotten [56–58].

dwellings, between rotting foliage.

tangled in a mass close to plant roots.

more frequently indoors.

**20**

ever extra dense, more frequently indoors.

**12.1 Suborder Nematocera**

horizontally.

fresh water, seaside.

been divided into three suborders [59–62]:-

Antennae flagellum always mostly joined to a compound third segment, left over diminutive segments practice a bristle-like or stumpy style arista; wing anal cell narrowed, nearly usually closed on or earlier to wing border; palpi rarely have more than three segments, usually one or two, detained frontward (porrect); larvae head usually well-defined, mandibles travel parallel or vertically, may not be opposed; through a rectangular slit adults escape from pupa (Orthorrhapha).

**Family Stratiomyidae** (soldier flies): Colorful flies, found relaxing with wings closed on vegetation; males occasionally in air dance; sometimes larvae extended, active, carnivorous (*Stratiomys*), aquatic; others in decomposing foliage (*Hermetia*).

**Family Rhagionidae** (snipe flies): Unremarkable, relax on vegetation usually; certain females (*Symphoromyia*) blood sucker; maximum larvae in soil otherwise in water (*Atherix* females make egg-laying flights); certain form pits in soil, such as ant lions (*Vermileo*).

**Family Pantophthalmidae** (timber flies): Big, outmoded flies, found currently only in South American tropical forests; wood-boring larval grubs from time to time injury profitable wood.

**Family Tabanidae** (deer flies, horse flies): Short flies having large heads, eyes colored brilliantly; certain females (*Tabanus*, *Chrysops*, *Haematopota*) blood sucker, pests of livestock; several primitive genera only feed on flowers; larvae in wet soil or mud, either carnivorous (*Haematopota*,*Tabanus*) or vegetarian (*Chrysops*).

**Family Asilidae** (robber flies): Adults in flight clip other insects, suck blood; vary in sizes as of a few mm to 8 cm (lengthiest than other flies); distinctive 'moustache' of hairs possibly defends eyes from fly's victim damage; larvae in wood or soil; feed on several diet.

**Family Bombyliidae** (bee flies): Scaly, hairy; resemble to bees superficially, in similar way hover over flowers; often patterned brightly, by rubbing scales pattern ruined; in wasp and bee nests larvae scavenger otherwise parasitic (tsetse pupae, locust egg pods).

**Family Scenopinidae** (window flies): Black tiny flies, fond on indoor windows; larvae develop in carpets, nourish on clothes moth and flea larvae; usual habitation, nests of birds or related dry debris.

prothoracic spiracles; one pair of posterior spiracles both have either a mass of small pores or three slits, larvae called maggots with hind end truncate; fore end pointed,

**Section Acalyptrata**: Small soft-bodied flies; thoracic squamae (calypters which

link base of wing to thorax) evanescent or small; key families established well; location of genera unclear; families may be gathered in relation to larvae diet likings.

**Family Lauxaniidae** (lauxaniid flies): Possibly, look to mimic other insects,

**Family Helomyzidae** (helomyzid flies): Alike to Lauxaniidae; larvae nourish on

**Family Dryomyzidae** (dryomyzid flies): Identical to Lauxaniidae, however have broader variety of diet, comprising fungi; yellow flies generally visible in winter. **Family Chyromyiidae (**yellow flies): Length 1 or 2 mm; breed in mammal burrows, bird nests debris, cellars, caves; singly visible on indoor windows.

**Family Celyphidae** (beetle flies): Scutellum extremely expanded till it conceals

**Family Mormotomyiidae** (terrible hairy fly): Comprises single African species, wingless; appearance similar to spider; identified only from single area in Kenya;

**Family Coelopidae** (kelp flies, seaweed flies): Breed in wrack (decaying piles of

**Family Sepsidae** (black scavenger flies, ensign flies): Minute, roundhead, black flies; occasionally spots at wing tips; can breed to invasion level in sewage sludge. **Family Piophilidae** (cheese skippers): Larvae live in ham, cheese, dried fruits, cured meats, conserved pelts and skins; natural habitation is preserving carrion; named 'skippers' for the reason that larvae travel together by skipping and crawling (gripping tip of abdomen with mouth hooks and flipping body relatively through a

**Family Micropezidae** (stilt-legged flies): Big, tall-legged flies; patterned con-

**Family Sphaeroceridae** (small dung flies): Minute, black-brown flies; hind legs

first tarsal segments inflated; plentiful all over world in dung like resources; on beaches certain members exist in seaweed; several wingless or short-winged species. **Family Sciomyzidae** (marsh flies, snail-killing flies): Larvae aquatic, feed upon together dead and living snails; can be valued as controlling means for harmful snails. **Family Milichiidae** (freeloader flies): Dung breeder; adults fasten to spiders and predacious insects and nourish on these; named 'insect jackals'; *Madiza glabra* from

**Family Carnidae** (bird flies, filth flies): Scavenge within burrows and nests; *Carnus hemapterus* adults scavenge between feathers of birds, breakdown wings. **Family Neottiophilidae** (nest flies): Nest-breeding; larvae suck blood of nes-

**Family Thyreophoridae** (cheese flies): Among the rarest of flies; larvae are in

**Family Chamaemyiidae** (silver flies, aphid flies): Larvae predatory; recognized as controlling means of aphids and other soft-bodied insects including mealybugs

seaweed held on seashores) primarily in moderate states; various species adults

both ends fleshy and blunt, with bulges; tracts of spines termed grubs.

**Flies breeding in vegetable compost and dung:**

*Typical Flies: Natural History, Lifestyle and Diversity of Diptera*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91391*

wings and abdomen while at relaxation; dung breeding.

appealed by trichloroethylene; pests occasionally.

spicuously blue-black wings; enormous in tropics.

**Flies breeding in animal refuse, dung, carrion:**

breeds in bat excrement.

long distance).

time to time plentiful indoors.

dead bodies of large animals.

and scales.

**23**

tling birds; resemble to calliphorid larvae.

feasibly leafhoppers; larvae live in decomposing plant material.

rotting animal and plant materials; most widespread of Acalyptrata.

**Family Therevidae** (stiletto flies): Adults look like Asilidae, however not predacious; larvae elongated like Scenopinidae, worm-like, carnivorous however from time to time damage to plant roots.

**Family Nemestrinidae** (Tangle-veined flies): Somewhat similar to Bombyliidae; larvae parasitic on locusts, grasshoppers, beetles; noteworthy for attractive hovering pattern.

**Family Acroceridae** (balloon flies): Fantastic; tiny head; small thorax; swollen abdomen; larvae parasitic on spiders.

**Family Empididae** (dance flies): Adults take in insects blood, as well forage on flowers; *Hilara* projectiles above water, clasps minuet insects; larvae live in several habitations (decomposing vegetation, freshwater and marine dirt, flowing fluid from plants, fungi).

**Family Dolichopodidae** (long-legged flies): Minute, bristly, metallic flies; huge quantities assemble on foliage in misty locations; predacious on other insects; larvae similar to Empididae, lengthened, with slight outward head arrangement, identical habitations.

#### **12.3 Suborder Brachycera-Cyclorrhapha**

Generally condensed to Cyclorrhapha; typically make pupa within latter larval casing by way of a puparium; fly adults push off a rounded lid, therefore title as Cyclorrhapha; maximum families (Schizophora) have ptilinum (membranous pouch within head) that arises from horseshoe-shaped ptilinal suture (classifies Schizophora adults) over antennae, is puffed out and in to aid fly for escaping from puparium otherwise dust or to swell body of fly; ptilinum wastes and ptilinal suture leftovers only; individuals of minor group Aschiza, without ptilinal suture, are known primarily by their wing venation.

**Series Aschiza**: Do not possess a ptilinum, lack the prominent ptilinal suture on the face and have a puparium with a circular emergence opening, but not precisely ellipsoid.

**Family Lonchopteridae** (pointed-winged flies): Less well-known; famous for parthenogenesis; limited species globally; occasionally plentiful.

**Family Phoridae** (coffin flies): Minute flies, occasionally frequent indoors; larvae living in several biological fragments attractive with protein otherwise nitrogenous decaying produces; forage in nests of bees, wasps, termites, ants; breeding in carrion; several adults wingless or with small wings (brachypterous).

**Family Pipunculidae** (big-headed flies): Minute flies; head sphere-shaped; prominent for clear-cut hovering; larvae parasitic on Homoptera.

**Family Platypezidae** (flat-footed flies): Slight flies; legs peculiar; seen rarely; in wood fires smoke perform to dance; larvae living within fungi.

**Family Syrphidae** (hover flies): In wing vena spuria goes among third and fourth veins; aware in all places; fly above flowers, relax over foliage; certain larvae marine (rat-tailed' maggots); several species larvae forage on aphids living on plant leaves; stems.

**Family Conopidae** (thick-headed flies): Wasp like flies; larvae parasitic on wasps and bees; may possibly be an isolated evolutionary line.

**Series Schizophora**: Entirely flies in head have ptilinal suture, larvae without exterior head structure, through cuticle mouth hooks evident, one pair of

#### *Typical Flies: Natural History, Lifestyle and Diversity of Diptera DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91391*

ruined; in wasp and bee nests larvae scavenger otherwise parasitic (tsetse pupae,

**Family Scenopinidae** (window flies): Black tiny flies, fond on indoor windows; larvae develop in carpets, nourish on clothes moth and flea larvae; usual habitation,

**Family Therevidae** (stiletto flies): Adults look like Asilidae, however not predacious; larvae elongated like Scenopinidae, worm-like, carnivorous however from

**Family Nemestrinidae** (Tangle-veined flies): Somewhat similar to Bombyliidae; larvae parasitic on locusts, grasshoppers, beetles; noteworthy for attractive hover-

**Family Acroceridae** (balloon flies): Fantastic; tiny head; small thorax; swollen

**Family Empididae** (dance flies): Adults take in insects blood, as well forage on flowers; *Hilara* projectiles above water, clasps minuet insects; larvae live in several habitations (decomposing vegetation, freshwater and marine dirt, flowing fluid

**Family Dolichopodidae** (long-legged flies): Minute, bristly, metallic flies; huge quantities assemble on foliage in misty locations; predacious on other insects; larvae similar to Empididae, lengthened, with slight outward head arrangement,

Generally condensed to Cyclorrhapha; typically make pupa within latter larval casing by way of a puparium; fly adults push off a rounded lid, therefore title as Cyclorrhapha; maximum families (Schizophora) have ptilinum (membranous pouch within head) that arises from horseshoe-shaped ptilinal suture (classifies Schizophora adults) over antennae, is puffed out and in to aid fly for escaping from puparium otherwise dust or to swell body of fly; ptilinum wastes and ptilinal suture leftovers only; individuals of minor group Aschiza, without ptilinal suture, are

**Series Aschiza**: Do not possess a ptilinum, lack the prominent ptilinal suture on the face and have a puparium with a circular emergence opening, but not precisely

**Family Lonchopteridae** (pointed-winged flies): Less well-known; famous for

**Family Platypezidae** (flat-footed flies): Slight flies; legs peculiar; seen rarely;

**Family Syrphidae** (hover flies): In wing vena spuria goes among third and fourth veins; aware in all places; fly above flowers, relax over foliage; certain larvae marine (rat-tailed' maggots); several species larvae forage on aphids living on plant

**Family Conopidae** (thick-headed flies): Wasp like flies; larvae parasitic on

**Series Schizophora**: Entirely flies in head have ptilinal suture, larvae without

exterior head structure, through cuticle mouth hooks evident, one pair of

**Family Phoridae** (coffin flies): Minute flies, occasionally frequent indoors;

larvae living in several biological fragments attractive with protein otherwise nitrogenous decaying produces; forage in nests of bees, wasps, termites, ants; breeding in carrion; several adults wingless or with small wings (brachypterous). **Family Pipunculidae** (big-headed flies): Minute flies; head sphere-shaped;

parthenogenesis; limited species globally; occasionally plentiful.

prominent for clear-cut hovering; larvae parasitic on Homoptera.

in wood fires smoke perform to dance; larvae living within fungi.

wasps and bees; may possibly be an isolated evolutionary line.

locust egg pods).

ing pattern.

from plants, fungi).

identical habitations.

ellipsoid.

leaves; stems.

**22**

nests of birds or related dry debris.

*Life Cycle and Development of Diptera*

time to time damage to plant roots.

abdomen; larvae parasitic on spiders.

**12.3 Suborder Brachycera-Cyclorrhapha**

known primarily by their wing venation.

prothoracic spiracles; one pair of posterior spiracles both have either a mass of small pores or three slits, larvae called maggots with hind end truncate; fore end pointed, both ends fleshy and blunt, with bulges; tracts of spines termed grubs.

**Section Acalyptrata**: Small soft-bodied flies; thoracic squamae (calypters which link base of wing to thorax) evanescent or small; key families established well; location of genera unclear; families may be gathered in relation to larvae diet likings.

#### **Flies breeding in vegetable compost and dung:**

**Family Lauxaniidae** (lauxaniid flies): Possibly, look to mimic other insects, feasibly leafhoppers; larvae live in decomposing plant material.

**Family Helomyzidae** (helomyzid flies): Alike to Lauxaniidae; larvae nourish on rotting animal and plant materials; most widespread of Acalyptrata.

**Family Dryomyzidae** (dryomyzid flies): Identical to Lauxaniidae, however have broader variety of diet, comprising fungi; yellow flies generally visible in winter.

**Family Chyromyiidae (**yellow flies): Length 1 or 2 mm; breed in mammal burrows, bird nests debris, cellars, caves; singly visible on indoor windows.

**Family Celyphidae** (beetle flies): Scutellum extremely expanded till it conceals wings and abdomen while at relaxation; dung breeding.

**Family Mormotomyiidae** (terrible hairy fly): Comprises single African species, wingless; appearance similar to spider; identified only from single area in Kenya; breeds in bat excrement.

**Family Coelopidae** (kelp flies, seaweed flies): Breed in wrack (decaying piles of seaweed held on seashores) primarily in moderate states; various species adults appealed by trichloroethylene; pests occasionally.

#### **Flies breeding in animal refuse, dung, carrion:**

**Family Sepsidae** (black scavenger flies, ensign flies): Minute, roundhead, black flies; occasionally spots at wing tips; can breed to invasion level in sewage sludge.

**Family Piophilidae** (cheese skippers): Larvae live in ham, cheese, dried fruits, cured meats, conserved pelts and skins; natural habitation is preserving carrion; named 'skippers' for the reason that larvae travel together by skipping and crawling (gripping tip of abdomen with mouth hooks and flipping body relatively through a long distance).

**Family Micropezidae** (stilt-legged flies): Big, tall-legged flies; patterned conspicuously blue-black wings; enormous in tropics.

**Family Sphaeroceridae** (small dung flies): Minute, black-brown flies; hind legs first tarsal segments inflated; plentiful all over world in dung like resources; on beaches certain members exist in seaweed; several wingless or short-winged species.

**Family Sciomyzidae** (marsh flies, snail-killing flies): Larvae aquatic, feed upon together dead and living snails; can be valued as controlling means for harmful snails.

**Family Milichiidae** (freeloader flies): Dung breeder; adults fasten to spiders and predacious insects and nourish on these; named 'insect jackals'; *Madiza glabra* from time to time plentiful indoors.

**Family Carnidae** (bird flies, filth flies): Scavenge within burrows and nests; *Carnus hemapterus* adults scavenge between feathers of birds, breakdown wings.

**Family Neottiophilidae** (nest flies): Nest-breeding; larvae suck blood of nestling birds; resemble to calliphorid larvae.

**Family Thyreophoridae** (cheese flies): Among the rarest of flies; larvae are in dead bodies of large animals.

**Family Chamaemyiidae** (silver flies, aphid flies): Larvae predatory; recognized as controlling means of aphids and other soft-bodied insects including mealybugs and scales.

**Family Braulidae** (bee louse): Wingless fly, *Braula caeca*, exists in beehives; larvae feed on pollen and wax; adults attach to bee, can beg nutritious saliva similar to other bee colony members.

**Family Cuterebrinae** (robust bot flies): Side-shoot of above family Calliphoridae; larvae parasitic in rodents; one larva *Dermatobia hominis* (human bot fly) as well attacks man; eggs on occasion attached to mosquitoes and other biting

other head openings of big mammals; contains cattle warble fly *Hypoderma bovis,*

garbage holes; larval behaviors varied, found in dead or living animal material;

**Family Oestridae** (bots and warbles): Larvae living in nose, under skin and in

**Family Gasterophilinae** (horse bots): Larvae living in stomachs of horses, rhinos, zebras and elephants, involved to intestinal lining; association with other

**Family Sarcophagidae** (flesh flies): Big, black and gray flies; common nearby

**Family Tachinidae** (tachinid flies): Biologically essential in equilibrium of nature for the reason that larvae are parasites in woodlice, other insects, centipedes,

**Section Pupipara**: Doubtful group, families can only be convergent in habit; lay

**Family Hippoboscidae** (louse flies): adults feed on blood of birds and mammals; several fly, certain have wings lost or reduced (sheep ked *Melophagus ovinus*). **Family Streblidae** (bat flies): Distinctive rounded head; wings generally effi-

**Family Nycteribiidae** (wingless bat flies): Continuously wingless; weakened

and de-sclerotized thorax; living completely on bats; hardly detectable as flies.

Some Diptera cause significant damage in many ways, generally during the larval stages. The feeding by larvae of Calliphoridae causes quantitative losses on moist fish. These injuries can be severe if circumstances are optimum for fly growth and under such conditions, i.e., if poorly or unsalted and salted fish are dried gradually for the reason that of rain or high humidity, weight harms of 10–30% by fly larvae may be caused. Disintegration of fish by fly invasion can cause quality damage and may lead to bigger danger of damage by mites and beetles. Significant weight losses because of fragmentation of fish during treating have been noted, however the involvement of blow fly injury to this has not been assessed separately. Thorough and heavy salting provides complete protection

Most flies found on cured fish belong to the subfamilies Calliphoridae (blowflies, bluebottles, greenbottles, screw-worms including *Calliphora* sp., *Chrysomya albiceps* Wiedemann, *Chrysomya bezziana* Villeneuve, *C. chloropyga putoria* (Wiedemann), *C. megacephala* (Fabr.), *C. regalis* Desvoidy, *Lucilia cuprina* Wiedemann, and *L. sericata*) and Sarcophagidae. Flesh flies includes *Sarcophaga* sp., *S. nodosa* Engel, *S. tibialis* Macquart and *Wohlfahrtia* sp.), in Calliphoridae family. The most common

of these are several species of Chrysomya; however, Lucilia, Calliphora,

cured fish denoted in records are Phoridae (Megaselia), Muscidae (Musca, Atherigona and Ophyra), Piophilidae (Piophila), Ephydridae (Discomyza) and Milichidae (Leptometopa). Entirely, these flies are somewhat alike in general form, although they display a diversity of coloration and size, and their proof of identity

Wohlfahrtia and Sarcophaga have too been stated. Other families of flies infesting

The larvae of some species can cause myiasis in livestock or man i.e., they may infect external wounds or can be swallowed and carry on developing in the intestine

flies and passed to their potential victim.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91391*

several viviparous species.

against blow fly larvae.

needs specialist information [63].

**25**

sheep nostril fly *Oestrus ovis* and other species.

*Typical Flies: Natural History, Lifestyle and Diversity of Diptera*

spiders; employed in biological pests control.

cient however fly slightly; closely cling to host.

**13. Damage caused by Diptera to cured fish**

bot flies uncertain; presently categorized with other bot flies.

living larvae; adults of both sexes exclusively feed on blood.

### **Flies with plant-feeding larvae:**

**Family Ephydridae** (shore flies): Temporary; wide-ranging larval habitations; not any matter inedible to larvae (carrion, sewage, excrement, urine, brine tar pools, hot springs, algae); carnivorous petroleum fly (*Psilopa petrolei*) exists in crude petroleum pools seepage predating on confined insects; several larvae nourish on aquatic and terrestrial plants.

**Family Diopsidae** (stalkeyed flies): Certain larvae live in rotting plant matter, some mine in living vegetation.

**Family Chloropidae** (frit flies): Peak vital plant feeders; comprises pests of cereal and other crops.

**Family Opomyzidae** (opomyzid flies): Small, slender, yellow, brown or black colored flies; larvae live in stems of grasses including cereals.

**Family Geomyzidae** (geomyzid flies): Slightly slender; grayish or yellow color; seeing like pomace flies.

**Family Psilidae** (rust flies): Yellow to reddish, brown or black in color; head spherical; face often slanted backward; antennal third segment clearly elongated; carrot fly *Psila rosae* agricultural pest.

**Family Agromyzidae** (leaf miners): Larvae nourish in leaves parenchymatous tissue, reduce epidermis transparent and create either blotch mines or serpentine; deface decorative plants and shrubs.

#### **Flies with fruit-feeding larvae:**

**Family Trypetidae** (large fruit flies): Produce galls in several flowers mainly Compositae; a lot of Trypetidae larvae nourish in living fruits and deteriorate these; global scattering; damage by a number of members [Mediterranean fruit fly *Ceratitis capitata* (Wiedemann) is quarantine pest of fruits worldwide].

**Family Drosophilidae** (small fruit flies): Larvae live in decaying and fermenting fruits or sweet matter; comprises *Drosophila melanogaster*, used in genetic studies.

A number of minor families have been made to put up genera closely related to both above families, wherein, Otitidae (Ortalidae) and Lonchaeidae are most noticeably distinct, while others such as Pallopteridae, Ulidiidae, Camillidae, Diastatidae and Phytalmidae are unresolved.

**Section Calyptrata**: Characterized by large squamae (calypters which link base of wing to thorax); Scatophagidae are transitional.

**Family Scatophagidae** (dung flies): Living nearby dung, other rotting things; several as well predacious as adults and larvae.

**Family Muscidae** (housefly and allies): Several species including housefly; certain larvae specially in third instar carnivorous; breed in dung or decomposing plant material; *Fannia* larvae 'lesser housefly' like matters dipped in urine; economically significant muscid larvae nourish on plant roots and stems; subfamily Anthomyiidae comprises dipteran plant pests; stable fly *Stomoxys* (both sexes have biting proboscis) can be positioned in an isolated family Stomoxyidae; tsetse fly *Glossina* restricted to Africa, occasionally located in the family Glossinidae, occurred in North America.

**Family Calliphoridae** (blow flies): Certain bristly flies having carrion-feeding maggots; blow flies *Calliphora* (bluebottles) larvae feed in dead meat; *Lucilia* (greenbottles) occasionally invade living flesh; *Cochliomyia*, *Callitroga* (screwworms) are hazardous feeders in living tissue.

**Family Braulidae** (bee louse): Wingless fly, *Braula caeca*, exists in beehives; larvae feed on pollen and wax; adults attach to bee, can beg nutritious saliva similar

**Family Ephydridae** (shore flies): Temporary; wide-ranging larval habitations; not any matter inedible to larvae (carrion, sewage, excrement, urine, brine tar pools, hot springs, algae); carnivorous petroleum fly (*Psilopa petrolei*) exists in crude petroleum pools seepage predating on confined insects; several larvae nourish

**Family Diopsidae** (stalkeyed flies): Certain larvae live in rotting plant matter,

**Family Chloropidae** (frit flies): Peak vital plant feeders; comprises pests of

colored flies; larvae live in stems of grasses including cereals.

**Family Opomyzidae** (opomyzid flies): Small, slender, yellow, brown or black

**Family Geomyzidae** (geomyzid flies): Slightly slender; grayish or yellow color;

**Family Psilidae** (rust flies): Yellow to reddish, brown or black in color; head spherical; face often slanted backward; antennal third segment clearly elongated;

**Family Agromyzidae** (leaf miners): Larvae nourish in leaves parenchymatous tissue, reduce epidermis transparent and create either blotch mines or serpentine;

**Family Trypetidae** (large fruit flies): Produce galls in several flowers mainly Compositae; a lot of Trypetidae larvae nourish in living fruits and deteriorate these; global scattering; damage by a number of members [Mediterranean fruit fly *Ceratitis capitata* (Wiedemann) is quarantine pest of fruits worldwide].

**Family Drosophilidae** (small fruit flies): Larvae live in decaying and fermenting fruits or sweet matter; comprises *Drosophila melanogaster*, used in genetic studies. A number of minor families have been made to put up genera closely related to

**Section Calyptrata**: Characterized by large squamae (calypters which link base

**Family Muscidae** (housefly and allies): Several species including housefly; certain larvae specially in third instar carnivorous; breed in dung or decomposing plant material; *Fannia* larvae 'lesser housefly' like matters dipped in urine; economically significant muscid larvae nourish on plant roots and stems; subfamily Anthomyiidae comprises dipteran plant pests; stable fly *Stomoxys* (both sexes have biting proboscis) can be positioned in an isolated family Stomoxyidae; tsetse fly *Glossina* restricted to Africa, occasionally located in the family Glossinidae,

**Family Scatophagidae** (dung flies): Living nearby dung, other rotting things;

**Family Calliphoridae** (blow flies): Certain bristly flies having carrion-feeding

maggots; blow flies *Calliphora* (bluebottles) larvae feed in dead meat; *Lucilia* (greenbottles) occasionally invade living flesh; *Cochliomyia*, *Callitroga* (screw-

both above families, wherein, Otitidae (Ortalidae) and Lonchaeidae are most noticeably distinct, while others such as Pallopteridae, Ulidiidae, Camillidae,

to other bee colony members.

*Life Cycle and Development of Diptera*

on aquatic and terrestrial plants.

some mine in living vegetation.

carrot fly *Psila rosae* agricultural pest.

deface decorative plants and shrubs.

**Flies with fruit-feeding larvae:**

Diastatidae and Phytalmidae are unresolved.

of wing to thorax); Scatophagidae are transitional.

several as well predacious as adults and larvae.

worms) are hazardous feeders in living tissue.

occurred in North America.

**24**

cereal and other crops.

seeing like pomace flies.

**Flies with plant-feeding larvae:**

**Family Cuterebrinae** (robust bot flies): Side-shoot of above family Calliphoridae; larvae parasitic in rodents; one larva *Dermatobia hominis* (human bot fly) as well attacks man; eggs on occasion attached to mosquitoes and other biting flies and passed to their potential victim.

**Family Oestridae** (bots and warbles): Larvae living in nose, under skin and in other head openings of big mammals; contains cattle warble fly *Hypoderma bovis,* sheep nostril fly *Oestrus ovis* and other species.

**Family Gasterophilinae** (horse bots): Larvae living in stomachs of horses, rhinos, zebras and elephants, involved to intestinal lining; association with other bot flies uncertain; presently categorized with other bot flies.

**Family Sarcophagidae** (flesh flies): Big, black and gray flies; common nearby garbage holes; larval behaviors varied, found in dead or living animal material; several viviparous species.

**Family Tachinidae** (tachinid flies): Biologically essential in equilibrium of nature for the reason that larvae are parasites in woodlice, other insects, centipedes, spiders; employed in biological pests control.

**Section Pupipara**: Doubtful group, families can only be convergent in habit; lay living larvae; adults of both sexes exclusively feed on blood.

**Family Hippoboscidae** (louse flies): adults feed on blood of birds and mammals; several fly, certain have wings lost or reduced (sheep ked *Melophagus ovinus*).

**Family Streblidae** (bat flies): Distinctive rounded head; wings generally efficient however fly slightly; closely cling to host.

**Family Nycteribiidae** (wingless bat flies): Continuously wingless; weakened and de-sclerotized thorax; living completely on bats; hardly detectable as flies.
